Sustainable Energy Technology

Attention!

Energy is at the heart of everything

 Introduction

 Our current living standard could not be maintained without energy.

 The provision of energy or, more precisely, of the related energy services
(heated living spaces, information, and mobility) involves a huge variety of
environmental impacts which are increasingly less tolerated by the society
today.
 Hence, the "energy security problem" in conjunction with the underlying
"environmental problems" continues to be a major topic in energy
engineering, as well as in the energy and environmental policies of the
global society.
 Think of the potential risks of anthropogenic GH effect!
1. Energy terms and definitions:

 Energy is defined as the ability of a system to cause external action/do work.

Measured in Joules, calories and kwh.
 Power is the rate at which work is done, or energy is transmitted. Measured
in Watt.
 Generally energy forms are distinguished as: mechanical energy (i.e.
potential or kinetic energy), thermal, electrical and chemical energy, nuclear
energy and solar energy.
 In practical energy appliances, the ability to perform work becomes visible
by force, heat and light
 The ability to perform work from chemical energy, as well as nuclear and
solar energy is only given if these forms of energy are transformed into
mechanical and/or thermal energy.
 Energy carrier is a substance that could be used to produce useful energy,
either directly or by one or several conversion processes.
 Forms of energy:
 Kinetic Energy is the energy created by objects in motion. Moving water and
wind are good examples of kinetic energy. Electricity is also kinetic energy
because even though you can't see it happen, electricity involves electrons
moving in conductors.
 Potential Energy is stored energy of objects when raised to a position. Example of
potential energy is water in a lake in the mountains. This energy is referred to
as potential energy, because if it were released, it would do a lot of work.
 Thermal energy is energy contained within a system responsible for its
temperature. Heat is the flow of thermal energy. An example is a fire in
your fireplace.
 Chemical Energy is energy stored in the bonds of chemical compounds and
released during a chemical reaction. A good example of chemical energy is
food when it is cooked.
 Electrical Energy is a kind of energy derived from movement of
electric charges (electrons) and creates motion, light or heat. An
example of electrical energy is the electric coils on your stove.
 Energy can change from one form to another. A good example is a Roller
Coaster. When it is on its way up, it is using kinetic energy since the energy is in
motion. When it reaches the top it has potential (or stored) energy. When it
goes down the hill it is using kinetic energy again.
 Sources of Energy
Primary Energy - Secondary Energy
Conventional and Renewable Energy types
2. Types of Energy:

 Based on degree of conversion, energy can be classified into primary, secondary

/final energy carriers or energies and usable energy.
 Primary energy is extracted or captured directly from the environment.
 Secondary energy is converted from primary energy in the form of electricity or
fuel.
 Distinguishing the primary and secondary energy sources are important in the
energy balances to count and record energy supply, transformations, and losses

Fig. 1 Primary and secondary energy types.

2. Types of Energy
2.1. Primary Energy

 Primary energy is the energy extracted or captured directly from the

environment.
 Three distinctive groups of primary energy are:
 Nonrenewable energy (fossil fuels): coal, crude oil, natural gas, nuclear fuel.
 Renewable energy: hydropower, biomass, solar energy, wind, geothermal. ocean
energy.
 Waste.
 Primary sources of energy consisting of petroleum, coal, and natural gas amount
to about 85% of the fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world.
 Projected energy use in the world shows that petroleum, coal and natural gas will still
be the dominant energy sources by 2035 (Fig. 2)

Fig. 2 Primary and secondary energy types.

2. Types of Energy
2.1. Primary Energy
 The principle of s upply and demand suggests that as fossil fuels diminish,
their prices will rise and renewable energy supplies, particularly biomass,
solar, and wind resources will become sufficiently economical to exploit.
 Figure 3 shows the primary energy flow in the US
 The energy content may be converted to ton of oil equivalent (TOE)
1 TOE = 11630 kWh = 41870 MJ.

Fig. 3 US primary energy flow by source and sector in 2009 in quadrillion Btu- quad = 1015 Btu.
Sum of components may not be equal to total due to independent rounding
2. Types of Energy
2.2. Secondary Energy

 Secondary energies are energy produced from primary or other secondary energy
carriers, either directly or by one or several technical conversion processes (e.g.
gasoline, heating oil, electrical energy)
 This processing of primary energy is subject to conversion and distribution losses

Fig. 4 Secondary energy characteristics

3. Non Renewable Energy Sources

 It is generally accepted that nonrenewable energy sources or fossil fuels are

formed from the remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to heat
and pressure in the earth's crust over millions of years. Major nonrenewable
energy sources are:

 Coal
 Petroleum
 Natural gas
 Nuclear
Fossil fuels:

 Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic

decomposition of buried dead organisms, containing energy originating in
ancient photosynthesis.
 The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of
years, and sometimes exceeds 650 million years.
 Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum, coal,
and natural gas.
 Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon hydrogen ratios like
methane, to liquids like petroleum, to nonvolatile materials composed of
almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal.
 Main fuel properties: boiling point, flash point, density, viscosity and
heating/calorific value
Cont…

Coal Oil N. gas

 Cont…
 Fossil fuels such as oil, gas, and coal provide the majority of energy consumed
around the world; covers 86% of US energy consumption!
 All fossil fuels are not the same in terms of:
 their availability
 the amount of CO2 they emit per unit of energy released and,
 impact on climate change

Fig. US energy consumption

 Gas and oil are more flexible in terms of
the ways in which they can be combusted,
and they are used in both transportation
and stationary applications.

Coal is used widely in “stationary”(i.e.,
non-transportation) applications including
electricity generation and industrial
applications.
Coal can also be used in small-scale
domestic applications such as cooking and
space heating, although local air quality
issues become a concern
oil comes in the form of crude petroleum
that must be refined into a range of end
products.
gas generally requires only a modest
amount of purification before it is
distributed and sold
 Energy Density and Relative Cost

The energy density of a fuel is a measure of the amount of energy per unit of
mass or volume available in that resource.

The energy density of coal is measured in GJ/tonne or million BTU/ton

Energy density of oil is measured in GJ/barrel or million BTU/barrel.

For natural gas, energy density is measured in kJ/m3 or BTU/ft3 when the gas is
at atmospheric pressure, and its value can be assumed constant
Coal is significantly cheaper per unit of raw energy than gas or oil

Coal is the most difficult to transport, and transportation costs may drive the
actual price paid by the end user
Estimated Reserves and Resources of Fossil Fuels and its consumption

A reserve is a proven quantity of a fossil fuel that is known to exist in a given

location and is producible with existing technology and economic condition.

A resource is an estimated quantity of fuel that has yet to be fully explored

and evaluated.
Current Rates of Consumption and Total Global Resource Availability

Fossil fuels account for some 86% of

total world energy consumption.

OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation

and Development.

RE consumption in US energy supply, 2010

3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.1. Coal
 Coals are sedimentary rocks containing combustible and incombustible matters as
well as water.
 Coal comes in various composition and energy content depending on the source
and type. Table 1 shows some typical properties of various coals.

Table 1 Typical properties

of various coals

 Llignite has less than 50% carbon and an energy density lower than wood.
 Anthracites have more than 90% carbon, while bituminous coals mostly between 70 and
75%.
 Bituminous coal ignites easily and burns with a relatively long flame. If improperly fired,
bituminous coal is characterized with excess smoke and soot.
 Anthracite coal creates a steady and clean flame and is preferred for domestic heating.
Furthermore it burns longer with more heat than the other types.
 For countries with rising oil prices coal may become a cheaper source of energy. It
was in the 1880s when coal was first used to generate electricity for homes and
factories.
 Since then coal played a major role as source of energy in the industrial revolution.
3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.1. Coal

 Coal has impurities like sulfur and nitrogen and when it burns the released
impurities can combine with water vapor in the air to form droplets that fall to
earth as weak forms of sulfuric and nitric acid as acid rain.
 Coal also contains minerals, which do not burn and make up the ash left behind
in a coal combustor.
 Carbon dioxide is one of several gases that can help trap the earth's heat and, as
many scientists believe, cause the earth's temperature to rise and alter the earth's
climate. Why is Earth called as a wave converter?
 Because of high carbon content, coals generate more CO2 per unit of released
energy than any other fossil fuel such as crude oil and natural gas.
 Advanced coal technology can filter out 99% of the tiny particles, remove more
than 95% of the acid rain pollutants, and reduce the release of carbon dioxide by
burning coal more efficiently.
 Many new plants are required to have flue gas desulfurization units called scrubbers.
3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.2. Petroleum (Crude Oil)

 Oil is a naturally occurring flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of

hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, which define its physical
and chemical properties, like heating value, color, and viscosity.
 The composition of hydrocarbons ranges from as much as 97% by weight in
the lighter oils to as little as 50% in the heavier oils.

Table 2 Typical elemental composition by weight of crude oil

 The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkane, cycloalkanes, and various
aromatic hydrocarbons while the other organic compounds contain
nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and trace amounts of metals.
3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.2. Petroleum (Crude Oil)

 The relative percentage of each varies and determines the properties of oil
(see Table below)

Table 3 Composition by weight of hydrocarbons in petroleum

3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.2. Petroleum (Crude Oil)

Alkanes: also known as paraffin

 Saturated hydrocarbons with straight or branched chains containing only carbon
and hydrogen and have the general formula CnH2n+2.
 They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule.
For example, CH4 represents methane, which is a major component of natural gas.
Propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) are known as petroleum gases.
Cycloalkanes: also known as naphthenes
 Saturated hydrocarbons which have one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms
are attached according to the formula CnH2n.
 Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes but have higher boiling points.

Aromatic hydrocarbons
 Unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more six-carbon rings called benzene
rings with double and single bonds and hydrogen atoms attached according to the
formula CnHn.

 Oil currently supplies more than 40% of our total energy demands and more than
99% of the fuel is used in transportation.
3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.3. Petroleum fraction

 Oil is refined and separated into a large number of commodity products, from gasoline
and kerosene to asphalt and chemical reagents used to make plastics and
pharmaceuticals.
 Figure below shows a typical refinery processing crude oil to produce various fuels.

Fig 4 A distillation tower showing the

differing weights of various products
produced from petroleum

 84% by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-

rich fuels, including gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, heating, and other fuel oil and liquefied
petroleum gases.
 The remaining oil is converted to pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides,
and plastics.
 Therefore, petroleum is vital to many industries, and thus is a critical concern to
many nations.
3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.3. Petroleum fraction

 Some common fractions from petroleum refining are:

Liquefied petroleum gas ( L P G ) :
 LPG is a flammable mixture of propane (C3H8) (about 38% by volume) and butane
(C4H10) (about 60% by volume) used as a fuel in heating appliances and vehicles.
 Liquefied petroleum gas has a typical specific heat of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 43.5
MJ/kg for gasoline. However, its energy density of 26 MJ/l is lower than that of gasoline.
 Pure n-butane is liquefied at around 220 kPa (2.2 bar), while pure propane (C3H8) at
2200 kPa (22 bar).

Gasoline:
 Is primarily used as a fuel in internal combustion engines .
 A typical gasoline consists of hydrocarbons with between 4 and 12 carbon atoms per
molecule.
 It consists mostly of aliphatic hydrocarbons obtained by the fractional distillation of
petroleum, enhanced with iso-octane or the aromatic hydrocarbons toluene and
benzene to increase its octane rating.
3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.3. Petroleum fraction

Diesel:
 Petroleum diesel contains 8–21 carbon atoms per molecule with a boiling point in the
range of 180–360 °C (360–680 °F).
 About 86.1% of the fuel mass is carbon and it offers a net heating value of around
43.1 MJ/kg.
 However, due to the higher density, diesel offers a higher volumetric energy density
at 128,700 Btu/gal versus 115,500 Btu/gal for gasoline, some 11% higher.
 The CO2 emissions from diesel are 73.25 g/MJ, (similar to gasoline). Because of quality
regulations, additional refining is required to remove sulfur which may contribute to a
higher cost.

Kerosene/Paraffin:
 Kerosene is a thin, clear liquid formed from refining crude oil, containing between 6
and 16 carbon atoms per molecule, with density of 0.78–0.81 g/cm3.
 The flash point of kerosene is between 37 and 65 °C (100 and 150 °F) and its auto
ignition temperature is 220 °C (428 °F).
 The heat of combustion of kerosene is similar to that of diesel: its lower heating
value is around 18,500 Btu/lb, (43.1 MJ/kg), and its higher heating value is 46.2
MJ/kg (19,861 Btu/lb).
3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.3. Petroleum fraction
Fuel oil:
 Fuel oil is made of long hydrocarbon chains, particularly alkanes, cycloalkanes,
and aromatics and heavier than gasoline and naphtha.
 Fuel oil is classified into six classes, numbered 1 through 6, according to its boiling point,
composition, and purpose.
 The boiling point, ranging from 175 to 600 °C, and carbon chain length, 9–70
atoms. Viscosity also increases with number, and the heaviest oil has to be heated to get
it to flow.
 Table 4 shows the heating values of various fuel oils per gallon.
 Number 1 is similar to kerosene, number 2 is the diesel fuel that trucks and some cars
run on, leading to the name road diesel. Number 4 fuel oil is usually a blend of heavy
distillate and residual fuel oils. Number 5 and 6 fuel oils are called residual fuel oils or
heavy fuel oils.
 Fuels oils contain sulfur and other impurities. Combustion of such fuels eventually leads
to producing oxides of sulfur in the exhaust which promotes acid rain.

Table 4 Typical heating values of various fuel oils

3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.4. Natural gas
 Natural gas is a naturally occurring gas mixture, consisting mainly of methane.
 Natural gas provides 23% of all energy consumed in the world.
 The International Energy Agency predicts that the demand for natural gas will
grow by more than 67% through 2030.
 Natural gas is becoming increasingly popular as an alternative transportation fuel.
 Natural gas is a major source of electricity production through the use of gas
turbines and steam turbines.
 It burns more cleanly and produces about 30% less carbon dioxide than burning
petroleum and about 45% less than burning coal for an equivalent amount of heat
produced. Thus, it’s considered the cleanest and most convenient source of power
available using fossil fuels, at a reasonable cost.
 The gross heating value of natural gas is around 39 MJ/m3 and varies depending on
gas composition.
3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.4. Natural gas

 Liquefied natural gas exists at -161 °C (-258 °F).

 Impurities and heavy hydrocarbons from the gaseous fossil fuel are removed
before the cooling process.
 The density of liquefied natural gas is in the range 410-500 kg/m3.

Table 5: Typical composition in mole % and heating value of natural gas

3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.5. Nuclear energy

 Nuclear energy plants produce electricity through the fission of nuclear fuel.
 Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into
smaller parts, often producing free neutrons and photons in the form of gamma
rays and releasing large amounts of energy.
 For example: complete fission energy of uranium-235 isotope is 6.73*1010 kJ/kg
 This heat is used to produce steam to be used in a turbine to produce electricity.
This is similar to most coal, oil, and gasified power plants.
 Nuclear power is essentially C free
 However, the electricity from new nuclear power plants is relatively expensive,
and nuclear energy faces a number of significant obstacles.
 The biggest challenges are the disposal of radioactive waste and the threat of nuclear
proliferation.
3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.6. Heating value of fuels

 The heating value of a fuel is the quantity of heat produced by its combustion at
constant pressure and under normal conditions (i.e. 25 °C temp and under a
pressure of 1 atm). The Combustion process generates water vapor.
 Various heating values are:
• The higher heating value (HHV): water vapor is condensed and heat of water
vaporization is recovered.
• The lower heating value (LHV) assumes that the water product of combustion is
at vapor state and the heat of vaporization is not recovered.
• Net heating value is the same as lower heating value and is obtained by
subtracting the latent heat of vaporization of the water vapor formed by the
combustion from the gross or higher heating value.
• The gross heating is valuable for fuels containing water, such as wood and coal. If a
fuel has no water prior to combustion then the gross heating value is equal to net
heating value.
• A common method of relating HHV to LHV per unit mass of a fuel is:
3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.6. Heating value of fuels
 The heating value of fossil fuels vary depending on the source and composition
 Tables 6 and 7 show the properties and heating values of some common fuels.

Table 6 Heating values of some common fuels and hydrocarbons at 1 atm and 20 °C; at 25 °C
for liquid fuels, and 1 atm and normal boiling temperature for gaseous fuels
3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.6. Heating value of fuels

Table 7 Higher heating values (gross

calorific value) of some common fuels
3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.7. Energy density

 Energy density is the amount of energy per unit volume.

 Specific energy is the amount of energy per unit amount.
 Comparing, for example, the effectiveness of hydrogen fuel to gasoline,
hydrogen has a higher specific energy than gasoline but a much lower energy
density even in liquid form.
 Energy per unit volume has the same physical units as pressure.

Table 8 Energy densities of some fuels

3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.8. Example 1
3. Non Renewable Energy Sources
3.8. Example 2
Fossil fuel Life cycle:

End-user
 Assignment
1. Hubert Curve Applied to Resource Lifetime (Fossil fuels)
4. Renewable Energy Sources

Renewable Resources

 Renewable resources are resources which can be regenerated or replenished

through rapid natural cycles
 Common examples: water, air, wood and biological products
 Energies generated from these resources are called renewable energies
 However, resources that exist in a fixed quantity in Earth’s crust and used up
are called non renewables; such as, mineral deposits, fossil fuels
 Renewable energy systems draw energy from the ambient environment rather
than from the consumption of mineral fuels (coal, oil, gas, and nuclear).
 Renewable Energy Sources
 Renewable energy sources are sources of energy where their rate
of regeneration balances the consumption rate.
 Renewable energy sources:
 Solar energy
 Hydropower/water energy
 Biomass
 Wind energy
 Geothermal energy
 Ocean and tidal energy
 The ultimate source of most renewable energy production is the sun, whose
total radiant energy flux intercepted by the earth provides a much greater
source of power than can be captured by practical RE systems.
 Renewable energy resources are more uniformly distributed geographically
than are fossil fuels, providing indigenous energy resources for most fuel-
poor nations.
 Despite the vast amounts of energy that are potentially available from
renewable sources, collecting and utilizing that energy in an economical and
effective manner is still a challenge.
 I n 20 0 8 , a b ou t 1 9 % of g lo b a l f in a l e n e rg y co n s u mp t i o n cam e f rom
re n e wa b l e s , w i t h 1 3 % com i n g f ro m tra d it i o n a l b io m as s , w h i ch is
m a i n l y u s e d fo r h e a t i n g , a n d 3 . 2 % f ro m hyd ro e l e c t r i c i ty.
 O t h e r re n e wa b l e s , s u c h a s w in d , s ola r, g e o t h e rm a l an d b i of u e l
co n t r i b u te d a ro u n d 2 . 7 % a n d a re g row i n g ra p i d l y.
 Cont…
 Climate change concerns, high oil prices, and government support increase the share
of renewable energy in the total energy mix.
 Consequently, between 2004 and 2009, worldwide RE capacity grew at rates of 10-60%
annually creating businesses and employment.
 Renewable energy applications is used for power/electricity generation, hot
water/space heating, transport fuels, and rural (off grid ) energy services:
 Renewable power generators are spread across many countries, and wind power alone
already provides a significant share of electricity in some areas.
 Solar water heater contributes a portion of the water heating needs of over 70
million households in many countries.
 Renewable biofuels have contributed to a decline in oil consumption in Brazil, United States
and many other countries. The 93 billion liters of biofuel produced worldwide in 2009
displaced the equivalent of an estimated 68 billion liters of gasoline, equal to about 5% of
world gasoline production.

 New and emerging renewable energy technologies are still under development and
gets cheaper in the long term, while fossil fuels (already matured tech) a r e getting
more expensive.
 In rural/remote areas, transmission and distribution of energy generated from fossil
fuels is difficult and expensive; Hence, producing RE locally is becoming a viable
alternative.
 Cont…
 Some renewable energy systems generate only electricity such as hydro, wind and
photovoltaic; others like biomass, geothermal and solar thermal systems
produce both heat and power.

 Renewable energy is characterized by several important traits:

 Ubiquity of renewable energy sources.
 Low intensity of energy fluxes being captured, compared to
conventional systems.
 Random, intermittent nature of renewable energy fluxes.
4. Renewable Energy Sources
4.1. Solar Energy
 Sun is an inexhaustible primary source of energy for most RE sources. Its
radiation is created as a result of nuclear fusion reactions.
 Solar energy is the energy obtained from sun in the form of radiations.
 Energy from sunlight is only available about half of the time, and it reaches its
higher intensities in the several hours on either side of local noon.
 Solar energy has the maximum potential of all the sources of renewable
energies.
 It can provide 1000 times more energy than we need and if only a small
amount of this is harnessed, it would be one of the most important supplies
of energies.
4. Renewable Energy Sources
4.2. Hydropower

 Hydropower/hydroelectricity is energy derived from the force of moving water.

 Most hydroelectric energy comes from the potential energy of dammed water
driving a water turbine and generator.
 The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the
difference in height between the source and the water‟s outflow. This height
difference is called head.
 One of the major advantages of hydroelectricity is the elimination of fuel
 Low operating cost is required as hydropower plants are automated and need few
personnel on site during normal operation.
 Hydroelectric plants also tend to have longer economic lives than fuel fired power
generation, with some plants now in service which were built 50 – 100 years ago.

Fig 5 Principle of hydroenergy

4. Renewable Energy Sources
4.3. Wind Energy

 The Earth is unevenly heated by the sun and the differential heating drives a
global atmospheric convection system reaching from the earth's surface to the
stratosphere.
 Most of the energy stored in these wind movements can be found at high altitudes
where continuous wind speeds of over 160 km/h occur.
 Wind power is a totally renewable energy source with no green house gas emissions,
but due to its unpredictability has problems integrating with national grids.

Fig 15 Decentralized wind energy Fig 16 Centralized wind energy

4. Renewable Energy Sources
4.4. Geothermal energy

 Geothermal energy is the heat originating from volcanic activity, and from solar
energy absorbed at the surface.
 Hot water or steam reservoirs deep in the earth are accessed by drilling.
 Geothermal reservoirs located near the earth‟s surface maintain a relatively
constant temperature of 50F– 60F.
 The hot water and steam from reservoirs can be used to drive generators and
produce electricity.
 In other applications, the heat produced from geothermal is used directly in
heating buildings and industrial plants.

Fig: Geothermal power plant

4. Renewable Energy Sources
4.4. Geothermal energy

Fig 17 Geothermal heating / cooling – Building application

4. Renewable Energy Sources
4.5. Biomass and Bioenergy

 Biomass is any organic matter-wood, crops, and animal wastes that can be used
as energy source.
 Biomass sources can be agricultural and livestock residues, forest, energy
crops, short-rotation forest plantations and solid organic urban waste.
 These sources are used as feedstocks to produce energy in the form of
solid fuels (like chips and pellets), liquid fuels (biodiesel, ethanol and
renewable diesel), gaseous fuels (biomethane), heat and power.
 The m a i n conversion routes are through chemical, biological and thermal
conversion processes

Fig 20 Biomass conversion routes

4. Renewable Energy Sources
4.5. Biomass and Bioenergy
4. Renewable Energy Sources
4.5. Biomass and Bioenergy
4. Renewable Energy Sources
4.5. Biomass and Bioenergy

Table 9 Proximate and

ultimate analysis of
biomass fuels
4. Renewable Energy Sources
4.5. Biomass and Bioenergy

Table 10 Lower heating

values (LHV) for selected
biomass
4. Renewable Energy Sources
4.5. Biomass and Bioenergy

Bioethanol
 Ethanol produced from agricultural products (sugar cane or corn) and
use as fuel supplement.
 In the United States, corn-based ethanol is currently the largest source
of biofuel as a gasoline substitute or additive.
 The gasoline sold in the United States today is mixed with 10% ethanol, a
mix known as E10 (or gasohol).
 Only specific types of vehicles named as flexible fuel vehicles can use
mixtures with greater than 10% ethanol.
 E85 is an alternative fuel that contains up to 85% ethanol.
Biodiesel
 Biodiesel is produced using a transesterification process, reacting vegetable
oils or animal fats catalytically with a short-chained aliphatic alcohol
(typically methanol or ethanol).
 Glycerol is a by-product of this transesterification process.
 Biodiesel is most often blended with petroleum diesel in ratios of 2% (B2),
5% (B5), or 20% (B20). It can also be used as pure biodiesel (B100).
 Biodiesel can be produced from various feedstock and used in regular diesel
vehicles without making any changes to the engines.
5. Energy and global warming

 Global warming: is a gradual increase in the average temperature of the

Earth's atmosphere and its oceans.
 The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 Gigatons of carbon
dioxide per year, and natural processes can only absorb about half of that
amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tons of atmospheric
carbon dioxide per year.
 One ton of carbon is equivalent to: MWCO2/MWC = 44/12 = 3.7 tons of
CO2.
 Carbon dioxide emission can be calculated as:

eCO2 = (Cf/Ef)(MWCO2/MWC)

 Where eCO2is the CO2 emission in kgCO2/kWh, Cf is the carbon content

in the fuel (kgC/kgfuel) and Ef is the energy content of the fuel (kWh/kgfuel).
(Table11 shows typical emission of carbon dioxide from the combustion of
various fuels).
5. Energy and global warming

Table 11 Emission of carbon dioxide from the combustion of various fuels

5. Energy and global warming

 The most compelling evidence we have for climate change lies in the so-called
paleoclimatic data obtained from ancient ice core samples in Greenland and
Antarctica.
 By analyzing air bubbles that were trapped in the ice when it formed, scientists are
able to determine the content of greenhouse gases and even the average
temperature at each point in time.
 The figure below shows that over the past many years, the CO2 content in the
atmosphere has varied cyclically between about 180 and 290 ppm by volume with a
rapid increase in recent years and same trend is shown by methane.
 The earth’s temperature has closely followed the greenhouse gas concentration (see Fig
below)

Fig 22 Paleoclimatic data from ice cores

shows recent increases in carbon dioxide and methane.
6. Tackling the global warming

 Electricity production (40%) and transportation fuels (30%) accounts a large part of
total carbon dioxide emissions.
 Therefore, targeting electricity generation and transportation fuels will address about
70% of the carbon dioxide emissions.
 For example, the use of renewable energy for electricity generation does not
cause additional carbon dioxide emissions, and is sustainable into the future.
 The major challenges with greatly expanded use of renewables are the cost,
intermittency of supply, and distance between the resources and the end use.
 Some possible renewable energy sources are concentrating solar power,
geothermal electric plants, decentralized wind power, distributed rooftop PV systems,
and solar water heaters.
 Hybrid electric vehicles represent an important advance in the transportation system in
reducing carbon emission.
6. Tackling the global warming
6.1. Example 1

Consumption of coal and emission of carbon dioxide from coal

6. Tackling the global warming
6.1. Example 2

Reducing air pollution by geothermal heating