Ilovepdf Merged

Fuel Chemistry: Review of energy sources (renewable and non-
renewable).
What are Different Sources of Energy?
• Solar Energy. Solar power harvests the energy of the sun through using
collector panels to create conditions that can then be turned into a kind of power.
...
• Wind Energy. ...
• Geothermal Energy. ...
• Hydrogen Energy. ...
• Tidal Energy. ...
• Wave Energy. ...
• Hydroelectric Energy. ...
• Biomass Energy.
What are Different Sources of Energy?
There are 10 main different sources of energy that are used in the world to generate
power. While there are other sources being discovered all the time, none of them
has reached the stage where they can be used to provide the power to help modern
life go.
All of these different sources of energy are used primarily to produce electricity.
The world runs on a series of electrical reactions – whether you are talking about
the car you are driving or the light you are turning on. All of these different sources
of energy add to the store of electrical power that is then sent out to different
locations via high powered lines.
Here is an overview of each of the different sources of energy that are in use, and
what’s the potential issue for each of them.
1. Solar Energy
Solar power harvests the energy of the sun through using collector panels to create
conditions that can then be turned into a kind of power. Large solar panel fields are
often used in desert to gather enough power to charge small substations, and many
homes use solar systems to provide for hot water, cooling and supplement their
electricity. The issue with solar is that while there is plentiful amounts of sun
available, only certain geographical ranges of the world get enough of the direct
power of the sun for long enough to generate usable power from this source.
2. Wind Energy
Wind power is becoming more and more common. The new innovations that are
allowing wind farms to appear are making them a more common sight. By using
large turbines to take available wind as the power to turn, the turbine can then turn
a generator to produce electricity. While this seemed like an ideal solution to
many, the reality of the wind farms is starting to reveal an unforeseen ecological
impact that may not make it an ideal choice.
3. Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is the energy that is produced from beneath the earth. It is
clean, sustainable and environment friendly. High temperatures are produced
continuously inside the earth’s crust by the slow delay of radioactive particles. Hot
rocks present below the earth heats up the water that produces steam. The steam is
then captured that helps to move turbines. The rotating turbines then power the
generators.
Geothermal energy can be used by a residential unit or on a large scale by a

industrial application. It was used during ancient times for bathing and space
heating. The biggest disadvantage with geothermal energy is that it can only be
produced at selected sites throughout the world. The largest group of geothermal
power plants in the world is located at The Geysers, a geothermal field in
California, United States.
4. Hydrogen Energy
Hydrogen is available with water(H2O) and is most common element available on

earth. Water contains two-thirds of hydrogen and can be found in combination with
other elements. Once it is separated, it can be used as a fuel for generating
electricity. Hydrogen is a tremendous source of energy and can be used as a source
of fuel to power ships, vehicles, homes, industries and rockets. It is completely
renewable, can be produced on demand and does not leave any toxic emissions in
the atmosphere.
5. Tidal Energy
Tidal energy uses rise and fall of tides to convert kinetic energy of incoming and
outgoing tides into electrical energy. The generation of energy through tidal power
is mostly prevalent in coastal areas. Huge investment and limited availability of
sites are few of the drawbacks of tidal energy. When there is increased height of
water levels in the ocean, tides are produced which rush back and forth in the
ocean. Tidal energy is one of the renewable source of energy and produce large
energy even when the tides are at low speed.
6. Wave Energy
Wave energy is produced from the waves that are produced in the oceans. Wave
energy is renewable, environment friendly and causes no harm to atmosphere. It
can be harnessed along coastal regions of many countries and can help a country to
reduce its dependance on foreign countries for fuel. Producing wave energy can
damage marine ecosystem and can also be a source of disturbance to private and
commercial vessels. It is highly dependent on wavelength and can also be a source
of visual and noise pollution.
7. Hydroelectric Energy
What many people are not aware of is that most of the cities and towns in the
world rely on hydropower, and have for the past century. Every time you see a
major dam, it is providing hydropower to an electrical station somewhere. The
power of the water is used to turn generators to produce the electricity that is then
used. The problems faced with hydropower right now have to do with the aging of
the dams. Many of them need major restoration work to remain functional and
safe, and that costs enormous sums of money. The drain on the world’s drinkable
water supply is also causing issues as townships may wind up needing to consume
the water that provides them power too.
8. Biomass Energy
Biomass energy is produced from organic material and is commonly used

throughout the world. Chlorophyll present in plants captures the sun’s energy by
converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into
carbohydrates through the process of photosynthesis. When the plants are burned,
the water and carbon dioxide is again released back into the atmosphere. Biomass
generally include crops, plants, trees, yard clippings, wood chips and animal
wastes. Biomass energy is used for heating and cooking in homes and as a fuel in
industrial production. This type of energy produces large amount of carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere.
9. Nuclear Power
While nuclear power remains a great subject of debate as to how safe it is to use,
and whether or not it is really energy efficient when you take into account the
waste it produces – the fact is it remains one of the major renewable sources of
energy available to the world. The energy is created through a specific nuclear
reaction, which is then collected and used to power generators. While almost every
country has nuclear generators, there are moratoriums on their use or construction
as scientists try to resolve safety and disposal issues for waste.
10. Fossil Fuels (Coal, Oil and Natural Gas)
When most people talk about the different sources of energy they list natural gas,
coal and oil as the options – these are all considered to be just one source of energy
from fossil fuels. Fossil fuels provide the power for most of the world, primarily
using coal and oil. Oil is converted into many products, the most used of which is
gasoline. Natural gas is starting to become more common, but is used mostly for
heating applications although there are more and more natural gas powered
vehicles appearing on the streets. The issue with fossil fuels is twofold. To get to
the fossil fuel and convert it to use there has to be a heavy destruction
and pollution of the environment. The fossil fuel reserves are also limited,
expecting to last only another 100 years given are basic rate of consumption.
It isn’t easy to determine which of these different sources of energy is best to use.
All of them have their good and bad points. While advocates of each power type
tout theirs as the best, the truth is that they are all flawed. What needs to happen is
a concerted effort to change how we consume energy and to create a balance
between which of these sources we draw from.
Introduction of Fuel Chemistry
Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as a main constituent,

which on proper burning gives large amount of heat, which can be used
economically for domestic and industrial purpose. Example : Wood, charcoal,
coal, kerosene, petrol, diesel, producer gas, oil gas etc. During the process of
combustion, carbon, hydrogen, etc., combine with oxygen with a liberation of
heat. The combustion reaction can be explained as
C + O2 CO2 + 94 kcals 2H2 + O2 2H2O + 68.5 kcals
The calorific value of a fuel depends mainly on the amount of Carbon and
Hydrogen.
Requirements of a Good
Fuel A good fuel should have the following characteristics:
1. High calorific value.
2. Moderate ignition temperature.
3. Low contents of non-combustible matters.
4. Low moisture content.
5. Free from objectionable and harmful gases like CO, SOx, H2S.
6. Moderate velocity of combustion.
7. Combustion should be controllable.
8. Easy to transport and readily available at low cost.
Classification of Fuels
Fuels are classified into (i) Primary or Natural fuels - These are
found in nature. (ii) Secondary or Artificial fuels - These are
derived from primary fuels. Primary and secondary fuels may also
be divided into 3 classes namely solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
Fuels Primary or Natural Fuel
1. Solid Fuels Example: Wood
2. Liquid Fuels Example: Oils
3. Gaseous Fuel Example: Natural gas
Secondary or Artificial Fuels Gaseous .
Solid Fuels Example: Charcoal
Liquid Fuels: Petrol gas
Gaseous Fuels Ex. : LPG
Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels are those, which have been derived from fossil remains of plant
and animal life. They are found in the earth’s crust.
All conventional fossil fuels whether solid, liquid or gaseous (coal,
petroleum or Natural gas) contain basically carbon and / or hydrogen. The
fuels on combustion in presence of oxygen in the air release heat energy.
This heat energy can be utilized for domestic and industrial purposes.
Advantages of Solid fuels
1. Handling and transportation of solid fuels are easy.
2. Solid fuels are cheap and easily available.
3. They have a moderate ignition temperature.
4. This type of fuel can be stored conveniently without any risk.
Disadvantage of solid fuels:
1. During burning, solid fuels produce a large amount of ash and disposal
of ash is a big problem.
2. The calorific value of solid fuel is comparatively low.
3. Since a lot of air is required for complete combustion, its thermal
efficiency is not so high.
4. A large space is required for storage.
5. Combustion is a slow process and it cannot be easily controlled.
Advantages of Liquid fuels
1. Liquid fuels do not yield any ash after burning.
2. They require comparatively less storage space.
3. Calorific value of liquid fuel is higher than that of solid fuels.
4. Their combustion is uniform and easily controllable.
Disadvantages of liquid fuels:
1. Liquid fuels are comparatively costlier than the solid fuels.
2. They give unpleasant odour during incomplete combustion.
3. Some amount of liquid fuels will escape due to evaporation during
storage.
4. Special type of burners are for effective combustion.
Advantages of gaseous fuels:
1.Gaseous fuels can be easily transported through the pipes.
2. They do not produce any ash or smoke during burning.
3. They have high calorific value than the solid fuels.
4. They have high thermal efficiency.
Disadvantages of gaseous fuels
1.They are highly inflammable and hence the chances for fire hazards are
high.
2. Since gases occupy a large volume, they require large storage tanks.
Solid Fuels
1. Coal and its varieties (or) Ranking of Coal Coal is an important
primary solid fuel that has been formed as a result of alteration of
vegetable matter under some favourablse conditions.
2. The process of conversion of lignite to anthracite is called coalification (or)
metamorphism of coal.
3. Coal is classified on the basis of its rank. The rank of coal denotes its degree
of maturity. Vegetable matter, under the action of pressure, heat and
anaerobic conditions, gets converted into different stages of coal namely,
4. Wood → Peat → lignite → sub-bituminous → bituminous
↓ anthracite
5. With the progress of coal forming reaction, moisture content and oxygen
content reduces and % of carbon increases. Also calorific value increases
from peat to bituminous.
Classification of coal
a) Peat 1. Peat is the first stage in the formation of coal. 2. Its calorific value is
about 4000-5400 k cal/kg. 3. It is an uneconomical fuel due to its high proportion
of (80 -90%) moisture and lower calorific value. 4. It is a brown fibrous mass.
b) Lignite 1. Lignite is an intermediate stage in the process of coal formation. 2. Its
calorific value is about 6500-7100 k cal/kg 3. Due to the presence of high volatile
content, it burns with long smoky flame.
c) Bituminous coal Bituminous coal is further sub-classified on the basis of
its carbon content into three types as: i) Sub- bituminous coal, ii)
Bituminous coal and iii) semi-bituminous coal.
d) Anthracite 1. Anthracite is the superior grade of coal. 2. Its volatile,
moisture and ash contents are very less. 3. Its calorific value is about 8650
k cal/kg.
(Sources- www.conserve-energy-future.com)
1
INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCTION
AND OPERATION MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 Introduction 1.7 Operations Management
1.2 Historical Evolution of Production and 1.8 Managing Global Operations
Operations Management 1.9 Scope of Production and Operations
1.3 Concept of Production Management
1.4 Production System • Exercises
1.5 Production Management • Skill Development
1.6 Operating System • Caselet
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Production/operations management is the process, which combines and transforms various
resources used in the production/operations subsystem of the organization into value added
product/services in a controlled manner as per the policies of the organization. Therefore, it is
that part of an organization, which is concerned with the transformation of a range of inputs into
the required (products/services) having the requisite quality level.
The set of interrelated management activities, which are involved in manufacturing certain
products, is called as production management. If the same concept is extended to services
management, then the corresponding set of management activities is called as operations
management.
1.2 HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

For over two centuries operations and production management has been recognised as an
important factor in a country’s economic growth.
1
PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
The traditional view of manufacturing management began in eighteenth century when Adam
Smith recognised the economic benefits of specialisation of labour. He recommended breaking
of jobs down into subtasks and recognises workers to specialised tasks in which they would
become highly skilled and efficient. In the early twentieth century, F.W. Taylor implemented
Smith’s theories and developed scientific management. From then till 1930, many techniques
were developed prevailing the traditional view. Brief information about the contributions to
manufacturing management is shown in the Table 1.1.
TABLE 1.1 Historical summary of operations management
Date Contribution Contributor
1776 Specialization of labour in manufacturing Adam Smith
1799 Interchangeable parts, cost accounting Eli Whitney and others
1832 Division of labour by skill; assignment of jobs by skill;
basics of time study Charles Babbage
1900 Scientific management time study and work study
developed; dividing planning and doing of work Frederick W. Taylor
1900 Motion of study of jobs Frank B. Gilbreth
1901 Scheduling techniques for employees, machines jobs in
manufacturing Henry L. Gantt
1915 Economic lot sizes for inventory control F.W. Harris
1927 Human relations; the Hawthorne studies Elton Mayo
1931 Statistical inference applied to product quality: quality
control charts W.A. Shewart
1935 Statistical sampling applied to quality control: inspection
sampling plans H.F. Dodge & H.G. Roming
1940 Operations research applications in World War II P.M. Blacker and others.
1946 Digital computer John Mauchlly and
J.P. Eckert
1947 Linear programming G.B. Dantzig, Williams &
others
1950 Mathematical programming, on-linear and stochastic A. Charnes, W.W. Cooper
processes & others
1951 Commercial digital computer: large-scale computations
available. Sperry Univac
1960 Organizational behaviour: continued study of people
at work L. Cummings, L. Porter
1970 Integrating operations into overall strategy and policy, W. Skinner J. Orlicky and
Computer applications to manufacturing, Scheduling G. Wright
and control, Material requirement planning (MRP)
1980 Quality and productivity applications from Japan: W.E. Deming and
robotics, CAD-CAM J. Juran.
Production management becomes the acceptable term from 1930s to 1950s. As

F.W. Taylor’s works become more widely known, managers developed techniques that focussed
on economic efficiency in manufacturing. Workers were studied in great detail to eliminate
wasteful efforts and achieve greater efficiency. At the same time, psychologists, socialists and
INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCTION AND OPERATION MANAGEMENT !
other social scientists began to study people and human behaviour in the working environment.
In addition, economists, mathematicians, and computer socialists contributed newer, more
sophisticated analytical approaches.
With the 1970s emerges two distinct changes in our views. The most obvious of these,
reflected in the new name operations management was a shift in the service and manufacturing
sectors of the economy. As service sector became more prominent, the change from ‘production’
to ‘operations’ emphasized the broadening of our field to service organizations. The second, more
suitable change was the beginning of an emphasis on synthesis, rather than just analysis, in
management practices.
1.3 CONCEPT OF PRODUCTION

Production function is that part of an organization, which is concerned with the transformation
of a range of inputs into the required outputs (products) having the requisite quality level.
Production is defined as “the step-by-step conversion of one form of material into
another form through chemical or mechanical process to create or enhance the utility of
the product to the user.” Thus production is a value addition process. At each stage of
processing, there will be value addition.
Edwood Buffa defines production as ‘a process by which goods and services are created’.
Some examples of production are: manufacturing custom-made products like, boilers with a
specific capacity, constructing flats, some structural fabrication works for selected customers,
etc., and manufacturing standardized products like, car, bus, motor cycle, radio, television, etc.
Fig. 1.1 Schematic production system
1.4 PRODUCTION SYSTEM

The production system of an organization is that part, which produces products of an organization.
It is that activity whereby resources, flowing within a defined system, are combined and transformed
in a controlled manner to add value in accordance with the policies communicated by management.
A simplified production system is shown above.
" PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
The production system has the following characteristics:

1. Production is an organized activity, so every production system has an objective.
2. The system transforms the various inputs to useful outputs.
3. It does not operate in isolation from the other organization system.
4. There exists a feedback about the activities, which is essential to control and improve
system performance.
1.4.1 Classification of Production System

Production systems can be classified as Job Shop, Batch, Mass and Continuous Production
systems.
Fig. 1.2 Classification of production systems
JOB SHOP PRODUCTION

Job shop production are characterised by manufacturing of one or few quantity of products
designed and produced as per the specification of customers within prefixed time and cost. The
distinguishing feature of this is low volume and high variety of products.
A job shop comprises of general purpose machines arranged into different departments.
Each job demands unique technological requirements, demands processing on machines in a
certain sequence.
Characteristics
The Job-shop production system is followed when there is:
1. High variety of products and low volume.
2. Use of general purpose machines and facilities.
3. Highly skilled operators who can take up each job as a challenge because of uniqueness.
4. Large inventory of materials, tools, parts.
5. Detailed planning is essential for sequencing the requirements of each product, capacities
for each work centre and order priorities.
INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCTION AND OPERATION MANAGEMENT #
Advantages
Following are the advantages of job shop production:
1. Because of general purpose machines and facilities variety of products can be produced.
2. Operators will become more skilled and competent, as each job gives them learning
opportunities.
3. Full potential of operators can be utilised.
4. Opportunity exists for creative methods and innovative ideas.
Limitations
Following are the limitations of job shop production:
1. Higher cost due to frequent set up changes.
2. Higher level of inventory at all levels and hence higher inventory cost.
3. Production planning is complicated.
4. Larger space requirements.
BATCH PRODUCTION
Batch production is defined by American Production and Inventory Control Society (APICS) “as
a form of manufacturing in which the job passes through the functional departments in lots
or batches and each lot may have a different routing.” It is characterised by the manufacture
of limited number of products produced at regular intervals and stocked awaiting sales.
Characteristics
Batch production system is used under the following circumstances:
1. When there is shorter production runs.
2. When plant and machinery are flexible.
3. When plant and machinery set up is used for the production of item in a batch and
change of set up is required for processing the next batch.
4. When manufacturing lead time and cost are lower as compared to job order production.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of batch production:
1. Better utilisation of plant and machinery.
2. Promotes functional specialisation.
3. Cost per unit is lower as compared to job order production.
4. Lower investment in plant and machinery.
5. Flexibility to accommodate and process number of products.
6. Job satisfaction exists for operators.
Limitations
Following are the limitations of batch production:
1. Material handling is complex because of irregular and longer flows.
2. Production planning and control is complex.
$ PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
3. Work in process inventory is higher compared to continuous production.

4. Higher set up costs due to frequent changes in set up.
MASS PRODUCTION
Manufacture of discrete parts or assemblies using a continuous process are called mass production.
This production system is justified by very large volume of production. The machines are arranged
in a line or product layout. Product and process standardisation exists and all outputs follow the
same path.
Characteristics
Mass production is used under the following circumstances:
1. Standardisation of product and process sequence.
2. Dedicated special purpose machines having higher production capacities and output rates.
3. Large volume of products.
4. Shorter cycle time of production.
5. Lower in process inventory.
6. Perfectly balanced production lines.
7. Flow of materials, components and parts is continuous and without any back tracking.
8. Production planning and control is easy.
9. Material handling can be completely automatic.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of mass production:
1. Higher rate of production with reduced cycle time.
2. Higher capacity utilisation due to line balancing.
3. Less skilled operators are required.
4. Low process inventory.
5. Manufacturing cost per unit is low.
Limitations
Following are the limitations of mass production:
1. Breakdown of one machine will stop an entire production line.
2. Line layout needs major change with the changes in the product design.
3. High investment in production facilities.
4. The cycle time is determined by the slowest operation.
CONTINUOUS PRODUCTION
Production facilities are arranged as per the sequence of production operations from the first
operations to the finished product. The items are made to flow through the sequence of operations
through material handling devices such as conveyors, transfer devices, etc.
Characteristics
Continuous production is used under the following circumstances:
1. Dedicated plant and equipment with zero flexibility.
INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCTION AND OPERATION MANAGEMENT %
2. Material handling is fully automated.

3. Process follows a predetermined sequence of operations.
4. Component materials cannot be readily identified with final product.
5. Planning and scheduling is a routine action.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of continuous production:
4. Manpower is not required for material handling as it is completely automatic.
5. Person with limited skills can be used on the production line.
6. Unit cost is lower due to high volume of production.
Limitations
Following are the limitations of continuous production:
1. Flexibility to accommodate and process number of products does not exist.
2. Very high investment for setting flow lines.
3. Product differentiation is limited.
1.5 PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

Production management is a process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling the activities
of the production function. It combines and transforms various resources used in the production
subsystem of the organization into value added product in a controlled manner as per the policies
of the organization.
E.S. Buffa defines production management as, “Production management deals with
decision making related to production processes so that the resulting goods or services are
produced according to specifications, in the amount and by the schedule demanded and
out of minimum cost.”
1.5.1Objectives of Production Management

The objective of the production management is ‘to produce goods services of right quality and
quantity at the right time and right manufacturing cost’.
1. RIGHT QUALITY
The quality of product is established based upon the customers needs. The right quality is not
necessarily best quality. It is determined by the cost of the product and the technical characteristics
as suited to the specific requirements.
2. RIGHT QUANTITY
The manufacturing organization should produce the products in right number. If they are produced
in excess of demand the capital will block up in the form of inventory and if the quantity is
produced in short of demand, leads to shortage of products.
2. BASICS OF ENERGY AND ITS VARIOUS FORMS
Syllabus
Basics of Energy and its various forms: Electricity basics - DC & AC currents,
Electricity tariff, Load management and Maximum demand control, Power factor.
Thermal basics -Fuels, Thermal energy contents of fuel, Temperature & Pressure, Heat
capacity, Sensible and Latent heat, Evaporation, Condensation, Steam, Moist air and
Humidity & Heat transfer, Units and conversion.
2.1 Definition
Energy is the ability to do work and work is the transfer of energy from one form to another. In
practical terms, energy is what we use to manipulate the world around us, whether by exciting
our muscles, by using electricity, or by using mechanical devices such as automobiles. Energy
comes in different forms - heat (thermal), light (radiant), mechanical, electrical, chemical, and
nuclear energy.
2.2 Various Forms of Energy

There are two types of energy - stored (potential) energy and working (kinetic) energy. For
example, the food we eat contains chemical energy, and our body stores this energy until we
release it when we work or play.
2.2.1 Potential Energy
Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of position (gravitational). It exists in various
forms.
Chemical Energy
Chemical energy is the energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. Biomass, petrole-
um, natural gas, propane and coal are examples of stored chemical energy.
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom - the energy that holds the nucle-
us together. The nucleus of a uranium atom is an example of nuclear energy.
Stored Mechanical Energy

Stored mechanical energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a force. Compressed
springs and stretched rubber bands are examples of stored mechanical energy.
Bureau of Energy Efficiency 36

2. Basics of Energy and its Various Forms
Gravitational Energy
Gravitational energy is the energy of place or position. Water in a reservoir behind a hydropow-
er dam is an example of gravitational energy. When the water is released to spin the turbines, it
becomes motion energy.
2.2.2 Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is energy in motion- the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules and sub-
stances. It exists in various forms.
Radiant Energy
Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy
includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays and radio waves. Solar energy is an example of radi-
ant energy.
Thermal Energy
Thermal energy (or heat) is the internal energy in substances- the vibration and movement of
atoms and molecules within substances. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy.
Motion
The movement of objects or substances from one place to another is motion. Wind and
hydropower are examples of motion.
Sound
Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction)
waves.
Electrical Energy
Electrical energy is the movement of electrons. Lightning and electricity are examples of elec-
trical energy.
2.2.3 Energy Conversion
Energy is defined as "the ability to do work." In this sense, examples of work include moving
something, lifting something, warming something, or lighting something. The following is an
example of the transformation of different types of energy into heat and power.
Oil burns to generate heat -->
Heat boils water -->
Water turns to steam --> More the number of
Steam pressure turns a turbine --> conversion stages, lesser
Turbine turns an electric generator --> the overall energy
efficiency
Generator produces electricity -->
Electricity powers light bulbs -->
Light bulbs give off light and heat
It is difficult to imagine spending an entire day without using energy. We use energy to light our
cities and homes, to power machinery in factories, cook our food, play music, and operate our
TV.

2.2.4 Grades of Energy

High-Grade Energy
Electrical and chemical energy are high-grade energy, because the energy is concentrated in a
small space. Even a small amount of electrical and chemical energy can do a great amount of
work. The molecules or particles that store these forms of energy are highly ordered and com-
pact and thus considered as high grade energy. High-grade energy like electricity is better used
for high grade applications like melting of metals rather than simply heating of water.
Low-Grade Energy
Heat is low-grade energy. Heat can still be used to do work (example of a heater boiling water),
but it rapidly dissipates. The molecules, in which this kind of energy is stored (air and water
molecules), are more randomly distributed than the molecules of carbon in a coal. This disor-
dered state of the molecules and the dissipated energy are classified as low-grade energy.
2.3 Electrical Energy Basics

Electric current is divided into two types: Directional Current (DC) and Alternating Current
(AC).
Directional (Direct) Current

A non-varying, unidirectional electric current (Example: Current produced by batteries)
Characteristics:
• Direction of the flow of positive and negative charges does not change with time
• Direction of current (direction of flow for positive charges) is constant with time
• Potential difference (voltage) between two points of the circuit does not change polarity
with time
Alternating Current
A current which reverses in regularly recurring intervals of time and which has alternately pos-
itive and negative values, and occurring a specified number of times per second. (Example:
Household electricity produced by generators, Electricity supplied by utilities.)
Characteristics:
· Direction of the current reverses periodically with time
· Voltage (tension) between two points of the circuit changes polarity with time.
· In 50 cycle AC, current reverses direction 100 times a second (two times during onecycle)
Ampere (A)
Current is the rate of flow of charge. The ampere is the basic unit of electric current. It is that
current which produces a specified force between two parallel wires, which are 1 metre apart
in a vacuum.
Voltage (V)
The volt is the International System of Units (SI) measure of electric potential or electromo-

tive force. A potential of one volt appears across a resistance of one ohm when a current of one
ampere flows through that resistance.
1000 V = 1 kiloVolts (kV)
Resistance
Voltage
_______
Resistance =
Current
The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω)
Ohm' Law
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across it, provided the temperature and other external conditions remain constant.
Frequency
The supply frequency tells us the cycles at which alternating current changes. The unit of fre-
quency is hertz (Hz :cycles per second).
Kilovolt Ampere (kVA)

It is the product of kilovolts and amperes. This measures the electrical load on a circuit or sys-
tem. It is also called the apparent power.
Voltage x Amperes
For a single phase electrical circuit , Apparent power (kVA) =
1000
3 x Voltage x Amperes
For a three phase electrical circuit , Apparent power (kVA) =
1000
kVAr (Reactive Power)

kVAr is the reactive power. Reactive power is the portion of apparent power that does no work.
This type of power must be supplied to all types of magnetic equipment, such as motors, trans-
formers etc. Larger the magnetizing requirement, larger the kVAr.
Kilowatt (kW) (Active Power)

kW is the active power or the work-producing part of apparent power.
Voltage x Amperes x Power factor

For sin gle phase, Power ( kW ) =
1000
1.732 x Voltage x Amperes x Power factor

For Three phase, Power ( kW ) =
1000

Power Factor
Power Factor (PF) is the ratio between the active power (kW) and apparent power (kVA).
When current lags the voltage like in inductive loads, it is called lagging power factor and when
current leads the voltage like in capacitive loads, it is called leading power factor.
Inductive loads such as induction motors, transformers, discharge lamp, etc. absorb com-
paratively more lagging reactive power (kVAr) and hence, their power factor is poor. Lower the
power factor; electrical network is loaded with more current. It would be advisable to have
highest power factor (close to 1) so that network carries only active power which does real
work. PF improvement is done by installing capacitors near the load centers, which improve
power factor from the point of installation back to the generating station.
Kilowatt-hour (kWh)
Kilowatt-hour is the energy consumed by 1000 Watts in one hour. If 1kW (1000 watts) of a elec-
trical equipment is operated for 1 hour, it would consume 1 kWh of energy (1 unit of electrici-
ty).
For a company, it is the amount of electrical units in kWh recorded in the plant over a month
for billing purpose. The company is charged / billed based on kWh consumption.
Electricity Tariff
Calculation of electric bill for a company

Electrical utility or power supplying companies charge industrial customers not only based on
the amount of energy used (kWh) but also on the peak demand (kVA) for each month.
Contract Demand
Contract demand is the amount of electric power that a customer demands from utility in a spec-
ified interval. Unit used is kVA or kW. It is the amount of electric power that the consumer
agreed upon with the utility. This would mean that utility has to plan for the specified capacity.
Maximum demand
Maximum demand is the highest average kVA recorded during any one-demand interval with-
in the month. The demand interval is normally 30 minutes, but may vary from utility to utility
from 15 minutes to 60 minutes. The demand is measured using a tri-vector meter / digital ener-
gy meter.

Types of Fuels and
UNIT 3 TYPES OF FUELS AND THEIR their Characteristics
CHARACTERISTICS
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Principles of Classification of Fuels

3.3 Solid Fuels and their Characteristics
3.3.1 Woods and their Characteristics
3.3.2 Coals and their Characteristics
3.3.3 Manufactured Solid Fuels and their Characteristics
3.4 Liquid Fuels and their Characteristics

3.4.1 Petroleum and its Characteristics
3.4.2 Manufactured Liquid Fuels and their Characteristics
3.5 Gaseous Fuels and their Characteristics

3.5.1 Natural Gas and its Characteristics
3.5.2 Manufactured Gases and their Characteristics
3.6 Summary
3.7 Key Words
3.8 Answers to SAQs
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Fuel is a substance which, when burnt, i.e. on coming in contact and reacting with
oxygen or air, produces heat. Thus, the substances classified as fuel must necessarily
contain one or several of the combustible elements : carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, etc. In
the process of combustion, the chemical energy of fuel is converted into heat energy.
To utilize the energy of fuel in most usable form, it is required to transform the fuel from
its one state to another, i.e. from solid to liquid or gaseous state, liquid to gaseous state,
or from its chemical energy to some other form of energy via single or many stages. In
this way, the energy of fuels can be utilized more effectively and efficiently for various
purposes.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• describe the classification of fuels,
• explain the various types of fuels and their characteristics, and
• know their applications in various fields.
3.2 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS

Fuels may broadly be classified in two ways, i.e.
(a) according to the physical state in which they exist in nature – solid, liquid
and gaseous, and
(b) according to the mode of their procurement – natural and manufactured.
37
Applied Thermal None of these classifications, however, gives an idea of the qualitative or intensive value
Engineering of the fuels, i.e. their power of developing the thermal intensity or calorimetric
temperature under the normal condition of use, i.e. combustion of fuels in mixture with
atmospheric air in stoichiometric proportion.
We shall now proceed with the further description of the fuels. A brief description of
natural and manufactured fuels is given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 : Natural and Manufactured Fuels
Natural Fuels Manufactured Fuels
Solid Fuels
Wood Tanbark, Bagasse, Straw
Coal Charcoal
Oil shale Coke
Briquettes
Liquid Fuels
Petroleum Oils from distillation of petroleum
Coal tar
Shale-oil
Alcohols, etc.
Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas Coal gas
Producer gas
Water gas
Hydrogen
Acetylene
Blast furnace gas
Oil gas
3.3 SOLID FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Solid fuels are mainly classified into two categories, i.e. natural fuels, such as wood,
coal, etc. and manufactured fuels, such as charcoal, coke, briquettes, etc. (Table 3.1).
The various advantages and disadvantages of solid fuels are given below :
Advantages
(a) They are easy to transport.
(b) They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion.
(c) Their cost of production is low.
(d) They posses moderate ignition temperature.
Disadvantages
(a) Their ash content is high.
(b) Their large proportion of heat is wasted.
(c) They burn with clinker formation.
(d) Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily.
(e) Their cost of handling is high.
The most commonly used and easily obtainable solid fuel is wood. It is the oldest type of
fuel which man had used for centuries after the discovery of the fire itself. In India,
38
wood is used in almost every village, as well as in small towns and cities. In some parts Types of Fuels and
of country such as Kashmir and Mysore, wood is used for industrial purposes as well. their Characteristics
Constituents of Wood
Wood is vegetable tissue of trees and bushes. It consists of mainly cellular tissue
and lignin and lesser parts of fat and tar, as well as sugar.
The main constituents of several kinds of wood are given in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 : Constituents of Wood (%)
Type of Wood Water Sugar Fat-tar Cellular Tissue Lignin
Beach wood 12.57 2.41 0.41 45.57 39.14
Birch wood 12.48 2.65 1.14 55.62 28.21
Fir (Boot) 13.87 1.26 0.97 55.90 26.91
Pine wood 12.87 4.05 1.63 53.27 28.18
The constituents of cellular tissue and lignin of wood are given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 : Constituents of Cellular Tissue and Lignin of Wood (%)
Constituents Cellular Tissue Lignin

Carbon 44.4 54.58
Hydrogen 6.2 5.8-6.3
Oxygen 49.4 35.39
The cellular tissue has a definite chemical composition and thus has stable constituents,
while those of lignin vary within narrow limits. Hence, the constituent elements of
different kinds of wood are slightly variable. Table 3.4 gives the constituents elements of
wood and the average values of constituents of wood are given in Table 3.5.
Table 3.4 : Constituents of different kinds of Wood (%)
Element Pine Wood Birch Wood Oak Wood
C 50.05 48.45 49.8
H 6.04 5.95 5.81
O+N 43.21 45.26 44.00
Ash 0.70 0.34 0.4
Table 3.5 : Average Values of Constituents of Wood
Constituents Cellular Tissue

C 50.00
H 6.00
O 43.10
N 0.30
Ash 0.60
Calorific Value
Engineer A. Marjhevskee determined the calorific values of different kinds of
wood with the help of the samples taken out from the same tree at different
distances from centre. The calorific values are given in Table 3.6.
39
Applied Thermal Table 3.6 : Calorific Values of Wood
Engineering
Kinds of Wood Lowest Calorific Value Highest Calorific Value
(cal/kg) (cal/kg)
Oak 4729 4750
Birch 4695 4831
Elm 4674 4833
Alder 4745 4839
Pine 4818 5310
Fir 4887 4900
Lrch 4775 4840
Ash
The ash content of wood is negligible. The ash consists of mineral water that is
found in the wood itself, with an admixture of some impurities which accure
during transportation, etc. The mineral matte is distributed in the tree rather
irregularly. The ash consists of mainly potassium carbonate with varying degrees
of calcium, magnesium and sodium carbonate, as well as minute quantities of iron
oxides, alumina and silica. Pure ash is white in colour.
Moisture
A freshly felled tree anything from 40% to 60% of hygroscopic moisture
depending upon the species of the tree as well as the seasons of the year. On
exposure to atmospheric air, the moisture dries up and reduces to 15-20% in about
18 months. On the exposure for a longer period, no appreciable change had been
observed. When wood is seasoned in water, it absorbs nearly 150% of water by
weight.
Characteristics of Flame
The nature of the flame depends on the tar content of wood. Pine and birch
contain more tar and hence burn with a thick and bright flame, while aspen and
alder burn with a dim, transparent flame. The length of the flame also depends on
the tar content.
Combustion Characteristics
The lighter the wood, the more intensely it burns with a long flame. This is
because air penetrates easily throughout the whole piece during combustion. If the
wood is heavy, i.e. hard, the penetration of air is rendered difficult and a
concentrated flame results with the development of more heat at the point of
burning.
Ignition Temperature
Wood ignites very easily. That is why it is used for lighting other fuels. The
average ignition temperature of different kinds of wood is given in Table 3.7.
Type of Wood Ignition Temperature
(oC)
Pine 295
Oak 287
Larch 290
Fir 292

It is commonly adopted view that coal is a mineral substance of vegetable origin. The
40 large deposits of coal in India are in Bengal, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. Most of the
Indian coal is of low grade variety and coal washing to obtain low ash metallurgical coal Types of Fuels and
is unavoidable. Over 30% of coal output is consumed by railways, another similar their Characteristics
proportion is used by industry including iron and steel works. This leaves barely 40% of
coal mined for use of the power supply undertakings.
Analysis of Coal
To ascertain the commercial value of coal certain tests regarding its burning
properties are performed before it is commercially marketed. Two commonly used
tests are : Proximate analysis and Ultimate analysis of coal. Calorific value of coal
is defined as the quantity of heat given out by burning one unit weight of coal in a
calorimeter.
Proximate Analysis of Coal
This analysis of coal gives good indication about heating and burning
properties of coal. The test gives the composition of coal in respect of
moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon. The moisture test is
performed by heating 1 gm of coal sample at 104oC to 110oC for 1 hour in
an oven and finding the loss in weight. The volatile matter is determined by
heating 1 gm of coal sample in a covered crucible at 950oC for 7 minutes
and determining loss in weight, from which the moisture content as found
from moisture test is deducted. Ash content is found by completely burning
the sample of coal in a muffled furnace at 700oC to 750oC and weighing the
residue. The percentage of fixed carbon is determined by difference when
moisture, volatile matter and ash have been accounted for. The results of
proximate analysis of most coals indicate the following broad ranges of
various constituents by weight :
Moisture 3-30%
Volatile matter 3-50%
Ash 2-30%
Fixed Carbon 16-92%
The importance of volatile matter in coal is due to the fact that it largely
governs the combustion which in turn governs the design of grate and
combustions space used. High volatile matter is desirable in gas making,
while low volatile matter for manufacturing of metallurgical coke.
The Ultimate Analysis of Coal
This analysis of coal is more precise way to find the chemical composition
of coal with respect to the elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphur and ash. Sine the content of carbon and hydrogen that is
already combined with oxygen to form carbondioxide and water is of no
value for combustion, the chemical analysis of coal alone is not enough to
predict the suitability of coal for purpose of heating. However, the chemical
composition is very useful in combustion calculations and in finding the
composition of flue gases. For most purposes the proximate analysis of coal
is quite sufficient.
The broad range in which the constituents of coal vary by weight as
determined by ultimate analysis are given below :
Carbon 50-95%
Hydrogen 2.5-5%
Oxygen 2-4%
Sulphur 0.5-7%
Nitrogen 0.5-3%
Ash 2-30%
41
Applied Thermal 3.3.3 Manufactured Solid Fuels and their Characteristics
Engineering
The manufactured solid fuels include, charcoal, coke, briquettes, etc. They are obtained
from the natural fuels, like wood, coal, etc.
Charcoal and its Characteristics
Out of the mentioned various manufactured fuels, the charcoal occupies the first
place in India. In some parts of the country, for example, Mysore, huge quantities
of charcoal are being used till today in blast furnaces for reducing iron ores, etc.
and in many homes charcoal is used for cooking purposes. Charcoal is a produce
derived from destructive distillation of wood, being left in the shape of solid
residue. Charcoal burns rapidly with a clear flame, producing no smoke and
developing heat of about 6,050 cal/kg.
Coke and its Characteristics
It is obtained from destructive distillation of coal, being left in the shape of solid
residue. Coke can be classified into two categories : soft coke and hard coke. Soft
coke is obtained as the solid residue from the destructive distillation of coal in the
temperature range of 600-650oC. It contains 5 to 10% volatile matter. It burns
without smoke. It is extensively used as domestic fuel. Hard coke is obtained as
solid residue from the destructive distillation of coal in the temperature range of
1200-1400oC. It burns with smoke and is a useful fuel for metallurgical process.
Briquettes and their Characteristics
The term briquettes is used in respect of the dust, culm, slack and other small size
waste remains of lignite, peat, coke, etc. compressed into different shapes of
regular form, with or without binder. Dust and rubble result in considerable
percentage during mining, transportation, etc. and the briquetting industry is,
therefore, an important step towards the saving of fuel economy.
Good briquettes should be quite hard and as little friable as possible. They must
withstand the hazards of weather, and must be suitable for storing and general
handling in use. These properties are impart to briquettes by a correctly selected
binder, or suitable processing such as pre-heating, pressing, etc. Amongst the
binders, asphalt, pitch are most commonly used, giving fine results. The general
conclusion is that 5-8% binder should be used to produce high quality briquettes.
Bagasse and its Characteristics
Bagasse is the residue of sugarcane, left as waste in the sugar mill after extraction
of sugar juice. In weight, it is about 20% of virgin cane. By nature, it is fibrous
fuel which can be compared to wood. It contains 35-45% fibre, 7-10% sucrose and
other combustible, and 45-55% moisture, and possesses an average calorific value
of 2200 cal/kg. On moisture-fibre basis the average composition is :
C = 45%, H2 = 6%, O2 = 46% and Ash = 3%
Bagasse is the main fuel satisfying the needs of sugar industries and efforts are
being made for decreasing the percent moisture of bagasse with the help of
flue-gas waste heat dryers. Bagasse is a quick burning fuel with good efficiency.
3.4 LIQUID FUELS AND THEIR

CHARACTERISTICS
The liquid fuels can be classified as follows :
(a) Natural or crude oil, and
(b) Artificial or manufactured oils.
42
The advantages and disadvantages of liquid fuels can be summarized as follows : Types of Fuels and
their Characteristics
Advantages
(a) They posses higher calorific value per unit mass than solid fuels.
(b) They burn without dust, ash, clinkers, etc.
(c) Their firing is easier and also fire can be extinguished easily by stopping
liquid fuel supply.
(d) They are easy to transport through pipes.
(e) They can be stored indefinitely without any loss.
(f) They are clean in use and economic to handle.
(g) Loss of heat in chimney is very low due to greater cleanliness.
(h) They require less excess air for complete combustion.
(i) They require less furnace space for combustion.
Disadvantages
(a) The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to solid fuel.
(b) Costly special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
(c) There is a greater risk of five hazards, particularly, in case of highly
inflammable and volatile liquid fuels.
(d) They give bad odour.
(e) For efficient burning of liquid fuels, specially constructed burners and
spraying apparatus are required.
Petroleum is a basic natural fuel. It is a dark greenish brown, viscous mineral oil, found
deep in earth’s crust. It is mainly composed of various hydrocarbons (like straight chain
paraffins, cycloparaffins or napthenes, olefins, and aromatics) together with small
amount of organic compounds containing oxygen nitrogen and sulphur. The average
composition of crude petroleum is : C = 79.5 to 87.1%; H = 11.5 to 14.8%; S = 0.1 to
3.5%, N and O = 0.1 to 0.5%.
Petroleums are graded according to the following phsio-chemical properties :
(a) Specific gravity,
(b) Calorific value,
(c) Fish point or ignition point,
(d) Viscosity,
(e) Sulphur contents,
(f) Moisture and sediment content, and
(g) Specific heat and coefficient of expansion.
Classification of Petroleum
The chemical nature of crude petroleum varies with the part of the world in which
it is found. They appear, however, to be three principal verities.
Paraffinic Base Type Crude Petroleum
This type of petroleum is mainly composed of the saturated hydrocarbons
from CH4 to C35 H72 and a little of the napthenes and aromatics. The
hydrocarbons from C18 H38 to C35 H72 are sometimes called waxes.
43
Applied Thermal Asphalitc Base Type Crude Petroleum
Engineering
It contains mainly cycloparaffins or napthenes with smaller amount of
parffins and aromatic hydrocarbons.
Mixed Base Type Crude Petroleum
It contains both paraffinic and asphaltic hydrocarbons and are generally rich
in semi-solid waxes.
Manufactured liquid fuels include Gasoline, Diesel oil, Kerosene, Heavy oil, Naptha,
Lubricating oils, etc. These are obtained mostly by fractional distillation of crude
petroleum or liquefaction of coal.
Gasoline or Petrol and its Characteristics
The straight run gasoline is obtained either from distillation of crude petroleum or
by synthesis. It contains some undesirable unsaturated straight chain hydrocarbons
and sulphur compounds. It has boiling range of 40-120oC.
The, unsaturated hydrocarbons get oxidized and polymerized, thereby causing
gum and sludge formation on storing. On the other hand, sulphur compounds lead
to corrosion of internal combustion engine and at the same time they adversely
affect tetraethyl lead, which is generally added to gasoline for better ignition
properties.
The sulphur compounds from gasoline are generally removed by treating it with an
alkaline solution sodium plumbite. Olefins and colouring matter of gasoline are
usually removed by percolating through ‘Fuller’s earth’ which absorbs
preferentially only the colours and olefine. It is used in air-crafts. It is also used as
motor fuel, in dry-cleaning and as a solvent.
Some of the characteristics of an ideal gasoline are the following :
(a) It must be cheap and readily available.
(b) It must burn clean and produce no corrosion, etc. on combustion.
(c) It should mix readily with air and afford uniform manifold
distribution, i.e. should easily vaporize.
(d) It must be knock resistant.
(e) It should be pre-ignite easily.
(f) It must have a high calorific value.
Diesel Fuel and its Characteristics
The diesel fuel or gas oil is obtained between 250-320oC during the fractional
distillation of crude petroleum. This oil generally contains 85% C. 12% H. Its
calorific value is about 11,000 kcal/kg.
The suitability of a diesel fuel is determined by its cetane value. Diesel fuels
consist of longer hydrocarbons and have low values of ash, sediment, water and
sulphalt contents.
The main characteristics of a diesel fuel is that it should easily ignite below
compression temperature. The hydrocarbon molecules in a diesel fuel should be,
as far as possible, the straight-chain ones, with a minimum admixture of aromatic
and side-chain hydrocarbon molecules.
It is used in diesel engines as heating oil and for cracking to get gasoline.
Kerosene Oil and its Characteristics
Kerosene oil is obtained between 180-250oC during fractional distillation of crude
44 petroleum. It is used as an illuminant, jet engine fuel, tractor fuel, and for
preparing laboratory gas. With the development of jet engine, kerosene has Types of Fuels and
become a material of far greater importance than it is used to be. When kerosene is their Characteristics
used in domestic appliances, it is always vaporized before combustion. By using a
fair excess of air it burns with a smokeless blue flame.
Heavy Oil and its Characteristics
It is a fraction obtained between 320-400oC during fractional distillation of crude
petroleum. This oil on refractionation gives :
(a) Lubricating oils which are used as lubricants.
(b) Petroleum-jelly (Vaseline) which is used as lubricants in medicines
and in cosmetics.
(c) Greases which are used as lubricants.
(d) Paraffin wax which is used in candles, boot polishes, wax paper,
tarpolin cloth and for electrical insulation purposes.
3.5 GASEOUS FUELS AND THEIR

CHARACTERISTICS
Gaseous fuels occur in nature, besides being manufactured from solid and liquid fuels.
The advantages and disadvantages of gaseous fuels are given below :
Advantages
Gaseous fuels due to erase and flexibility of their applications, possess the
following advantages over solid or liquid fuels :
(a) They can be conveyed easily through pipelines to the actual place of
need, thereby eliminating manual labour in transportation.
(b) They can be lighted at ease.
(c) They have high heat contents and hence help us in having higher
temperatures.
(d) They can be pre-heated by the heat of hot waste gases, thereby
affecting economy in heat.
(e) Their combustion can readily by controlled for change in demand like
oxidizing or reducing atmosphere, length flame, temperature, etc.
(f) They are clean in use.
(g) They do not require any special burner.
(h) They burn without any shoot, or smoke and ashes.
(i) They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.
Disadvantages
(a) Very large storage tanks are needed.
(b) They are highly inflammable, so chances of fire hazards in their use is high.
Natural gas is generally associated with petroleum deposits and is obtained from wells
dug in the oil-bearing regions. The approximate composition of natural gas is :
CH4 = 70.9%, C2H6 = 5.10%, H2 = 3%, CO + CO2 = 22%
The calorific value varies from 12,000 to 14,000 kcal/m3. It is an excellent domestic fuel
and is conveyed in pipelines over very large distances. In America, it is available to a
great extent, and so, is quite popular as a domestic fuel. It is now used in manufacture of
chemicals by synthetic process. 45
Applied Thermal It is a colourless gas and is non-poisonous. Its specific gravity is usually between 0.57
Engineering to 0.7.
Manufactured gases are obtained form solid and liquid fuels. Some of the important
manufactured gaseous fuels whose characteristics are discussed in the following sections
are coal gas, blast furnace gas, water gas, producer gas and oil gas.
Coal Gas its Characteristics
Coal gas is obtained when it is carbonized or heated in absence of air at about
1300oC in either coke ovens or gas-making retorts. In gas making retort process
coal is fed in closed silica retorts, which are then heated to about 1300oC by
burning producer gas and air mixture.
1
C+ O2 → CO + 29.5 kcal
2
Coal gas is a colourless gas having a characteristic odour. It is lighter than air
and burns with a long smoky flame. Its average composition is : H2 = 47%,
CH4 = 32%, CO = 7%, C2H2 = 2%, C2H4 = 3%, N2 = 4%, CO2 = 1% and
rest = 4%. Its calorific value is about 4,900 kcal/m3.
It is used as (a) illuminant in cities and town, (b) a fuel, and (c) in metallurgical
operations for providing reducing atmosphere.
Blast Furnace Gas and its Characteristics
It is a by product flue gas obtained during the reduction of ion ore by coke in the
blast furnace. Its calorific value is about 1,000 kcal/m3. It contains about 20-25%
carbon monoxide along with CO2, N2, etc. About 1/3 of this gas is used for
preheating air used in blast furnace itself; while the remaining 2/3rd is available for
use in boilers or after cleaning in gas engines. It is also used for burning in a
special type of stoves (called Cowper’s stove) where the furnace is preheated.
This gas contains much dust and is usually cleaned before use by dust settlers,
cyclones or electrolytic precipitators.
Water Gas and its Characteristics
Water gas is essentially a mixture of combustible gases CO and H2 with a little
fraction of non-combustible gases. It is made by passing alternatively steam and
little air through a bed of red hot coal or coke maintained at about 900 to 1000oC
in a rector, which consists of a steel vessel about 3 m wide and 4 m in height. It is
lined inside with fire-bricks. It has a cup and cone feeder at the top and an opening
at the top for the exit of water gas. At the base, it is provided with inlet pipes for
passing air and steam.
Reactions
Supplied steam reacts with red hot coke (or coal) at 900-1000oC to form CO
and H2.
C + H2O → CO + H2 – 29 kcal
C + O2 → CO2 + 97 kcal
Composition
The average composition of water gas is : H2 = 51%; CO = 41%; N2 = 4%;
CO2 = 4%. Its calorific value is about 2,800 kcal/m3.
Uses
It is used as (a) a source of hydrogen gas, (b) an illuminating gas, and
(c) a fuel gas.
46
Producer Gas and its Characteristics Types of Fuels and
Producer gas is essentially a mixture of combustible gases carbon monoxide and
hydrogen associated with non-combustible gases N2, CO2, etc. It is prepared by
passing air mixed with little steam (about 0.35 kg/kg of coal) over a red hot coal or
coke bed maintained at about 1100oC in a special reactor called gas producer. It
consists of a steel vessel about 3 m in diameter and 4 m in height. The vessel is
lined inside with fire bricks. It is provided with a cup and cone feeder at the top
and a side opening for the exit of producer gas. At the base it has an inlet for
passing air and steam. The producer at the base is also provided with an exit for
the ash formed.
Reactions
The gas production reactions can be divided into four zones as follows :
Ash Zone
The lowest zone consists of mainly of ash, and therefore, it is known
as ash zone.
Combustion Zone
The zone next to the ash zone is known as oxidation or combustion
zone. Here the carbon burns and forms CO and CO2. The temperature
of this zone is about 1100oC. The following reactions take place.
C + O2 → CO2 + 94 kcal
1
C+ O 2 → CO + 29.5 kcal
2
Reduction Zone
Here carbon dioxide and steam combines with red hot carbon and
liberates free hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The reactions are :
CO2 + C → 2CO – 94 kcal
C + H2O → CO + H2 → 29 kcal
C + 2H2O → CO2 + 2H2 – 19 kcal
All these reduction reactions are endothermic, so, the temperature in
the reduction zone falls to 1000oC.
Distillation Zone
In this zone (400 – 800oC) the incoming coal is heated by outgoing
gases by giving sensible heat to the coal. The heat given by the gases
and heat radiated from the reduction zone helps to distillate the fuel
thereby volatile matter of coal is added to the outgoing gas.
Composition
The average composition of producer gas is CO = 22.3%, H2 = 8.12%;
N2 = 52.55%; CO2 = 3%. Its calorific value is about 1,300 kcal/m3.
Uses
It is cheap, clean and easily preparable gas and is used (i) for heating
open-hearth furnaces (in steel and glass manufacture), muffle furnaces,
retorts (used in coke and coal gas manufacture), etc. and (iii) as a reducing
agent in metallurgical operations.
Oil Gas and its Characteristics
Oil gas is obtained by cracking kerosene oil. Oil in a thin steam is allowed to fall
on a stout red hot cast iron retort, which is heated in coal fired furnace. The
47
Applied Thermal resulting gaseous mixture passes out through a bonet cover to a hydraulic main, a
Engineering tank containing water. Here tar gets condensed. Then at the testing cap, the proper
cracking of oil is estimated from the colour of the gas produced. A good oil gas
should have a golden colour. By proper adjusting the supply of air, gas of required
colour can be obtained. The gas is finally stored over water in gas holders.
Composition
The average composition of oil gas is : CH4 = 25.30%; H2 = 50-55%;
CO = 10.12%; CO2 = 3%. Its calorific value is about 6,600 kcal/m3.
Uses
It is used as laboratory gas.
SAQ 1
(a) What is the difference between natural and manufactured fuels?
(b) What are the merits and demerits of solid fuels?
(c) What are the main constituents of wood?
(d) What is the difference between ultimate analysis and proximate analysis of
coal?
(e) Mention the uses of different types of coal.
(f) What are the characteristics of coke and briquette fuels?
(g) Mention the composition of crude petroleum.
(h) Mention the uses of different types of manufactured liquid fuels.
(i) Mention the origin and composition of natural gas.
(j) Mention the characteristics of the following gaseous fuels :
(i) Coal gas,
(ii) Water gas,
(iii) Producer gas, and
(iv) Blast furnace gas.
3.6 SUMMARY
Let us summarise what we have learnt in this unit. In this unit, we have discussed in
detail the types of fuels and their characteristics.
The fuel is a substance which when once raised to its ignition temperature continues to
burn if sufficient oxygen or air is available. The main constituents of any fuel are carbon
and hydrogen. These constituents are called combustibles. The calorific value of a fuel is
amount of heat liberated by its complete combustion. For solid and liquid fuels, calorific
value is expressed in kJ/kg, where as for gaseous fuels it is expressed as kJ/m3. We have
48 learnt various types of fuels and their characteristics.
Types of Fuels and
3.7 KEY WORDS their Characteristics
Fuel : A fuel is a substance which when once raised to

its ignition temperature continues to burn if
sufficient oxygen or air is available.
Calorific Value of Fuel : The calorific value of a fuel is amount of heat
liberated by its complete combustion.
Bagasse : The residue of sugarcane is called a bagasse.
3.8 ANSWER TO SAQs

Refer the preceding text for all the Answers to SAQs.
49
INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCTION AND OPERATION MANAGEMENT %
2. Material handling is fully automated.

3. Process follows a predetermined sequence of operations.
4. Component materials cannot be readily identified with final product.
5. Planning and scheduling is a routine action.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of continuous production:
4. Manpower is not required for material handling as it is completely automatic.
5. Person with limited skills can be used on the production line.
6. Unit cost is lower due to high volume of production.
Limitations
Following are the limitations of continuous production:
1. Flexibility to accommodate and process number of products does not exist.
2. Very high investment for setting flow lines.
3. Product differentiation is limited.
1.5 PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

Production management is a process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling the activities
of the production function. It combines and transforms various resources used in the production
subsystem of the organization into value added product in a controlled manner as per the policies
of the organization.
E.S. Buffa defines production management as, “Production management deals with
decision making related to production processes so that the resulting goods or services are
produced according to specifications, in the amount and by the schedule demanded and
out of minimum cost.”
1.5.1Objectives of Production Management

The objective of the production management is ‘to produce goods services of right quality and
quantity at the right time and right manufacturing cost’.
1. RIGHT QUALITY
The quality of product is established based upon the customers needs. The right quality is not
necessarily best quality. It is determined by the cost of the product and the technical characteristics
as suited to the specific requirements.
2. RIGHT QUANTITY
The manufacturing organization should produce the products in right number. If they are produced
in excess of demand the capital will block up in the form of inventory and if the quantity is
produced in short of demand, leads to shortage of products.
& PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
3. RIGHT TIME
Timeliness of delivery is one of the important parameter to judge the effectiveness of production
department. So, the production department has to make the optimal utilization of input resources
to achieve its objective.
4. RIGHT MANUFACTURING COST
Manufacturing costs are established before the product is actually manufactured. Hence, all
attempts should be made to produce the products at pre-established cost, so as to reduce the
variation between actual and the standard (pre-established) cost.
1.6 OPERATING SYSTEM

Operating system converts inputs in order to provide outputs which are required by a customer.
It converts physical resources into outputs, the function of which is to satisfy customer wants i.e.,
to provide some utility for the customer. In some of the organization the product is a physical
good (hotels) while in others it is a service (hospitals). Bus and taxi services, tailors, hospital and
builders are the examples of an operating system.
Everett E. Adam & Ronald J. Ebert define operating system as, “An operating system
( function) of an organization is the part of an organization that produces the organization’s
physical goods and services.”
Ray Wild defines operating system as, “An operating system is a configuration of resources
combined for the provision of goods or services.”
1.6.1 Concept of Operations

An operation is defined in terms of the mission it serves for the organization, technology it employs
and the human and managerial processes it involves. Operations in an organization can be categorised
into manufacturing operations and service operations. Manufacturing operations is a conversion
process that includes manufacturing yields a tangible output: a product, whereas, a conversion process
that includes service yields an intangible output: a deed, a performance, an effort.
1.6.2Distinction between Manufacturing Operations and Service Operations

Following characteristics can be considered for distinguishing manufacturing operations with
service operations:
1. Tangible/Intangible nature of output
2. Consumption of output
3. Nature of work (job)
4. Degree of customer contact
5. Customer participation in conversion
6. Measurement of performance.
Manufacturing is characterised by tangible outputs (products), outputs that customers consume
overtime, jobs that use less labour and more equipment, little customer contact, no customer
participation in the conversion process (in production), and sophisticated methods for measuring
production activities and resource consumption as product are made.
INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCTION AND OPERATION MANAGEMENT '
Service is characterised by intangible outputs, outputs that customers consumes immediately,

jobs that use more labour and less equipment, direct consumer contact, frequent customer
participation in the conversion process, and elementary methods for measuring conversion activities
and resource consumption. Some services are equipment based namely rail-road services, telephone
services and some are people based namely tax consultant services, hair styling.
1.7 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
1.7.1 A Framework for Managing Operations

Managing operations can be enclosed in a frame of general management function as shown in
Fig. 1.3. Operation managers are concerned with planning, organizing, and controlling the activities
which affect human behaviour through models.
PLANNING
Activities that establishes a course of action and guide future decision-making is planning.
The operations manager defines the objectives for the operations subsystem of the organization,
and the policies, and procedures for achieving the objectives. This stage includes clarifying the
role and focus of operations in the organization’s overall strategy. It also involves product
planning, facility designing and using the conversion process.
ORGANIZING
Activities that establishes a structure of tasks and authority. Operation managers establish a
structure of roles and the flow of information within the operations subsystem. They determine
the activities required to achieve the goals and assign authority and responsibility for carrying
them out.
CONTROLLING
Activities that assure the actual performance in accordance with planned performance. To
ensure that the plans for the operations subsystems are accomplished, the operations manager
must exercise control by measuring actual outputs and comparing them to planned operations
management. Controlling costs, quality, and schedules are the important functions here.
BEHAVIOUR
Operation managers are concerned with how their efforts to plan, organize, and control affect
human behaviour. They also want to know how the behaviour of subordinates can affect
management’s planning, organizing, and controlling actions. Their interest lies in decision-making
behaviour.
MODELS
As operation managers plan, organise, and control the conversion process, they encounter many
problems and must make many decisions. They can simplify their difficulties using models like
aggregate planning models for examining how best to use existing capacity in short-term,
break even analysis to identify break even volumes, linear programming and computer
simulation for capacity utilisation, decision tree analysis for long-term capacity problem of
facility expansion, simple median model for determining best locations of facilities etc.

Fig. 1.3 General model for managing operations
Types of Fuels and
UNIT 3 TYPES OF FUELS AND THEIR their Characteristics
CHARACTERISTICS
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Principles of Classification of Fuels

3.3 Solid Fuels and their Characteristics
3.3.3 Manufactured Solid Fuels and their Characteristics
3.4 Liquid Fuels and their Characteristics

3.5 Gaseous Fuels and their Characteristics

3.6 Summary
3.7 Key Words
3.8 Answers to SAQs
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Fuel is a substance which, when burnt, i.e. on coming in contact and reacting with
oxygen or air, produces heat. Thus, the substances classified as fuel must necessarily
contain one or several of the combustible elements : carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, etc. In
the process of combustion, the chemical energy of fuel is converted into heat energy.
To utilize the energy of fuel in most usable form, it is required to transform the fuel from
its one state to another, i.e. from solid to liquid or gaseous state, liquid to gaseous state,
or from its chemical energy to some other form of energy via single or many stages. In
this way, the energy of fuels can be utilized more effectively and efficiently for various
purposes.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• describe the classification of fuels,
• explain the various types of fuels and their characteristics, and
• know their applications in various fields.
3.2 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS

Fuels may broadly be classified in two ways, i.e.
(a) according to the physical state in which they exist in nature – solid, liquid
and gaseous, and
(b) according to the mode of their procurement – natural and manufactured.
37
Applied Thermal None of these classifications, however, gives an idea of the qualitative or intensive value
Engineering of the fuels, i.e. their power of developing the thermal intensity or calorimetric
temperature under the normal condition of use, i.e. combustion of fuels in mixture with
atmospheric air in stoichiometric proportion.
We shall now proceed with the further description of the fuels. A brief description of
natural and manufactured fuels is given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 : Natural and Manufactured Fuels
Natural Fuels Manufactured Fuels
Solid Fuels
Wood Tanbark, Bagasse, Straw
Coal Charcoal
Oil shale Coke
Briquettes
Liquid Fuels
Petroleum Oils from distillation of petroleum
Coal tar
Shale-oil
Alcohols, etc.
Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas Coal gas
Producer gas
Water gas
Hydrogen
Acetylene
Blast furnace gas
Oil gas
3.3 SOLID FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Solid fuels are mainly classified into two categories, i.e. natural fuels, such as wood,
coal, etc. and manufactured fuels, such as charcoal, coke, briquettes, etc. (Table 3.1).
The various advantages and disadvantages of solid fuels are given below :
Advantages
(a) They are easy to transport.
(b) They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion.
(c) Their cost of production is low.
(d) They posses moderate ignition temperature.
Disadvantages
(a) Their ash content is high.
(b) Their large proportion of heat is wasted.
(c) They burn with clinker formation.
(d) Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily.
(e) Their cost of handling is high.
The most commonly used and easily obtainable solid fuel is wood. It is the oldest type of
fuel which man had used for centuries after the discovery of the fire itself. In India,
38
wood is used in almost every village, as well as in small towns and cities. In some parts Types of Fuels and
of country such as Kashmir and Mysore, wood is used for industrial purposes as well. their Characteristics
Constituents of Wood
Wood is vegetable tissue of trees and bushes. It consists of mainly cellular tissue
and lignin and lesser parts of fat and tar, as well as sugar.
The main constituents of several kinds of wood are given in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 : Constituents of Wood (%)
Type of Wood Water Sugar Fat-tar Cellular Tissue Lignin
Beach wood 12.57 2.41 0.41 45.57 39.14
Birch wood 12.48 2.65 1.14 55.62 28.21
Fir (Boot) 13.87 1.26 0.97 55.90 26.91
Pine wood 12.87 4.05 1.63 53.27 28.18
The constituents of cellular tissue and lignin of wood are given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 : Constituents of Cellular Tissue and Lignin of Wood (%)
Constituents Cellular Tissue Lignin

Carbon 44.4 54.58
Hydrogen 6.2 5.8-6.3
Oxygen 49.4 35.39
The cellular tissue has a definite chemical composition and thus has stable constituents,
while those of lignin vary within narrow limits. Hence, the constituent elements of
different kinds of wood are slightly variable. Table 3.4 gives the constituents elements of
wood and the average values of constituents of wood are given in Table 3.5.
Table 3.4 : Constituents of different kinds of Wood (%)
Element Pine Wood Birch Wood Oak Wood
C 50.05 48.45 49.8
H 6.04 5.95 5.81
O+N 43.21 45.26 44.00
Ash 0.70 0.34 0.4
Table 3.5 : Average Values of Constituents of Wood
Constituents Cellular Tissue

C 50.00
H 6.00
O 43.10
N 0.30
Ash 0.60
Calorific Value
Engineer A. Marjhevskee determined the calorific values of different kinds of
wood with the help of the samples taken out from the same tree at different
distances from centre. The calorific values are given in Table 3.6.
39
Applied Thermal Table 3.6 : Calorific Values of Wood
Engineering
Kinds of Wood Lowest Calorific Value Highest Calorific Value
(cal/kg) (cal/kg)
Oak 4729 4750
Birch 4695 4831
Elm 4674 4833
Alder 4745 4839
Pine 4818 5310
Fir 4887 4900
Lrch 4775 4840
Ash
The ash content of wood is negligible. The ash consists of mineral water that is
found in the wood itself, with an admixture of some impurities which accure
during transportation, etc. The mineral matte is distributed in the tree rather
irregularly. The ash consists of mainly potassium carbonate with varying degrees
of calcium, magnesium and sodium carbonate, as well as minute quantities of iron
oxides, alumina and silica. Pure ash is white in colour.
Moisture
A freshly felled tree anything from 40% to 60% of hygroscopic moisture
depending upon the species of the tree as well as the seasons of the year. On
exposure to atmospheric air, the moisture dries up and reduces to 15-20% in about
18 months. On the exposure for a longer period, no appreciable change had been
observed. When wood is seasoned in water, it absorbs nearly 150% of water by
weight.
Characteristics of Flame
The nature of the flame depends on the tar content of wood. Pine and birch
contain more tar and hence burn with a thick and bright flame, while aspen and
alder burn with a dim, transparent flame. The length of the flame also depends on
the tar content.
Combustion Characteristics
The lighter the wood, the more intensely it burns with a long flame. This is
because air penetrates easily throughout the whole piece during combustion. If the
wood is heavy, i.e. hard, the penetration of air is rendered difficult and a
concentrated flame results with the development of more heat at the point of
burning.
Ignition Temperature
Wood ignites very easily. That is why it is used for lighting other fuels. The
average ignition temperature of different kinds of wood is given in Table 3.7.
Type of Wood Ignition Temperature
(oC)
Pine 295
Oak 287
Larch 290
Fir 292

It is commonly adopted view that coal is a mineral substance of vegetable origin. The
40 large deposits of coal in India are in Bengal, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. Most of the
Indian coal is of low grade variety and coal washing to obtain low ash metallurgical coal Types of Fuels and
is unavoidable. Over 30% of coal output is consumed by railways, another similar their Characteristics
proportion is used by industry including iron and steel works. This leaves barely 40% of
coal mined for use of the power supply undertakings.
Analysis of Coal
To ascertain the commercial value of coal certain tests regarding its burning
properties are performed before it is commercially marketed. Two commonly used
tests are : Proximate analysis and Ultimate analysis of coal. Calorific value of coal
is defined as the quantity of heat given out by burning one unit weight of coal in a
calorimeter.
Proximate Analysis of Coal
This analysis of coal gives good indication about heating and burning
properties of coal. The test gives the composition of coal in respect of
moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon. The moisture test is
performed by heating 1 gm of coal sample at 104oC to 110oC for 1 hour in
an oven and finding the loss in weight. The volatile matter is determined by
heating 1 gm of coal sample in a covered crucible at 950oC for 7 minutes
and determining loss in weight, from which the moisture content as found
from moisture test is deducted. Ash content is found by completely burning
the sample of coal in a muffled furnace at 700oC to 750oC and weighing the
residue. The percentage of fixed carbon is determined by difference when
moisture, volatile matter and ash have been accounted for. The results of
proximate analysis of most coals indicate the following broad ranges of
various constituents by weight :
Moisture 3-30%
Volatile matter 3-50%
Ash 2-30%
Fixed Carbon 16-92%
The importance of volatile matter in coal is due to the fact that it largely
governs the combustion which in turn governs the design of grate and
combustions space used. High volatile matter is desirable in gas making,
while low volatile matter for manufacturing of metallurgical coke.
The Ultimate Analysis of Coal
This analysis of coal is more precise way to find the chemical composition
of coal with respect to the elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphur and ash. Sine the content of carbon and hydrogen that is
already combined with oxygen to form carbondioxide and water is of no
value for combustion, the chemical analysis of coal alone is not enough to
predict the suitability of coal for purpose of heating. However, the chemical
composition is very useful in combustion calculations and in finding the
composition of flue gases. For most purposes the proximate analysis of coal
is quite sufficient.
The broad range in which the constituents of coal vary by weight as
determined by ultimate analysis are given below :
Carbon 50-95%
Hydrogen 2.5-5%
Oxygen 2-4%
Sulphur 0.5-7%
Nitrogen 0.5-3%
Ash 2-30%
41
Applied Thermal 3.3.3 Manufactured Solid Fuels and their Characteristics
Engineering
The manufactured solid fuels include, charcoal, coke, briquettes, etc. They are obtained
from the natural fuels, like wood, coal, etc.
Charcoal and its Characteristics
Out of the mentioned various manufactured fuels, the charcoal occupies the first
place in India. In some parts of the country, for example, Mysore, huge quantities
of charcoal are being used till today in blast furnaces for reducing iron ores, etc.
and in many homes charcoal is used for cooking purposes. Charcoal is a produce
derived from destructive distillation of wood, being left in the shape of solid
residue. Charcoal burns rapidly with a clear flame, producing no smoke and
developing heat of about 6,050 cal/kg.
Coke and its Characteristics
It is obtained from destructive distillation of coal, being left in the shape of solid
residue. Coke can be classified into two categories : soft coke and hard coke. Soft
coke is obtained as the solid residue from the destructive distillation of coal in the
temperature range of 600-650oC. It contains 5 to 10% volatile matter. It burns
without smoke. It is extensively used as domestic fuel. Hard coke is obtained as
solid residue from the destructive distillation of coal in the temperature range of
1200-1400oC. It burns with smoke and is a useful fuel for metallurgical process.
Briquettes and their Characteristics
The term briquettes is used in respect of the dust, culm, slack and other small size
waste remains of lignite, peat, coke, etc. compressed into different shapes of
regular form, with or without binder. Dust and rubble result in considerable
percentage during mining, transportation, etc. and the briquetting industry is,
therefore, an important step towards the saving of fuel economy.
Good briquettes should be quite hard and as little friable as possible. They must
withstand the hazards of weather, and must be suitable for storing and general
handling in use. These properties are impart to briquettes by a correctly selected
binder, or suitable processing such as pre-heating, pressing, etc. Amongst the
binders, asphalt, pitch are most commonly used, giving fine results. The general
conclusion is that 5-8% binder should be used to produce high quality briquettes.
Bagasse and its Characteristics
Bagasse is the residue of sugarcane, left as waste in the sugar mill after extraction
of sugar juice. In weight, it is about 20% of virgin cane. By nature, it is fibrous
fuel which can be compared to wood. It contains 35-45% fibre, 7-10% sucrose and
other combustible, and 45-55% moisture, and possesses an average calorific value
of 2200 cal/kg. On moisture-fibre basis the average composition is :
C = 45%, H2 = 6%, O2 = 46% and Ash = 3%
Bagasse is the main fuel satisfying the needs of sugar industries and efforts are
being made for decreasing the percent moisture of bagasse with the help of
flue-gas waste heat dryers. Bagasse is a quick burning fuel with good efficiency.
3.4 LIQUID FUELS AND THEIR

CHARACTERISTICS
The liquid fuels can be classified as follows :
(a) Natural or crude oil, and
(b) Artificial or manufactured oils.
42
The advantages and disadvantages of liquid fuels can be summarized as follows : Types of Fuels and
Advantages
(a) They posses higher calorific value per unit mass than solid fuels.
(b) They burn without dust, ash, clinkers, etc.
(c) Their firing is easier and also fire can be extinguished easily by stopping
liquid fuel supply.
(d) They are easy to transport through pipes.
(e) They can be stored indefinitely without any loss.
(f) They are clean in use and economic to handle.
(g) Loss of heat in chimney is very low due to greater cleanliness.
(h) They require less excess air for complete combustion.
(i) They require less furnace space for combustion.
Disadvantages
(a) The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to solid fuel.
(b) Costly special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
(c) There is a greater risk of five hazards, particularly, in case of highly
inflammable and volatile liquid fuels.
(d) They give bad odour.
(e) For efficient burning of liquid fuels, specially constructed burners and
spraying apparatus are required.
Petroleum is a basic natural fuel. It is a dark greenish brown, viscous mineral oil, found
deep in earth’s crust. It is mainly composed of various hydrocarbons (like straight chain
paraffins, cycloparaffins or napthenes, olefins, and aromatics) together with small
amount of organic compounds containing oxygen nitrogen and sulphur. The average
composition of crude petroleum is : C = 79.5 to 87.1%; H = 11.5 to 14.8%; S = 0.1 to
3.5%, N and O = 0.1 to 0.5%.
Petroleums are graded according to the following phsio-chemical properties :
(a) Specific gravity,
(b) Calorific value,
(c) Fish point or ignition point,
(d) Viscosity,
(e) Sulphur contents,
(f) Moisture and sediment content, and
(g) Specific heat and coefficient of expansion.
Classification of Petroleum
The chemical nature of crude petroleum varies with the part of the world in which
it is found. They appear, however, to be three principal verities.
Paraffinic Base Type Crude Petroleum
This type of petroleum is mainly composed of the saturated hydrocarbons
from CH4 to C35 H72 and a little of the napthenes and aromatics. The
hydrocarbons from C18 H38 to C35 H72 are sometimes called waxes.
43
Applied Thermal Asphalitc Base Type Crude Petroleum
Engineering
It contains mainly cycloparaffins or napthenes with smaller amount of
parffins and aromatic hydrocarbons.
Mixed Base Type Crude Petroleum
It contains both paraffinic and asphaltic hydrocarbons and are generally rich
in semi-solid waxes.
Manufactured liquid fuels include Gasoline, Diesel oil, Kerosene, Heavy oil, Naptha,
Lubricating oils, etc. These are obtained mostly by fractional distillation of crude
petroleum or liquefaction of coal.
Gasoline or Petrol and its Characteristics
The straight run gasoline is obtained either from distillation of crude petroleum or
by synthesis. It contains some undesirable unsaturated straight chain hydrocarbons
and sulphur compounds. It has boiling range of 40-120oC.
The, unsaturated hydrocarbons get oxidized and polymerized, thereby causing
gum and sludge formation on storing. On the other hand, sulphur compounds lead
to corrosion of internal combustion engine and at the same time they adversely
affect tetraethyl lead, which is generally added to gasoline for better ignition
properties.
The sulphur compounds from gasoline are generally removed by treating it with an
alkaline solution sodium plumbite. Olefins and colouring matter of gasoline are
usually removed by percolating through ‘Fuller’s earth’ which absorbs
preferentially only the colours and olefine. It is used in air-crafts. It is also used as
motor fuel, in dry-cleaning and as a solvent.
Some of the characteristics of an ideal gasoline are the following :
(a) It must be cheap and readily available.
(b) It must burn clean and produce no corrosion, etc. on combustion.
(c) It should mix readily with air and afford uniform manifold
distribution, i.e. should easily vaporize.
(d) It must be knock resistant.
(e) It should be pre-ignite easily.
(f) It must have a high calorific value.
Diesel Fuel and its Characteristics
The diesel fuel or gas oil is obtained between 250-320oC during the fractional
distillation of crude petroleum. This oil generally contains 85% C. 12% H. Its
calorific value is about 11,000 kcal/kg.
The suitability of a diesel fuel is determined by its cetane value. Diesel fuels
consist of longer hydrocarbons and have low values of ash, sediment, water and
sulphalt contents.
The main characteristics of a diesel fuel is that it should easily ignite below
compression temperature. The hydrocarbon molecules in a diesel fuel should be,
as far as possible, the straight-chain ones, with a minimum admixture of aromatic
and side-chain hydrocarbon molecules.
It is used in diesel engines as heating oil and for cracking to get gasoline.
Kerosene Oil and its Characteristics
Kerosene oil is obtained between 180-250oC during fractional distillation of crude
44 petroleum. It is used as an illuminant, jet engine fuel, tractor fuel, and for
preparing laboratory gas. With the development of jet engine, kerosene has Types of Fuels and
become a material of far greater importance than it is used to be. When kerosene is their Characteristics
used in domestic appliances, it is always vaporized before combustion. By using a
fair excess of air it burns with a smokeless blue flame.
Heavy Oil and its Characteristics
It is a fraction obtained between 320-400oC during fractional distillation of crude
petroleum. This oil on refractionation gives :
(a) Lubricating oils which are used as lubricants.
(b) Petroleum-jelly (Vaseline) which is used as lubricants in medicines
and in cosmetics.
(c) Greases which are used as lubricants.
(d) Paraffin wax which is used in candles, boot polishes, wax paper,
tarpolin cloth and for electrical insulation purposes.
3.5 GASEOUS FUELS AND THEIR

CHARACTERISTICS
Gaseous fuels occur in nature, besides being manufactured from solid and liquid fuels.
The advantages and disadvantages of gaseous fuels are given below :
Advantages
Gaseous fuels due to erase and flexibility of their applications, possess the
following advantages over solid or liquid fuels :
(a) They can be conveyed easily through pipelines to the actual place of
need, thereby eliminating manual labour in transportation.
(b) They can be lighted at ease.
(c) They have high heat contents and hence help us in having higher
temperatures.
(d) They can be pre-heated by the heat of hot waste gases, thereby
affecting economy in heat.
(e) Their combustion can readily by controlled for change in demand like
oxidizing or reducing atmosphere, length flame, temperature, etc.
(f) They are clean in use.
(g) They do not require any special burner.
(h) They burn without any shoot, or smoke and ashes.
(i) They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.
Disadvantages
(a) Very large storage tanks are needed.
(b) They are highly inflammable, so chances of fire hazards in their use is high.
Natural gas is generally associated with petroleum deposits and is obtained from wells
dug in the oil-bearing regions. The approximate composition of natural gas is :
CH4 = 70.9%, C2H6 = 5.10%, H2 = 3%, CO + CO2 = 22%
The calorific value varies from 12,000 to 14,000 kcal/m3. It is an excellent domestic fuel
and is conveyed in pipelines over very large distances. In America, it is available to a
great extent, and so, is quite popular as a domestic fuel. It is now used in manufacture of
chemicals by synthetic process. 45
Applied Thermal It is a colourless gas and is non-poisonous. Its specific gravity is usually between 0.57
Engineering to 0.7.
Manufactured gases are obtained form solid and liquid fuels. Some of the important
manufactured gaseous fuels whose characteristics are discussed in the following sections
are coal gas, blast furnace gas, water gas, producer gas and oil gas.
Coal Gas its Characteristics
Coal gas is obtained when it is carbonized or heated in absence of air at about
1300oC in either coke ovens or gas-making retorts. In gas making retort process
coal is fed in closed silica retorts, which are then heated to about 1300oC by
burning producer gas and air mixture.
1
C+ O2 → CO + 29.5 kcal
2
Coal gas is a colourless gas having a characteristic odour. It is lighter than air
and burns with a long smoky flame. Its average composition is : H2 = 47%,
CH4 = 32%, CO = 7%, C2H2 = 2%, C2H4 = 3%, N2 = 4%, CO2 = 1% and
rest = 4%. Its calorific value is about 4,900 kcal/m3.
It is used as (a) illuminant in cities and town, (b) a fuel, and (c) in metallurgical
operations for providing reducing atmosphere.
Blast Furnace Gas and its Characteristics
It is a by product flue gas obtained during the reduction of ion ore by coke in the
blast furnace. Its calorific value is about 1,000 kcal/m3. It contains about 20-25%
carbon monoxide along with CO2, N2, etc. About 1/3 of this gas is used for
preheating air used in blast furnace itself; while the remaining 2/3rd is available for
use in boilers or after cleaning in gas engines. It is also used for burning in a
special type of stoves (called Cowper’s stove) where the furnace is preheated.
This gas contains much dust and is usually cleaned before use by dust settlers,
cyclones or electrolytic precipitators.
Water Gas and its Characteristics
Water gas is essentially a mixture of combustible gases CO and H2 with a little
fraction of non-combustible gases. It is made by passing alternatively steam and
little air through a bed of red hot coal or coke maintained at about 900 to 1000oC
in a rector, which consists of a steel vessel about 3 m wide and 4 m in height. It is
lined inside with fire-bricks. It has a cup and cone feeder at the top and an opening
at the top for the exit of water gas. At the base, it is provided with inlet pipes for
passing air and steam.
Reactions
Supplied steam reacts with red hot coke (or coal) at 900-1000oC to form CO
and H2.
C + H2O → CO + H2 – 29 kcal
C + O2 → CO2 + 97 kcal
Composition
The average composition of water gas is : H2 = 51%; CO = 41%; N2 = 4%;
CO2 = 4%. Its calorific value is about 2,800 kcal/m3.
Uses
It is used as (a) a source of hydrogen gas, (b) an illuminating gas, and
(c) a fuel gas.
46
Producer Gas and its Characteristics Types of Fuels and
Producer gas is essentially a mixture of combustible gases carbon monoxide and
hydrogen associated with non-combustible gases N2, CO2, etc. It is prepared by
passing air mixed with little steam (about 0.35 kg/kg of coal) over a red hot coal or
coke bed maintained at about 1100oC in a special reactor called gas producer. It
consists of a steel vessel about 3 m in diameter and 4 m in height. The vessel is
lined inside with fire bricks. It is provided with a cup and cone feeder at the top
and a side opening for the exit of producer gas. At the base it has an inlet for
passing air and steam. The producer at the base is also provided with an exit for
the ash formed.
Reactions
The gas production reactions can be divided into four zones as follows :
Ash Zone
The lowest zone consists of mainly of ash, and therefore, it is known
as ash zone.
Combustion Zone
The zone next to the ash zone is known as oxidation or combustion
zone. Here the carbon burns and forms CO and CO2. The temperature
of this zone is about 1100oC. The following reactions take place.
C + O2 → CO2 + 94 kcal
1
C+ O 2 → CO + 29.5 kcal
2
Reduction Zone
Here carbon dioxide and steam combines with red hot carbon and
liberates free hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The reactions are :
CO2 + C → 2CO – 94 kcal
C + H2O → CO + H2 → 29 kcal
C + 2H2O → CO2 + 2H2 – 19 kcal
All these reduction reactions are endothermic, so, the temperature in
the reduction zone falls to 1000oC.
Distillation Zone
In this zone (400 – 800oC) the incoming coal is heated by outgoing
gases by giving sensible heat to the coal. The heat given by the gases
and heat radiated from the reduction zone helps to distillate the fuel
thereby volatile matter of coal is added to the outgoing gas.
Composition
The average composition of producer gas is CO = 22.3%, H2 = 8.12%;
N2 = 52.55%; CO2 = 3%. Its calorific value is about 1,300 kcal/m3.
Uses
It is cheap, clean and easily preparable gas and is used (i) for heating
open-hearth furnaces (in steel and glass manufacture), muffle furnaces,
retorts (used in coke and coal gas manufacture), etc. and (iii) as a reducing
agent in metallurgical operations.
Oil Gas and its Characteristics
Oil gas is obtained by cracking kerosene oil. Oil in a thin steam is allowed to fall
on a stout red hot cast iron retort, which is heated in coal fired furnace. The
47
Applied Thermal resulting gaseous mixture passes out through a bonet cover to a hydraulic main, a
Engineering tank containing water. Here tar gets condensed. Then at the testing cap, the proper
cracking of oil is estimated from the colour of the gas produced. A good oil gas
should have a golden colour. By proper adjusting the supply of air, gas of required
colour can be obtained. The gas is finally stored over water in gas holders.
Composition
The average composition of oil gas is : CH4 = 25.30%; H2 = 50-55%;
CO = 10.12%; CO2 = 3%. Its calorific value is about 6,600 kcal/m3.
Uses
It is used as laboratory gas.
SAQ 1
(a) What is the difference between natural and manufactured fuels?
(b) What are the merits and demerits of solid fuels?
(c) What are the main constituents of wood?
(d) What is the difference between ultimate analysis and proximate analysis of
coal?
(e) Mention the uses of different types of coal.
(f) What are the characteristics of coke and briquette fuels?
(g) Mention the composition of crude petroleum.
(h) Mention the uses of different types of manufactured liquid fuels.
(i) Mention the origin and composition of natural gas.
(j) Mention the characteristics of the following gaseous fuels :
(i) Coal gas,
(ii) Water gas,
(iii) Producer gas, and
(iv) Blast furnace gas.
3.6 SUMMARY
Let us summarise what we have learnt in this unit. In this unit, we have discussed in
detail the types of fuels and their characteristics.
The fuel is a substance which when once raised to its ignition temperature continues to
burn if sufficient oxygen or air is available. The main constituents of any fuel are carbon
and hydrogen. These constituents are called combustibles. The calorific value of a fuel is
amount of heat liberated by its complete combustion. For solid and liquid fuels, calorific
value is expressed in kJ/kg, where as for gaseous fuels it is expressed as kJ/m3. We have
48 learnt various types of fuels and their characteristics.
Types of Fuels and
3.7 KEY WORDS their Characteristics
Fuel : A fuel is a substance which when once raised to

its ignition temperature continues to burn if
sufficient oxygen or air is available.
Calorific Value of Fuel : The calorific value of a fuel is amount of heat
liberated by its complete combustion.
Bagasse : The residue of sugarcane is called a bagasse.
3.8 ANSWER TO SAQs

Refer the preceding text for all the Answers to SAQs.
49
INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCTION AND OPERATION MANAGEMENT
1.7.2 Objectives of Operations Management

Objectives of operations management can be categorised into customer service and resource
utilisation.
CUSTOMER SERVICE
The first objective of operating systems is the customer serivce to the satisfaction of customer
wants. Therefore, customer service is a key objective of operations management. The operating
system must provide something to a specification which can satisfy the customer in terms of cost
and timing. Thus, primary objective can be satisfied by providing the ‘right thing at a right price
at the right time’.
These aspects of customer service—specification, cost and timing—are described for four
functions in Table 1.2. They are the principal sources of customer satisfaction and must, therefore,
be the principal dimension of the customer service objective for operations managers.
TABLE 1.2 Aspects of customer service
Principal Principal customer wants

function Primary considerations Other considerations
Manufacture Goods of a given, requested or Cost, i.e., purchase price or cost of obtaining
goods.
acceptable specification Timing, i.e., delivery delay from order or request
to receipt of goods.
Transport Management of a given, requested Cost, i.e., cost of movements. Timing, i.e.,
or acceptable specification 1. Duration or time to move.
2. Wait or delay from requesting to its commen-
cement.
Supply Goods of a given, requested or Cost, i.e., purchase price or cost of obtaining
acceptable specification goods.
Timing, i.e., delivery delay from order or request
to receipt of goods.
Service Treatment of a given, requested or Cost, i.e., cost of movements.
acceptable specification Timing, i.e.,
1. Duration or time required for treatment.
2. Wait or delay from requesting treatment to
its commencement.
Generally an organization will aim reliably and consistently to achieve certain standards and
operations manager will be influential in attempting to achieve these standards. Hence, this
objective will influence the operations manager’s decisions to achieve the required customer
service.
RESOURCE UTILISATION
Another major objective of operating systems is to utilise resources for the satisfaction of
customer wants effectively, i.e., customer service must be provided with the achievement of
effective operations through efficient use of resources. Inefficient use of resources or inadequate
customer service leads to commercial failure of an operating system.
Operations management is concerned essentially with the utilisation of resources, i.e., obtaining
maximum effect from resources or minimising their loss, under utilisation or waste. The extent
of the utilisation of the resources’ potential might be expressed in terms of the proportion of
available time used or occupied, space utilisation, levels of activity, etc. Each measure indicates
the extent to which the potential or capacity of such resources is utilised. This is referred as the
objective of resource utilisation.
Operations management is also concerned with the achievement of both satisfactory customer
service and resource utilisation. An improvement in one will often give rise to deterioration in the
other. Often both cannot be maximised, and hence a satisfactory performance must be achieved
on both objectives. All the activities of operations management must be tackled with these two
objectives in mind, and many of the problems will be faced by operations managers because of
this conflict. Hence, operations managers must attempt to balance these basic objectives.
Table 1.3 summarises the twin objectives of operations management. The type of balance
established both between and within these basic objectives will be influenced by market
considerations, competitions, the strengths and weaknesses of the organization, etc. Hence, the
operations managers should make a contribution when these objectives are set.
TABLE 1.3 The twin objectives of operations management
The customer service objective. The resource utilisation objective. To achieve

To provide agreed/adequate levels of customer adequate levels of resource utilisation (or
service (and hence customer satisfaction) by productivity) e.g., to achieve agreed levels of
providing goods or services with the right utilisation of materials, machines and labour.
specification, at the right cost and at the right time.
1.8 MANAGING GLOBAL OPERATIONS

The term ‘globalization’ describes businesses’ deployment of facilities and operations around the
world. Globalization can be defined as a process in which geographic distance becomes a factor
of diminishing importance in the establishment and maintenance of cross border economic, political
and socio-cultural relations. It can also be defined as worldwide drive toward a globalized
economic system dominated by supranational corporate trade and banking institutions that are not
accountable to democratic processes or national governments.
There are four developments, which have spurred the trend toward globalization. These are:
1. Improved transportation and communication technologies;
2. Opened financial systems;
3. Increased demand for imports; and
4. Reduced import quotas and other trade barriers.
When a firm sets up facilities abroad it involve some added complexities in its operation.
Global markets impose new standards on quality and time. Managers should not think about
domestic markets first and then global markets later, rather it could be think globally and act
locally. Also, they must have a good understanding of their competitors. Some other important
challenges of managing multinational operations include other languages and customs, different
management style, unfamiliar laws and regulations, and different costs.
Managing global operations would focus on the following key issues:
l To acquire and properly utilize the following concepts and those related to global operations,
supply chain, logistics, etc.

l To associate global historical events to key drivers in global operations from different
perspectives.
l To develop criteria for conceptualization and evaluation of different global operations.
l To associate success and failure cases of global operations to political, social, economical
and technological environments.

l To envision trends in global operations.
l To develop an understanding of the world vision regardless of their country of origin,
residence or studies in a respectful way of perspectives of people from different races,

studies, preferences, religion, politic affiliation, place of origin, etc.
1.9 SCOPE OF PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Production and operations management concern with the conversion of inputs into outputs, using
physical resources, so as to provide the desired utilities to the customer while meeting the other
organizational objectives of effectiveness, efficiency and adoptability. It distinguishes itself from
other functions such as personnel, marketing, finance, etc., by its primary concern for ‘conversion
by using physical resources.’ Following are the activities which are listed under production and
operations management functions:
1. Location of facilities
2. Plant layouts and material handling
3. Product design
4. Process design
5. Production and planning control
6. Quality control
7. Materials management
8. Maintenance management.
LOCATION OF FACILITIES
Location of facilities for operations is a long-term capacity decision which involves a long term
commitment about the geographically static factors that affect a business organization. It is an
important strategic level decision-making for an organization. It deals with the questions such as
‘where our main operations should be based?’
The selection of location is a key-decision as large investment is made in building plant and
machinery. An improper location of plant may lead to waste of all the investments made in plant
and machinery equipments. Hence, location of plant should be based on the company’s expansion
Name:
Electrical Charges
If an object has more positive charges ( ) Example:
than negative charges ( ), its electrical
charge is positive ( ).
If an object has more negative charges ( )

than positive charges ( ), its electrical
charge is negative ( ).
If an object has the same number of positive

( ) and negative ( ) charges, it has no
electrical charge or is neutral. Electrical charge: positive charge
Count the positive and negative charges in each picture. Write positive charge,
negative charge, or no charge on each line.
1. 2.
electrical charge: electrical charge:
3. 4.
5. 6.
9
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Name: ____________________________________
Static Electricity
Rubbing a balloon with wool cloth will create static electricity charges.
In Picture 1, does the balloon have a positive charge, negative charge, or no charge? ______________
In Picture 1, does the cloth have a positive charge, negative charge, or no charge? __________________
In Picture 2, does the balloon have a positive charge, negative charge, or no charge? ______________
In Picture 2, does the cloth have a positive charge, negative charge, or no charge? ______________
If you place small pieces of tissue paper near the balloon in Picture 2, they would probably stick to the
balloon. Explain why.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

10
Circuits
A circuit always needs a power source, such as a battery,

with wires connected to both the positive (+)
and negative (-) ends. A battery is also known as a cell.
A circuit can also contain other electrical components, such
as bulbs, buzzers or motors, which allow electricity to pass
through.
Electricity will only travel around a circuit that is complete.
That means it has no gaps.
Incomplete circuit
Complete circuit
Symbols
We use these symbols to draw diagrams of circuits:
20
Switches
When a switch is open (off), there is a gap in the circuit.

Electricity can not travel around the circuit.
When a switch is closed (on), it makes the circuit
complete. Electricity can travel around the circuit.
Switch open (off). Bulb doesn't light.
Switch closed (on). Bulb lights.
21
Changing circuits
Adding more batteries to a simple circuit will increase

the electrical energy, which will make a bulb brighter.
More bulbs
Adding more bulbs to a
simple circuit will make the
bulbs dimmer.
Longer wires Lengthening the wires in a simple

circuit will make the bulb dimmer.
22
CLASS NOTES---
Atom
An atom is the smallest particle characterizing an
element. All matter in the universe is made up of
a combination of different atoms. Atoms are made
up of protons, neutrons and electrons.
Electrical charge
An electrical charge is produced when an atom loses
or gains an electron. When there are more electrons
than protons, the charge is negative. When there
are fewer electrons than protons, the charge is
positive. The unit of electrical charge is the coulomb
(symbol: C).
Electrical current
An electrical current is the movement of negative
electrical charges (electrons) through a conductor
(electrical wire, metal foil, etc.). In an electrical circuit,
the current flows from the point where the electrical
potential is highest to the point where it is lowest.
Electrical circuit
An electrical circuit is the complete loop through
which an electrical current flows. It is made up of
a series of electrical components and conductors
(e.g., batteries, electrical wires, light bulbs, etc.).
The current only flows in an electrical circuit when
the path is completely closed, forming a loop.
1
Types of electrical circuit
There are two types of electrical circuit, parallel
circuits and series circuits. Parallel circuits provide
several different paths for the electrical current.
Series circuits force the current through a single
path; in other words, the electricity flows through
all the electrical components of a series circuit one
after the other.
Conductors of electricity
Conductors are bodies or materials that allow an
electrical current to pass through them. Copper,
aluminum, brass, zinc, iron and pewter are examples
of metal that conduct electricity well. Salt water is
also a good conductor.
Resistance
Resistance is the part of an electrical circuit that resists
the flow of electricity (for example, by transforming
it into heat or light, as in a light bulb or a buzz er).
In an electrical circuit, the presence of a resistor limits
the current and prevents damage related to short
circuits. The unit used to measure resistance is the
ohm (symbol: Ω).
Ampere
The ampere (symbol: A) is the unit used to measure
current intensity.
2
Voltage
Voltage (symbol: V) is the unit used to measure
electrical tension, also called “difference of electrical
potential.”
Short circuit
A short circuit occurs when two live (i.e., carrying
current) conductors accidentally come into contact,
either directly or through a conducting object (e.g.,
when the blade of an electric lawn mower cuts the
electrical wire). When this happens, the current can
flow with very little restriction because the resistance
of the loop formed by the two conductors is very weak.
The high amount of current heats up the wires and
can cause a fire. Fuses and circuit breakers detect
unusually high currents and break the circuit, which
helps to prevent fires.
Battery
Batteries are reserves of chemical energy that can
be transformed into electrical energy. Small electric
cells (commonly called batteries, as in AA batteries)
are examples of simple batteries for everyday use.
Insulator
Insulators, such as wood and plastic, are materials
that do not easily transmit heat, cold or electricity.
Electrical wires are covered with an insulator to
prevent electrical shocks and short circuits that could
cause fires.
3
People
Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931), a U.S.
inventor who designed the first electric light bulb.
He also invented many other devices, including
the phonograph, ancestor of the gramophone.
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), an Italian physicist,

invented the first electric battery.
4
1
AC M E
STAPLE
STAPLE
Electricity from the wall outlets in
your house powers your television,
computer, lights, and microwave.
////////
Cell phones, flashlights, and even
a car’s headlights are powered by
Name: the electricity in batteries.
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2 3
light
circuit box
switch
outlet
wire
The picture above shows a circuit.
Electricity flows from the negative
STAPLE
STAPLE
side of a battery, through the wires,

The type of electricity that is used to and lights the bulb. The electricity
power things we use is called current continues to travel around to the
electricity. Current electricity is positive side of the battery.
electricity that flows through wires.
The path that electricity follows is Draw arrows on the picture to show
called a circuit. the path of the electricity.
5
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perspectives.



3. Product design
4. Process design
6. Quality control
plan and policy, diversification plan for the products, changing sources of raw materials and many
other factors. The purpose of the location study is to find the optimal location that will results
in the greatest advantage to the organization.
PLANT LAYOUT AND MATERIAL HANDLING
Plant layout refers to the physical arrangement of facilities. It is the configuration of departments,
work centres and equipment in the conversion process. The overall objective of the plant layout
is to design a physical arrangement that meets the required output quality and quantity most
economically.
According to James Moore, “Plant layout is a plan of an optimum arrangement of
facilities including personnel, operating equipment, storage space, material handling
equipments and all other supporting services along with the design of best structure
to contain all these facilities”.
‘Material Handling’ refers to the ‘moving of materials from the store room to the machine
and from one machine to the next during the process of manufacture’. It is also defined as the
‘art and science of moving, packing and storing of products in any form’. It is a specialised
activity for a modern manufacturing concern, with 50 to 75% of the cost of production. This cost
can be reduced by proper section, operation and maintenance of material handling devices.
Material handling devices increases the output, improves quality, speeds up the deliveries and
decreases the cost of production. Hence, material handling is a prime consideration in the
designing new plant and several existing plants.
PRODUCT DESIGN
Product design deals with conversion of ideas into reality. Every business organization have to
design, develop and introduce new products as a survival and growth strategy. Developing the
new products and launching them in the market is the biggest challenge faced by the organizations.
The entire process of need identification to physical manufactures of product involves three
functions: marketing, product development, manufacturing. Product development translates the
needs of customers given by marketing into technical specifications and designing the various
features into the product to these specifications. Manufacturing has the responsibility of selecting
the processes by which the product can be manufactured. Product design and development
provides link between marketing, customer needs and expectations and the activities required to
manufacture the product.
PROCESS DESIGN
Process design is a macroscopic decision-making of an overall process route for converting the
raw material into finished goods. These decisions encompass the selection of a process, choice
of technology, process flow analysis and layout of the facilities. Hence, the important decisions
in process design are to analyse the workflow for converting raw material into finished product
and to select the workstation for each included in the workflow.
PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL
Production planning and control can be defined as the process of planning the production in advance,
setting the exact route of each item, fixing the starting and finishing dates for each item, to give
production orders to shops and to follow up the progress of products according to orders.
The principle of production planning and control lies in the statement ‘First Plan Your Work
and then Work on Your Plan’. Main functions of production planning and control includes
planning, routing, scheduling, dispatching and follow-up.
Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it and who is to do
it. Planning bridges the gap from where we are, to where we want to go. It makes it possible
for things to occur which would not otherwise happen.
Routing may be defined as the selection of path which each part of the product will follow,
which being transformed from raw material to finished products. Routing determines the most
advantageous path to be followed from department to department and machine to machine till
raw material gets its final shape.
Scheduling determines the programme for the operations. Scheduling may be defined as
‘the fixation of time and date for each operation’ as well as it determines the sequence of
operations to be followed.
Fig. 1.4 Scope of production and operations management

Dispatching is concerned with the starting the processes. It gives necessary authority so
as to start a particular work, which has already been planned under ‘Routing’ and ‘Scheduling’.
Therefore, dispatching is ‘release of orders and instruction for the starting of production for any
item in acceptance with the route sheet and schedule charts’.
The function of follow-up is to report daily the progress of work in each shop in a prescribed
proforma and to investigate the causes of deviations from the planned performance.
QUALITY CONTROL
Quality Control (QC) may be defined as ‘a system that is used to maintain a desired level of
quality in a product or service’. It is a systematic control of various factors that affect the quality
of the product. Quality control aims at prevention of defects at the source, relies on effective
feed back system and corrective action procedure.
Quality control can also be defined as ‘that industrial management technique by means of which
product of uniform acceptable quality is manufactured’. It is the entire collection of activities which
ensures that the operation will produce the optimum quality products at minimum cost.
The main objectives of quality control are:
l To improve the companies income by making the production more acceptable to the
customers i.e., by providing long life, greater usefulness, maintainability, etc.

l To reduce companies cost through reduction of losses due to defects.
l To achieve interchangeability of manufacture in large scale production.
l To produce optimal quality at reduced price.
l To ensure satisfaction of customers with productions or services or high quality level, to
build customer goodwill, confidence and reputation of manufacturer.

l To make inspection prompt to ensure quality control.
l To check the variation during manufacturing.
MATERIALS MANAGEMENT
Materials management is that aspect of management function which is primarily concerned with
the acquisition, control and use of materials needed and flow of goods and services connected
with the production process having some predetermined objectives in view.
The main objectives of materials management are:
l To minimise material cost.
l To purchase, receive, transport and store materials efficiently and to reduce the related cost.
l To cut down costs through simplification, standardisation, value analysis, import substitution, etc.
l To trace new sources of supply and to develop cordial relations with them in order to
ensure continuous supply at reasonable rates.

l To reduce investment tied in the inventories for use in other productive purposes and to
develop high inventory turnover ratios.

MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT
In modern industry, equipment and machinery are a very important part of the total productive
effort. Therefore, their idleness or downtime becomes are very expensive. Hence, it is very
important that the plant machinery should be properly maintained.
The main objectives of maintenance management are:
1. To achieve minimum breakdown and to keep the plant in good working condition at the
lowest possible cost.
2. To keep the machines and other facilities in such a condition that permits them to be used
at their optimal capacity without interruption.
3. To ensure the availability of the machines, buildings and services required by other sections
of the factory for the performance of their functions at optimal return on investment.
Series & parallel circuits
There are two types of circuit we can make,
called series and parallel.
The components in a circuit are joined by wires.
if there are no branches then it's a series circuit
if there are branches it's a parallel circuit
Series circuits
In a television series, you get several episodes, one after the other. A
series circuit is similar. You get several components one after the other.
If you follow the circuit diagram from one side of the cell to the other,
you should pass through all the different components, one after the
other, without any branches.
If you put more lamps into a series circuit, the lamps will be dimmer than
before.
In a series circuit, if a lamp breaks or a component is disconnected, the
circuit is broken and all the components stop working.
Series circuits are useful if you want a

warning that one of the components in the
circuit has failed. They also use less wiring
than parallel circuits.
23
Parallel circuits
In parallel circuits different
components are connected on
different branches of the wire. If
you follow the circuit diagram
from one side of the cell to the
other, you can only pass through
all the different components if
you follow all the branches.
In a parallel circuit, if a lamp

breaks or a component is
disconnected from one
parallel wire, the
components on different
branches keep working.
And, unlike a series circuit,
the lamps stay bright if you
add more lamps in parallel.
Parallel circuits are useful if you want everything to

work, even if one component has failed. This is why
our homes are wired up with parallel circuits.
24
Name: _______________________
Series and Parallel Circuits

In a series circuit electric current has only one path to follow. All parts are connected one after
another. Electric current flows from the negative side of the battery around in a
loop to the positive side.
Draw arrows to show the path of electric current in this series circuit.
If a light bulb is missing or broken in a series circuit, will the other bulb light? Explain.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
In a parallel circuit, electric current has more than one path to follow. The electric current
can follow different paths as it flows from the negative side of the battery to the positive
side.
Draw arrows to show the different paths electric current can travel in this parallel circuit.
If a light bulb is missing or broken in a parallel circuit, will the other bulb light? Explain.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Name:
Electrical Circuits
Tell whether the light bulb or bulbs will light or will not light based on the circuit.
1. 2.
3. 4.
5. 6.
12

perspectives.



3. Product design
4. Process design
6. Quality control
plan and policy, diversification plan for the products, changing sources of raw materials and many
other factors. The purpose of the location study is to find the optimal location that will results
in the greatest advantage to the organization.
PLANT LAYOUT AND MATERIAL HANDLING
Plant layout refers to the physical arrangement of facilities. It is the configuration of departments,
work centres and equipment in the conversion process. The overall objective of the plant layout
is to design a physical arrangement that meets the required output quality and quantity most
economically.
According to James Moore, “Plant layout is a plan of an optimum arrangement of
facilities including personnel, operating equipment, storage space, material handling
equipments and all other supporting services along with the design of best structure
to contain all these facilities”.
‘Material Handling’ refers to the ‘moving of materials from the store room to the machine
and from one machine to the next during the process of manufacture’. It is also defined as the
‘art and science of moving, packing and storing of products in any form’. It is a specialised
activity for a modern manufacturing concern, with 50 to 75% of the cost of production. This cost
can be reduced by proper section, operation and maintenance of material handling devices.
Material handling devices increases the output, improves quality, speeds up the deliveries and
decreases the cost of production. Hence, material handling is a prime consideration in the
designing new plant and several existing plants.
PRODUCT DESIGN
Product design deals with conversion of ideas into reality. Every business organization have to
design, develop and introduce new products as a survival and growth strategy. Developing the
new products and launching them in the market is the biggest challenge faced by the organizations.
The entire process of need identification to physical manufactures of product involves three
functions: marketing, product development, manufacturing. Product development translates the
needs of customers given by marketing into technical specifications and designing the various
features into the product to these specifications. Manufacturing has the responsibility of selecting
the processes by which the product can be manufactured. Product design and development
provides link between marketing, customer needs and expectations and the activities required to
manufacture the product.
PROCESS DESIGN
Process design is a macroscopic decision-making of an overall process route for converting the
raw material into finished goods. These decisions encompass the selection of a process, choice
of technology, process flow analysis and layout of the facilities. Hence, the important decisions
in process design are to analyse the workflow for converting raw material into finished product
and to select the workstation for each included in the workflow.
PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL
Production planning and control can be defined as the process of planning the production in advance,
setting the exact route of each item, fixing the starting and finishing dates for each item, to give
production orders to shops and to follow up the progress of products according to orders.
The principle of production planning and control lies in the statement ‘First Plan Your Work
and then Work on Your Plan’. Main functions of production planning and control includes
planning, routing, scheduling, dispatching and follow-up.
Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it and who is to do
it. Planning bridges the gap from where we are, to where we want to go. It makes it possible
for things to occur which would not otherwise happen.
Routing may be defined as the selection of path which each part of the product will follow,
which being transformed from raw material to finished products. Routing determines the most
advantageous path to be followed from department to department and machine to machine till
raw material gets its final shape.
Scheduling determines the programme for the operations. Scheduling may be defined as
‘the fixation of time and date for each operation’ as well as it determines the sequence of
operations to be followed.
Fig. 1.4 Scope of production and operations management

Dispatching is concerned with the starting the processes. It gives necessary authority so
as to start a particular work, which has already been planned under ‘Routing’ and ‘Scheduling’.
Therefore, dispatching is ‘release of orders and instruction for the starting of production for any
item in acceptance with the route sheet and schedule charts’.
The function of follow-up is to report daily the progress of work in each shop in a prescribed
proforma and to investigate the causes of deviations from the planned performance.
QUALITY CONTROL
Quality Control (QC) may be defined as ‘a system that is used to maintain a desired level of
quality in a product or service’. It is a systematic control of various factors that affect the quality
of the product. Quality control aims at prevention of defects at the source, relies on effective
feed back system and corrective action procedure.
Quality control can also be defined as ‘that industrial management technique by means of which
product of uniform acceptable quality is manufactured’. It is the entire collection of activities which
ensures that the operation will produce the optimum quality products at minimum cost.
The main objectives of quality control are:
l To improve the companies income by making the production more acceptable to the
customers i.e., by providing long life, greater usefulness, maintainability, etc.

l To reduce companies cost through reduction of losses due to defects.
l To achieve interchangeability of manufacture in large scale production.
l To produce optimal quality at reduced price.
l To ensure satisfaction of customers with productions or services or high quality level, to
build customer goodwill, confidence and reputation of manufacturer.

l To make inspection prompt to ensure quality control.
l To check the variation during manufacturing.
MATERIALS MANAGEMENT
Materials management is that aspect of management function which is primarily concerned with
the acquisition, control and use of materials needed and flow of goods and services connected
with the production process having some predetermined objectives in view.
The main objectives of materials management are:
l To minimise material cost.
l To purchase, receive, transport and store materials efficiently and to reduce the related cost.
l To cut down costs through simplification, standardisation, value analysis, import substitution, etc.
l To trace new sources of supply and to develop cordial relations with them in order to
ensure continuous supply at reasonable rates.

l To reduce investment tied in the inventories for use in other productive purposes and to
develop high inventory turnover ratios.

MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT
In modern industry, equipment and machinery are a very important part of the total productive
effort. Therefore, their idleness or downtime becomes are very expensive. Hence, it is very
important that the plant machinery should be properly maintained.
The main objectives of maintenance management are:
1. To achieve minimum breakdown and to keep the plant in good working condition at the
lowest possible cost.
2. To keep the machines and other facilities in such a condition that permits them to be used
at their optimal capacity without interruption.
3. To ensure the availability of the machines, buildings and services required by other sections
of the factory for the performance of their functions at optimal return on investment.
CAREER TALK DELIVERED BY ENGR. K. REMI ADEJUMO MNSE
AT COVENANT UNIVERSITY, OTA, OGUN STATE. NIGERIA
ENGINEERING: ITS IMPORTANCE AND BENEFITS
PREAMBLE:
Engineering is a profession that opens doors to many careers.
Engineering takes responsibilities for the safety of people and environment.
Engineering offers a rewarding and lucrative career.
Engineers’ prestige in the society is their creativity, innovation, passion, ability to focus and
always inquisitive and curious to finding solutions to problems.
A career in engineering affords the opportunity to make a difference, afford them job security
and trying out new technology.
Engineering as a profession always seek optional solutions to problems, makes judgments’ and
provide explanations to their choices.
Good communication is an important way of learning, which helps engineers move from being
a novice to experts and allow them gain new professional knowledge and abilities.
Engineering and technology may not be the easiest area of study, but they are subjects that
continue to be in demand and because they are challenging, those studying them stands out
from crowd as they will also find enjoyment and satisfaction throughout their career.
WHY STUDY ENGINEERING:
Engineering study is an area that is guaranteed to continue to change and evolve so that, in a
way, even experienced professionals are continually hearing and refreshing their knowledge.
For many of us in the field, it is this constant change and it’s appealing.
An engineering based education allows student’s exposure to various technical subjects and
skills sets that develop skills that are transferable to most industries such as problem solving,
decision making, innovation, project management, team working and communication which
will contribute to a rapidly changing technological environment.
An engineering based education also gives you a great base to branch into different sectors and
also work your way up to high level management in finance, investment banking, and human
recourses. I.T, business development and administration areas because the industrial and
economic success of every nation is rooted firmly in its manufacturing and engineering base
and the skills and ingenuity of it’s professional engineers.
Green engineering is the most often cited example of an area that needs fresh blood, but
this often conjures up images solely of wind turbines, solar power but in reality, there are
opportunities throughout the power industry looking at ways to increase energy efficiencies and
develop other sustainable sources such as biomass and hydro power.
Safety and security is another key area for growth whether it is physical defenses or cyber
warfare.
Dealing with the world’s ageing population will also be a challenge for engineers over the
coming years from developing new health care technologies to creating the types of advanced
robotics that we see in developed countries like Japan to help elderly citizens.
A key skill is to be inter and cross-disciplinary in approach bringing to bear all of the requisite
approaches to problem solving.
Find below some benefits of studying and becoming an engineer:
BENEFITS OF STUDYING AND BECOMING AN ENGINEER:
1. Job Satisfaction
2. Variety of Career Opportunities
3. Challenging Work
4. Intellectual Development
5. Potential to Benefit Society
6. Financial Security
7. Prestige
8. Professional Environment
9. Technological and Scientific Discovery
10. Creative Thinking
1. JOB SATISFACTION
Studies show that, by far, the number-one cause of unhappiness among people all over the world is job
dissatisfaction. Thus, it is important to find a career that provides you with enjoyment and satisfaction. After all,
you might spend 40 or so years working eight hours or more a day, five or six days a week, 50 weeks a year. Do
you want to dislike every minute of that time, or would you rather do something that you enjoy? For numerous
reasons, some of which are listed below, engineering provides a satisfying field of work.
2. VARIETY OF CAREER OPPORTUNITIES
What do Neil Armstrong, Jimmy Carter, and Alfred Hitchcock have in common? Though they eventually chose
very different careers - one as an astronaut, one as a president, and one as a filmmaker - they all started with an
engineering education.
An engineering degree offers a wide range of career possibilities. Within the practice of engineering, there is an
enormous variety of job functions.
 If you are imaginative and creative, design engineering may be for you.
 If you like laboratories and conducting experiments, you might consider test engineering.
 If you like to organize and expedite projects, look into being a development engineer.
 If you are persuasive and like working with people, consider a career in sales or field service
engineering.
The analytical skills and technological expertise you develop as an engineering student can also be put to use in
many other fields. For example, as an engineering graduate, you could go on to study medicine or law. You
could become a politician and use your knowledge of technology and science to set important national policy.
You could also become an entrepreneur in a related field such as construction, manufacturing, or consulting. Or
you could combine engineering and business skills in a career as a technical manager or a salesperson for a
high-tech company.
.3. CHALLENGING WORK.
If you like challenges, engineering could be for you. In the engineering work world, there is no shortage of
challenging problems. Any engineering manager will tell you that he or she has a huge backlog of problems that
need to be solved.
Generally, "real world" engineering problems are quite different from most of the problems you will solve in
school. In school, most problems have a single, correct answer. When you get into the engineering work world,
virtually all problems will be open-ended. There will be no single answer, no answer in the back of the book, no
professor to tell you that you are right or wrong. You will be required to devise a solution and persuade others
that your solution is the best one.
4. INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT
An engineering education will "exercise" your brain, developing your ability to think logically and to solve
problems. These are skills that will be valuable throughout your life and not only when you are solving
engineering problems. For example, your problem-solving skills can help you undertake tasks such as planning
a vacation, finding a job, organizing a fund-raiser, purchasing a house, or writing a book.
5. BENEFIT SOCIETY
Just about everything that engineers do benefits society. Engineers develop transportation systems that help
people and products move about easily. Engineers design the buildings that we live and work in, the systems
that deliver our water and electricity, the machinery that produces our food, and the medical equipment that
keeps us healthy.
Depending upon your value system, you may not view all things that engineers do as benefiting people. For
example, engineers design military equipment like missiles, tanks, bombs, artillery, and fighter airplanes.
Engineers are also involved in the production of pesticides, cigarettes, liquor, and asbestos.
As an engineer, however, you can choose to work on projects that clearly benefit society, such as cleaning up
the environment, developing prosthetic aids for disabled persons, developing clean and efficient transportation
systems, finding new sources of energy, alleviating the world's hunger problems, and increasing the standard of
living in underdeveloped countries.
6. FINANCIAL SECURITY
While financial security should not be your only reason for choosing a career in engineering, if you decide to
become an engineer you will be well paid. Engineering graduates receive the highest starting salary of any
discipline.
7. PRESTIGE
Engineers play a primary role in sustaining our nation's international competitiveness, maintaining our standard
of living, ensuring a strong national security, and protecting public safety. Furthermore, most people know that
engineering requires hard work and strong technical skills. As a member of such a respected profession, you
will receive a high amount of prestige.
8. PROFESSIONAL ENVIRONMENT
As an engineer, you will work in a professional environment in which you will be treated with respect and have
a certain amount of freedom in choosing your work. You will be also be in a position to influence what happens
at your company.
In most cases, you will receive adequate work space and the tools you need to do your work, including the latest
computer hardware and software. You will probably also receive the secretarial and technical support staff you
need to get your work done. After all, your employer will benefit from making sure you have what you need to
do a good job.
Most likely, you will not be required to punch a time clock. Rather, you will be judged on your productivity - on
the quality and quantity of your work. You can usually expect to receive an annual merit salary increase, which
will be based on your manager's evaluation of your performance.
You will have the opportunity to learn and grow through both on-the-job training and formal training. Often,
your immediate supervisor will closely mentor you and help you tackle progressively more challenging tasks.
You will learn from experienced engineers in your organization and will be offered seminars and short courses
to increase your knowledge. Most likely, your employer will have an educational reimbursement program that
will pay for you to take classes toward a graduate degree or for professional development.
As a professional, you will receive liberal benefits, which will typically include a retirement plan, life insurance,
health insurance, sick leave, paid vacation, holidays, and savings or profit-sharing plans.
9. TECHNOLOGICAL AND SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY
Do you know why golf balls have dimples on them? Do you understand how the loads are transmitted to the
supports on a suspension bridge? Do you know what a laser is or how a computer works? When you drive on a
mountain road, do you look at the guard rails and understand why they were designed the way they were? Do
you know why split-level houses experience more damage in earthquakes? An engineering education can help
you understand how these, and many other things in the world, work.
Furthermore, an understanding of technology will provide you with a better understanding of many issues
facing our society. For example: Why don’t we have zero-emission electric vehicles rather than highly polluting
cars powered by internal combustion engines? Should we have stopped building nuclear reactors? What will we
use for energy when oil runs out? Is it technically feasible to develop a “Star Wars” defense system that will
protect us against nuclear attack? Can we produce enough food to eliminate world hunger? Do high-voltage
power lines cause cancer in people who live or play near them?
10. CREATIVE THINKING
Engineering is by its very nature a creative profession. When practicing engineers develop solutions to open-
ended, real-world problems, they must employ conscious and subconscious mental processing as well as
divergent and convergent thinking.
Because we are in a time of rapid social and technological changes, the need for engineers to think creatively is
greater now than ever before. Only through creativity can we cope with and adapt to these changes. If you like
to question, explore, invent, discover, and create, then engineering could be the ideal profession for you.
WISHING YOU ALL THE BEST.
THANKS.
Preparing a Business Plan
The business plan is an important document with two essential functions. It aims to convince
possible investors and other stakeholders of the potential of a new business. It also works as a
guide for the company in its first year or two of operation.
The business plan normally starts with a title page and outline of the new business. It includes
the name, logo and mission statement of the activity. There are normally three main parts to
the business plan.
First, the Marketing Plan. This includes a description of the products and services, an analysis
of the market, a survey of the competition and a basic outline of promotion and selling
strategies.
The next part is the Financial Plan, which includes details of startup costs, a profit and loss
forecast for the first year or two (or maybe three) and then a calculation of the break-even
point. This is to show when the business expects to begin making a profit.
Then there is usually a People and Action Plan. This explains who is involved, and states their
roles and responsibilities, their experience and abilities. The Action Plan explains what will
happen in the important first year of the business, i.e. during the start-up phase.
Finally, the business plan has some information on the location, perhaps with photographs and
architect's drawings. At the end there are the Appendices, containing any additional and
detailed information or support material.
The Fuel Cell
The fuel cell is actually quite an old technology having been invented by the British
scientist William Grove in 1843. In this apparatus, electrical power is produced in a
simple yet intriguing way. There are two electrodes, the anode and the cathode, and
in the middle of both there is a membrane ion conductor or electrolyte. Hydrogen gas
is fed continuously over the anode while oxygen from the air passes over the
cathode. The electrolyte is a partition which ensures that the two gases do not come
into direct contact with each other. Through the chemical process in the fuel cell,
hydrogen splits into hydrogen ions and electrons. The electrons then pass through an
external circuit to the cathode depicted by this glowing bulb. Electrical current is
produced in this way.
The hydrogen ions meanwhile pass through the membrane. They and the electrons
then react with oxygen at the cathode to produce water or steam. Thus heat is also
produced, and this too can be utilized.
The electricity produced is direct current, which can be converted into alternating
current if required. In order to create large volumes of power, fuel cells are connected
in series to form a stack.
The beauty of the fuel cell is that the only waste product is water, although it should
be stressed that the waste depends on how hydrogen is obtained to begin with. If it is
derived from sources such as natural gas, CO, will also be produced.
Fuel cells can primarily be used in remote areas where there is no connection to the
grid. But developments in this technology could mean that heat and electrical power
from fuel cells will also be harnessed in the future in cities, in decentralized energy-
supply systems for homes, offices and factories. We could even have them in our
cellars.
So is this the key to a vision of clean, cheap, plentiful energy supply? Does it spell
the end for the power plant as we know it? This is unlikely as the volumes of power
needed cannot be generated by the fuel cell alone. But there will be changes, and in
twenty to thirty years' time fuel cells could be common in energy supply as well as in
vehicles.
UNIT 17
Exercise 1
1 Transistors
2 semiconductor
3 electronic
4 receives
5 storage
6 reliability
7 microprocessors
8 communication
Exercise 2
l amplified, amplifier
2 entertainment
3 generation
4 integrated
5 reliable
6 storage
7 transmission
8 stored
9 Transmission, modulation
10 emitted
Exercise3
a Transistors
b Resistors
e electrons
d Diodes
e Capacitors
f integrated circuits
g semiconductor
h silicon
i germanium
j devices
Accepted Quality Limit (AQL)
In a continuing series of lots, a quality level that, for the purpose of sampling inspection, is
the limit of a satisfactory process average.
APQP (Advanced product quality planning) A framework of procedures used to develop

products in the automotive industry.
Big Q, little q: A term used to contrast the difference between managing for quality in all
business processes and products (big Q) and managing for quality in a limited capacity—
traditionally only in factory products and processes (little q).
Complaint tracking: Collecting data, disseminating them to appropriate persons for

resolution, monitoring complaint resolution progress and communicating results.
Control chart: A time sequenced chart with upper and lower control limits on which values
of some statistical measure for a series of samples or subgroups are plotted. The chart
frequently shows a central line to help detect a trend of plotted values toward either control
limit.
Control limits: The natural boundaries of a process within specified confidence levels,
expressed as the upper control limit (UCL) and the lower control limit (LCL).
Control plan (CP): Written descriptions of the systems for controlling part and process
quality by addressing the key characteristics and engineering requirements.
FMS - Flexible Manufacturing System: Manufacturing systems that a capable of producing a

range of products on advanced machinery. Cell based manufacturing can be more cost
effective.
Kanban: A scheduling system that advises manufacturers what to produce, when to produce
and how much to produce. Devised by Toyota, the approach is based on demand creating a
“pull.” Inventory is replenished only when visual cues like an empty bin or cart show that it’s
needed.
NPD (New product development) The overall process of conceptualizing, designing, planning
and commercializing a new product. NPD is also frequently referred to as “product
development.”
NPI (New product introduction) The market launch or commercialization of a new product.
NPI takes place at the end of a successful product development project.
OEE - Overall Equipment Effectiveness: Measures how well equipment is running, quantity
of products being produced and the quantity of good output. A
Off-the-Shelf Describes an item that is procured from a supplier as-is, with no modifications.
Prototype An engineering-quality sample build of a product, typically intended to test high-

risk aspects of the design.
SOP (Standard operating procedure) A written document or instruction detailing all steps and
activities included in a process or procedure.
TTM (Time to market) The period of time from development of a product concept to
availability of the finished product. It starts when a development project has been agreed to
and resources have been committed and ends when the final product is shipped to customers.

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Fuel Chemistry: Review of energy sources (renewable and non-

What are Different Sources of Energy?

Geothermal energy can be used by a residential unit or on a large scale by a

Hydrogen is available with water(H2O) and is most common element available on

Biomass energy is produced from organic material and is commonly used

10. Fossil Fuels (Coal, Oil and Natural Gas)

Introduction of Fuel Chemistry

Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as a main constituent,

1.2 HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Production management becomes the acceptable term from 1930s to 1950s. As

1.3 CONCEPT OF PRODUCTION

Fig. 1.1 Schematic production system

1.4 PRODUCTION SYSTEM

The production system has the following characteristics:

1.4.1 Classification of Production System

Fig. 1.2 Classification of production systems

JOB SHOP PRODUCTION

3. Work in process inventory is higher compared to continuous production.

2. Material handling is fully automated.

1.5 PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

1.5.1Objectives of Production Management

2.2 Various Forms of Energy

Stored Mechanical Energy

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 36

2.2.2 Kinetic Energy

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 37

2.2.4 Grades of Energy

2.3 Electrical Energy Basics

Directional (Direct) Current

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 38

1000 V = 1 kiloVolts (kV)

The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω)

Kilovolt Ampere (kVA)

kVAr (Reactive Power)

Kilowatt (kW) (Active Power)

Voltage x Amperes x Power factor

1.732 x Voltage x Amperes x Power factor

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 39

Calculation of electric bill for a company

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 40

3.2 Principles of Classification of Fuels

3.4 Liquid Fuels and their Characteristics

3.5 Gaseous Fuels and their Characteristics

3.2 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS

3.3 SOLID FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Type of Wood Water Sugar Fat-tar Cellular Tissue Lignin

Beach wood 12.57 2.41 0.41 45.57 39.14

Birch wood 12.48 2.65 1.14 55.62 28.21

Fir (Boot) 13.87 1.26 0.97 55.90 26.91

Pine wood 12.87 4.05 1.63 53.27 28.18

Constituents Cellular Tissue Lignin

Hydrogen 6.2 5.8-6.3

Oxygen 49.4 35.39

Element Pine Wood Birch Wood Oak Wood

C 50.05 48.45 49.8

H 6.04 5.95 5.81

O+N 43.21 45.26 44.00

Ash 0.70 0.34 0.4

Table 3.5 : Average Values of Constituents of Wood

Constituents Cellular Tissue

3.3.2 Coals and their Characteristics

3.4 LIQUID FUELS AND THEIR

3.5 GASEOUS FUELS AND THEIR