Renewable

EE8703 – RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS Department of EEE 2021-2022
UNIT – I: RENEWABLE ENERGY (RE) SOURCES

PART – A
1. What are Fossil Fuels?
Fossil fuels are buried flammable geologic deposits of organic substances such as dead
plants, and animals that got deposited under several thousand feet of silt. These deposits
decayed with the passage of time and got converted to natural gas, coal, and petroleum
due to the extreme heat and pressure inside the earth’s crust. They are also known as
non-renewable sources of energy as it takes a very long time for it to replenish.
2. Give the types of fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels are of the following types:
• Coal
• Petroleum
• Natural gas
3. Brief about the fossil fuel coal.
Coal
• It is a hard, black coloured substance made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen, and sulphur.
• The major types of coal are- anthracite, bituminous and lignite.
• Anthracite has a higher carbon concentration and is the hardest type of coal.
• Lignite has a high concentration of oxygen and hydrogen but a low
Concentration of carbon.
• Bituminous is a moderate form of coal.
• Coal is processed industrially to obtain derivatives like coke, coal tar, and coal
gas.
4. Discuss on the formation of coal.
Formation of Coal:
• The process of formation of coal is known as carbonization.
• The dense forest present in the low-lying wetland got buried in the earth
millions of years ago.
• Soil kept depositing over them and they got compressed.
• As they went deeper and deeper, they faced high temperature and pressure.
• As a result, the substances slowly got converted into coal.
5. What are the uses of coal?
St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 1

Uses of Coal
• Coal was used to produce steam in the railway engines initially.
• It is used to cook food.
• It is used to generate electricity in thermal plants.
• It is used in industries as fuel.
6. Brief on petroleum
Petroleum
• It is a clear, oily liquid, usually green or black in colour.
• It has a very strange smell and is a mixture of petroleum gas, diesel, paraffin wax,
petrol, lubricating oil, etc.
• It is also termed as “Black Gold” because of its wide range of uses in many
industries.
7. Discuss on the formation of petroleum.
Formation of Petroleum
• The sea animals and plants died and their bodies settled at the bottom of the sea.
• They got compressed by the layers of sand and clay.
• Their encounter with high temperature and pressure converts them into
petroleum.
• The petroleum is separated from the crude oil by a series of processes in a refinery.
This is known as petroleum refining.
8. What are the uses of Petroleum?
• It is used to power internal combustion engines in the form of petrol.
• It is used in roofing, road pavements, and as a water repellent.
• It is used in manufacturing detergents, plastics, fibres, polyethene, etc.
9. Brief on Natural gas
• It is a clean and non-toxic fossil fuel.
• It is colourless and odourless and can be easily transferred through pipelines.
• It is stored as compressed natural gas (CNG) under high pressure.
• It is less polluting and less expensive fossil fuel.
• Methane is the most important natural gas.
10. Brief on the formation of Natural Gas.
The phytoplankton and zooplankton sink to the bottom of the ocean and mix with
organic materials to form an organic-rich mud.

• The mud buried under more sediments and lithifies to form an organic shale. This
prevents its exposure to oxygen. This is done to protect the organic materials from being
decomposed by bacteria.
• The increasing pressure and temperature transform the shale into a waxy material
known as the kerogen.
• At temperatures between 90-160°C kerogen is transformed into natural gas.
11. What are the uses of Natural gas?
Compressed Natural Gas is used for generating power.
• It is used as fuels in automobiles.
• It can be used at homes for cooking.
• It is used as a starting material in chemicals and fertilizers.
12. Are fossil fuels renewable?
Fossil fuels are a non-renewable source of energy. They are found everywhere, from the
air we breathe to the water in the seas. Most of the energy used by us is obtained by the
burning of fossil fuels. These fossil fuels are used up at a faster rate. They cannot be
regrown at a scale compared to their consumption. With the increased demand for the
production of various energies, fossil fuel energy is declining. It is difficult to replace
them. That is why they are known as a non-renewable source of energy.
13. What are the advantages and disadvantages of fossil fuel?
Advantages:
• Fossil fuels can generate a large amount of electricity at a single location.
• They can be found very easily.
• They are cost effective.
• Transportation of oil and gas can be done easily through pipelines.
• They have become safer over time.
• Despite being a finite resource, it is available in plenty.
Disadvantages
• Fossil fuels emit carbon dioxide when burnt which is a major greenhouse gas and
the primary source of pollution. This has contributed to global warming.
• They are a non-renewable resource, i.e., once used they cannot be replaced.
• Combustion of fossil fuels makes the environment more acidic. This has led to
unpredictable and negative changes in the environment.
• Harvesting of fossil fuels also causes fatal diseases among the people. For eg., the

coal miners often suffer from Black Lung Disease. The natural gas drillers are
constantly exposed to chemicals and silica which is dangerous for their health.
14. What are the effects of fossil fules on the environment?
1. Carbon fuels such as wood, coal, petroleum release unburnt carbon particles in the
environment. These particles are very dangerous pollutants and cause respiratory
diseases for example asthma.
2. When fuels are incompletely burnt, they release carbon monoxide gas into the
atmosphere. This gas is very dangerous as it is poisonous in nature. If we burn coal in a
closed room, then the person sleeping in that room will be killed by the action of carbon
monoxide.
3. The combustion of fossil fuels also releases a large amount of carbon dioxide into
the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas which is responsible for global
warming. Global warming is a rise in the overall temperature of earth’s surface. This
leads to melting of polar caps and rise in the sea level and further results in flooding of
coastal regions.
4. Burning of coal and diesel releases sulphur dioxide gas. This gas is extremely
corrosive and suffocating in nature. Petrol gives off oxides of nitrogen. The oxides of
sulfur and nitrogen get dissolved in rainwater and form acids. This is known as acid rain.
This water is very harmful to plants, animals, and various monuments.
15. What is renewable energy?
Renewable energy is energy that has been derived from earth’s natural resources that
are not finite or exhaustible, such as wind and sunlight. Renewable energy is an
alternative to the traditional energy that relies on fossil fuels, and it tends to be much
less harmful to the environment.
16. What are the types of renewable energy?
Solar, Wind, Hydroelectric, Geothermal. ocean, hydrogen and biomass are the types
of renewable energy.
17. What is solar energy ?
Solar energy is derived by capturing radiant energy from sunlight and converting it into
heat, electricity, or hot water. Photovoltaic (PV) systems can convert direct sunlight into
electricity through the use of solar cells.
18. What are the benefits and limitations of solar energy?
Benefits:

One of the benefits of solar energy is that sunlight is functionally endless. With the
technology to harvest it, there is a limitless supply of solar energy, meaning it could
render fossil fuels obsolete. Relying on solar energy rather than fossil fuels also helps
us improve public health and environmental conditions. In the long term, solar energy
could also eliminate energy costs, and in the short term, reduce your energy bills. Many
federal local, state, and federal governments also incentivize the investment in solar
energy by providing rebates or tax credits.
Current Limitations:
Although solar energy will save you money in the long run, it tends to be a significant
upfront cost and is an unrealistic expenses for most households. For personal homes,
homeowners also need to have the ample sunlight and space to arrange their solar panels,
which limits who can realistically adopt this technology at the individual level.
19. How wind energy is generated?
Wind farms capture the energy of wind flow by using turbines and converting it into
electricity. There are several forms of systems used to convert wind energy and each
vary. Commercial grade wind-powered generating systems can power many different
organizations, while single-wind turbines are used to help supplement pre-existing
energy organizations. Another form is utility-scale wind farms, which are purchased by
contract or wholesale. Technically, wind energy is a form of solar energy. The
phenomenon we call “wind” is caused by the differences in temperature in the
atmosphere combined with the rotation of Earth and the geography of the planet.
20. What are the benefits and limitations of wind energy?
Benefits:
Wind energy is a clean energy source, which means that it doesn’t pollute the air like
other forms of energy. Wind energy doesn’t produce carbon dioxide, or release any
harmful products that can cause environmental degradation or negatively affect human
health like smog, acid rain, or other heat-trapping gases.[2] Investment in wind energy
technology can also open up new avenues for jobs and job training, as the turbines on
farms need to be serviced and maintained to keep running.
Since wind farms tend to be built in rural or remote areas, they are usually far from
bustling cities where the electricity is needed most. Wind energy must be transported
via transition lines, leading to higher costs. Although wind turbines produce very little

pollution, some cities oppose them since they dominate skylines and generate noise.
Wind turbines also threaten local wildlife like birds, which are sometimes killed by
striking the arms of the turbine while flying.
21. Brief on the concept of hydroelectric energy generation.
Dams are what people most associate when it comes to hydroelectric power. Water flows
through the dam’s turbines to produce electricity, known as pumped-storage
hydropower. Run-of-river hydropower uses a channel to funnel water through rather
than powering it through a dam.
22. What are the benefits and limitations of hydroelectric energy?
Benefits:
Hydroelectric power is very versatile and can be generated using both large scale
projects, like the Hoover Dam, and small scale projects like underwater turbines and
lower dams on small rivers and streams. Hydroelectric power does not generate
pollution, and therefore is a much more environmentally-friendly energy option for our
environment.
Most U.S. hydroelectricity facilities use more energy than they are able to produce for
consumption. The storage systems may need to use fossil fuel to pump water.[3]
Although hydroelectric power does not pollute the air, it disrupts waterways and
negatively affects the animals that live in them, changing water levels, currents, and
migration paths for many fish and other freshwater ecosystems.
23. Brief on the concept of geothermal energy generation.
Geothermal heat is heat that is trapped beneath the earth’s crust from the formation of
the Earth 4.5 billion years ago and from radioactive decay. Sometimes large amounts of
this heat escapes naturally, but all at once, resulting in familiar occurrences, such as
volcanic eruptions and geysers. This heat can be captured and used to produce
geothermal energy by using steam that comes from the heated water pumping below the
surface, which then rises to the top and can be used to operate a turbine.
24. What are the benefits and limitations of geothermal energy?
Benefits:
Geothermal energy is not as common as other types of renewable energy sources, but
it has a significant potential for energy supply. Since it can be built underground, it
leaves very little footprint on land. Geothermal energy is naturally replenished and

therefore does not run a risk of depleting (on a human timescale).

Cost plays a major factor when it comes to disadvantages of geothermal energy. Not
only is it costly to build the infrastructure, but another major concern is its vulnerability
to earthquakes in certain regions of the world.
25. What is Ocean energy?
The ocean can produce two types of energy: thermal and mechanical. Ocean thermal
energy relies on warm water surface temperatures to generate energy through a variety
of different systems. Ocean mechanical energy uses the ebbs and flows of the tides to
generate energy, which is created by the earth’s rotation and gravity from the moon.
26. What are the benefits and limitations of ocean energy?
Benefits :
Unlike other forms of renewable energy, wave energy is predictable and it’s easy to
estimate the amount of energy that will be produced. Instead of relying on varying
factors, such as sun and wind, wave energy is much more consistent. This type of
renewable energy is also abundant, the most populated cities tend to be near oceans and
harbors, making it easier to harness this energy for the local population. The potential
of wave energy is an astounding as yet untapped energy resource with an estimated
ability to produce 2640 TWh/yr. Just 1 TWh/yr of energy can power around 93,850
average U.S. homes with power annually, or about twice than the number of homes that
currently exist in the U.S. at present
Those who live near the ocean definitely benefit from wave energy, but those who live
in landlocked states won’t have ready access to this energy. Another disadvantage to
ocean energy is that it can disturb the ocean’s many delicate ecosystems. Although it is
a very clean source of energy, large machinery needs to be built nearby to help capture
this form energy, which can cause disruptions to the ocean floor and the sea life that
habitats it. Another factor to consider is weather, when rough weather occurs it changes
the consistency of the waves, thus producing lower energy output when compared to
normal waves without stormy weather.
26. Brief on hydrogen energy usage.
Hydrogen needs to be combined with other elements, such as oxygen to make water as
it does not occur naturally as a gas on its own. When hydrogen is separated from another

element it can be used for both fuel and electricity.

27. What are the benefits and limitations of hydrogen energy?
Benefits:
Hydrogen can be used as a clean burning fuel, which leads to less pollution and a cleaner
environment. It can also be used for fuel cells which are similar to batteries and can be
used for powering an electric motor.
Current Limitations
Since hydrogen needs energy to be produced, it is inefficient when it comes to
preventing pollution.
28. What is Bio-mass energy?
Bioenergy is a renewable energy derived from biomass. Biomass is organic matter that
comes from recently living plants and organisms. Using wood in your fireplace is an
example of biomass that most people are familiar with.
There are various methods used to generate energy through the use of biomass. This can
be done by burning biomass, or harnessing methane gas which is produced by the natural
decomposition of organic materials in ponds or even landfills.
29. What are the benefits and limitations of biomass energy?
Benefits:
The use of biomass in energy production creates carbon dioxide that is put into the air,
but the regeneration of plants consumes the same amount of carbon dioxide, which is
said to create a balanced atmosphere. Biomass can be used in a number of different ways
in our daily lives, not only for personal use, but businesses as well. In 2017, energy from
biomass made up about 5% of the total energy used in the U.S. This energy came from
wood, biofuels like ethanol, and energy generated from methane captured from landfills
or by burning municipal waste.
Although new plants need carbon dioxide to grow, plants take time to grow. We also
don’t yet have widespread technology that can use biomass in lieu of fossil fuels.
30. Brief on renewable energy scenario in India.
• The Indian renewable energy is ranked fourth in wind power, fifth in solar power and
fifth in renewable power installed capacity as of 2018. India ranked third in EY
Renewable Energy Country Attractive Index 2019. Installed renewable power
generation capacity has increased at a fast pace over the past few years, posting a CAGR

of 19.78 per cent between FY14–18. Power generation from renewable energy sources
in India reached 101.84 billion units in FY18 and 126.76 billion units in FY19. The
renewable energy will account 55 per cent of the total installed power capacity by 2030.
• As on November 30, 2019, the installed renewable energy capacity is 84.4 GW, of which
solar and0 wind comprises 32.52 GW and 37.27 GW respectively. Biomass and small
hydro power constitute 9.80 GW and 4.64 GW, respectively. Overall, India added 8.62
GW of grid interactive renewable energy capacity in FY19. The renewable energy
sector’s capacity during the first quarter of fiscal year 2019-20 is higher at 2,151 MW.
31. Brief on renewable energy scenario at national and international level.
• It As India looks to meet its energy demand on its own, which is expected to reach
15,820 TWH by 2040, renewable energy is set to play an important role. By 2030,
renewable sources are expected to help meet 40 per cent of India’s power needs. New
investments in clean energy in the country reached US$ 11 billion in 2017. In the first
half of 2018, investments in clean energy in India reached US$ 7.4 billion.
• As of 2019, India is building a solar power plant in Rajasthan, which will be world’s
largest, with a capacity of 2,255 MW. The international equity investment in the India’s
clean energy sector was US$ 283 million in 2016, US$ 532 million in 2017 and
US$ 1.02 billion in 2018. India plans to add 30 GW of renewable energy capacity along
a desert on its western border such as Gujarat and Rajasthan.
• The renewable energy space in India has become very attractive from investors’
perspective and has received FDI inflow of US$ 8.69 billion between April 2000 and
September 2019.
32. Define energy efficiency.(Nov.2020)
It is a measure of how efficiently an appliance , building, organization or country uses
energy. Being energy-efficient is the opposite of wasting energy. It simply means using less
energy to perform an action. A example of an energy-efficient device is the simple
lightbulb. Traditional 60W incandescent bulb wastes most of its energy in heat, but
modern, energy-saving LED light bulbs use far less energy to create the same amount of
light – with 90% of the energy being used for light.
33. List the non-conventional energy sources.(Nov.2020)
Non- conventional energy sources are Solar, Wind, Hydroelectric, Geothermal. ocean,
hydrogen and biomass.
PART – B

1. What do you mean by fossil fuel? Explain any one in detail with its formation,
benefits and limitations.
A fossil fuel is a fuel formed by natural processes, such as anaerobic decomposition
of buried dead organisms, containing organic molecules that release energy in
combustion. Such organisms and their resulting fossil fuels typically have an age of
millions of years, and sometimes more than 650 million years.
Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum, coal,
and natural gas.
Formation of Coal:
Coal is a solid fossil fuel formed over millions of years by decay of land vegetation.
When layers are compacted and heated over time, deposits are turned into coal. Coal
is quite abundant compared to the other two fossil fuels.
When fossil fuels are burned, they release carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases,
which in turn trap heat in our atmosphere, making them the primary contributors
to global warming and climate change. Carbon dioxide, a key greenhouse gas that
drives global climate change, continues to rise every month.
Benefits and limitations of Using Coal Energy:
Coal energy is a nonrenewable energy which means that this is a type of energy that
we cannot re-create. The supply of coal energy is limited and therefore if we continue
to consume too much of this, we will eventually run out of this kind of energy.
Coal energy is used for the creation of electricity to power industrial or manufacturing
plants and even to power our appliances at home. Many industrial plants or
manufacturing plants use coal energy to generate electricity because coal energy is an
affordable source of energy. Moreover, coal is very abundant even if it is non-
renewable because it has the largest reserve around the world.
There are many advantages and disadvantages of using coal energy to produce
electricity. Its advantages and disadvantages are the following:
Benefits of using coal to produce electricity:
• Coal energy is an affordable energy source because of the coal’s stable price
compared to other fuel sources
• Coal is easy to burn
• Coal produces high energy upon combustion
• Coal energy is inexpensive

• Coal is abundant
• Coal energy is a reliable energy source
Limitations of using coal to produce electricity:
• Coal energy produces large amount of carbon dioxide which leads to global
warming and climate change
• The burning of coal is not environmental friendly because it produces harmful
byproducts and gas emissions such as sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide and
nitrogen oxide that causes pollution to the environment including acid rain
• Coal energy is nonrenewable energy source
• Coal is fast depleting because we consume too much of it
• Coal mining ruins the environment and puts the lives of people specially the
coal miners in danger
2. Explain the formation of coal, natural gas and petroleum.
Formation of Coal:
Coal is a solid fossil fuel formed over millions of years by decay of land vegetation.
When layers are compacted and heated over time, deposits are turned into coal. Coal
is quite abundant compared to the other two fossil fuels.
When fossil fuels are burned, they release carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases, which in turn trap heat in our atmosphere, making them the primary
contributors to global warming and climate change. Carbon dioxide, a key
greenhouse gas that drives global climate change, continues to rise every month.
COAL FORMATION:
Coal beds consist of altered plant remains. When forested swamps died, they sank
below the water and began the process of coal formation. However, more than a
heavy growth of vegetation is needed for the formation of coal. The debris must be
buried, compressed and protected from erosion. Even though all the biological,
geographic and climatic factors may be favorable, coal could not be formed unless
the plant debris was submerged and buried by sediments.
There are four stages in coal formation: peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite. The
stage depends upon the conditions to which the plant remains are subjected after they
were buried – the greater the pressure and heat, the higher the rank of coal. Higher-
ranking coal is denser and contains less moisture and gases and has a higher heat
value than lower-ranking coal.

Peat – Stage One:

Peat is the first stage in the formation of coal. Normally, vegetable matter is oxidized
to water and carbon dioxide. However, if plant material accumulates underwater,
oxygen is not present and so only partial decomposition occurs. This incomplete
destruction leads to the accumulation of an organic substance called peat. Peat is a
fibrous, soft, spongy substance in which plant remains are easily recognizable. It
contains a large amount of water and must be dried before use. Therefore, it is
seldom used as a source of heat. Peat burns with a long flame and considerable
smoke.
Lignite – Stage Two:
Lignite, the second stage, is formed when peat is subjected to increased vertical
pressure from accumulating sediments. Lignite is dark brown in colour and, like
peat, contains traces of plants. It is found in many places but is used only when more
efficient fuel is not available. It crumbles easily and should not be shipped or handled
before use.
Bituminous Coal – Stage Three:
Bituminous Coal is the third stage. Added pressure has made it compact and virtually
all traces of plant life have disappeared. Also known as “soft coal”, bituminous coal
is the type found in Cape Breton and is our most abundant fuel. It is greatly used in
industry as a source of heat energy.
Anthracite – Stage Four:
Anthracite, the fourth stage in coal formation, is also known as “hard coal” because
it is hard and has a high lustre. It appears to have been formed as a result of combined
pressure and high temperature. Anthracite burns with a short flame and little smoke.
Formation of oil and natural gas:
Oil or petroleum is a readily combustible fossil fuel that is composed mainly of
carbon and hydrogen, and is thus known as a hydrocarbon. The formation of oil takes
a significant amount of time with oil beginning to form millions of years ago. 70%
of oil deposits existing today were formed in the Mesozoic age (252 to 66 million
years ago), 20% were formed in the Cenozoic age (65 million years ago), and only
10% were formed in the Paleozoic age (541 to 252 million years ago). This is likely
because the Mesozoic age was marked by a tropical climate, with large amounts of
plankton in the ocean.

The formation of oil begins in warm, shallow oceans that were present on the Earth
millions of years ago. In these oceans, extremely small dead organic matter -
classified as plankton - falls to the floor of the ocean. This plankton consists of
animals, called zooplankton, or plants, called phytoplankton. This material then
lands on the ocean floor and mixes with inorganic material that enters the ocean by
rivers. It is this sediment on the ocean floors that then forms oil over many years.
The energy in oil initially comes from the Sun, and is energy from sunlight that is
trapped in chemical form by dead plankton.
The process that creates oil is generally the same in most areas, although there may
be different types of plant and animal debris that falls to the ocean floor and slightly
different conditions. To form oil, the following steps have to happen:
1. Dead plankton - both phytoplankton and zooplankton - as well as algae and
bacteria sink to the bottom of an ancient ocean and mix with inorganic, clay-like
materials that enter these oceans from streams and rivers. This creates an organic-
rich mud. This mud can only form in still water environments. This step is shown in
Figure 1, panel A.
2. This mud cannot be exposed to too much oxygen, or else the organic matter in the
mud would be decomposed by bacteria and disappear quickly. Therefore
environments where oil can form are known as anoxic environments. Before this
organic matter is destroyed, it is buried by more sediment and lithifies (becomes
sedimentary rock), creating organic shale. This step is shown in Figure 1, panel B.
Burying material underwater is an easy way to create an anoxic environment because
the atmosphere is not interacting with the decaying matter.
3. If this shale is buried between 2 and 4 kilometers, its temperature increases due to
its location in the Earths interior. This increasing pressure and temperature of the
shale transforms it into a waxy material known as kerogen. Shale that contains this
material is known as oil shale.
4. If temperatures of the kerogen are greater than 90°C but lower than 160°C, the
kerogen is transformed into oil and natural gas. At temperatures higher than this,
only natural gas (literally a gas that's a hydrocarbon) or graphite is formed. This
temperature range is known as the "oil window".
5. Oil is lighter than water, so as it escapes from the source oil shale it rises through
pores in rocks, displacing water. Rock bodies that contain significant amounts of oil

are known as reservoir rocks. For the oil to remain trapped in the reservoir, there
must be some sort of thick, impermiable layer of rock to seal the reservoir. If this
seal exists, then oil, gas, and water are trapped beneath and can be drilled into to
obtain the oil.
6. Geological changes in the Earth's crust bring these deposits up closer to the
surface, making them somewhat easier to access. This step is shown in Figure 1,
panel C.
Figure 1: Formation of oil and natural gas

3. Explain the benefits and limitations of coal, natural gas and petroleum.
Benefits and limitations of coal:
Benefits of coal:
Coal energy is an affordable energy source because of the coal’s stable price
compared to other fuel sources
Coal is easy to burn
Coal produces high energy upon combustion
Coal energy is inexpensive
Coal is abundant
Coal energy is a reliable energy source
Limitations of coal:
Coal energy produces large amount of carbon dioxide which leads to global warming
and climate change
The burning of coal is not environmental friendly because it produces harmful
byproducts and gas emissions such as sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen
oxide that causes pollution to the environment including acid rain
Coal energy is nonrenewable energy source
Coal is fast depleting because we consume too much of it

Coal mining ruins the environment and puts the lives of people specially the coal
miners in danger
Benefits and limitations of natural gas:
Advantages:
• Natural gas is environmentally friendly because it burns cleaner than other fossil
fuels.
• It’s safer and easier to store when compared to other fossil fuels.
• Natural gas is extremely reliable, unlike electric power that can be knocked out
during a storm.
• Natural gas is less expensive than other fossil fuels.
• The U.S. supply of natural gas is plentiful and helps to decrease our dependence
on foreign oil supplies.
Disadvantages of natural gas:
• Natural gas must be handled carefully because it is a combustible material.
• Like all fossil fuels, natural gas is not a renewable energy source.
• Natural gas does contribute to greenhouse gases.
Advantages of oil:
• It can be extracted by large drilling platforms.
• Oil is the most widely used fossil fuel.
• Crude oil consists of many different organic compounds which are
transformed to products in a refining process.
• It is applied in cars, jets, roads and roofs and many others.
Disadvantages of oil:
• Use of crude oil causes pollution and poses environmental hazards such as oil
spills when oil tankers, for instance, experience leaks or drown deep under the
sea. Crude oil contains toxic chemicals which cause air pollutants when
combusted.
4. What do you mean by renewable energy? List its types and explain.
Renewable energy:
Renewable energy can be defined as the energy sources that are natural and
continually replenished either at the same rate or faster than the rate at which they
are being used up by humans more or less indefinitely such as the sun, wind, rain,

tides, biomass and geothermal energy.

Green energy, alternative energy and sustainable energy are the other synonyms
sometimes used to describe the renewable energy that is converted into electricity,
heat or mechanical power for use in homes or in industries by clean, harmless and
non-polluting methods
Types:
1. Solar energy
2. Wind energy
3. Hydro power
4. Geo-thermal energy
5. Tidal energy
6. Fuel cell
7. Bio-mass
Solar Energy:
Sunlight is one of our planet’s most abundant and freely available energy resources.
The amount of solar energy that reaches the earth’s surface in one hour is more than
the planet’s total energy requirements for a whole year. Although it sounds like a
perfect renewable energy source, the amount of solar energy we can use varies
according to the time of day and the season of the year as well as geographical
location.
Wind energy:
Wind is a plentiful source of clean energy. Wind farms are an increasingly familiar
sight with wind power making an ever-increasing contribution to the National Grid.
To harness electricity from wind energy, turbines are used to drive generators which
then feed electricity into the National Grid. Although domestic or ‘off-grid’
generation systems are available, not every property is suitable for a domestic wind
turbine.
Hydro energy:
As a renewable energy resource, hydro power is one of the most commercially
developed. By building a dam or barrier, a large reservoir can be used to create a
controlled flow of water that will drive a turbine, generating electricity. This energy
source can often be more reliable than solar or wind power (especially if it's tidal

rather than river) and also allows electricity to be stored for use when demand
reaches a peak. Like wind energy, in certain situations hydro can be more viable as
a commercial energy source (dependant on type and compared to other sources of
energy) but depending very much on the type of property, it can be used for
domestic, ‘off-grid’ generation.
Tidal energy:
This is another form of hydro energy that uses twice-daily tidal currents to drive
turbine generators. Although tidal flow unlike some other hydro energy sources isn’t
constant, it is highly predictable and can therefore compensate for the periods when
the tide current is low.
Geothermal energy:
By harnessing the natural heat below the earth’s surface, geothermal energy can be
used to heat homes directly or to generate electricity.
Biomass Energy:
This is the conversion of solid fuel made from plant materials into electricity.
Although fundamentally, biomass involves burning organic materials to produce
electricity, this is not burning wood, and nowadays this is a much cleaner, more
energy-efficient process. By converting agricultural, industrial and domestic waste
into solid, liquid and gas fuel, biomass generates power at a much lower economic
and environmental cost.
5. How solar energy and wind energy is generated. Explain its benefits and
limitations.
Electricity from solar energy:
Solar radiation may be converted directly into electricity by solar cells (photovoltaic
cells). In such cells, a small electric voltage is generated when light strikes the junction
between a metal and a semiconductor (such as silicon) or the junction between two
different semiconductors. ( photo-voltaic effect.) The power generated by a single
photovoltaic cell is typically only about two watts. By connecting large numbers of
individual cells together, however, as in solar-panel arrays, hundreds or even thousands
of kilowatts of electric power can be generated in a solar electric plant or in a large
household array. The energy efficiency of most present-day photovoltaic cells is only
about 15 to 20 percent, and, since the intensity of solar radiation is low to begin with,

large and costly assemblies of such cells are required to produce even moderate amounts
of power.
Figure 2: solar cell

When sunlight strikes a solar cell as shown in fig 2, an electron is freed by the
photoelectric effect. The two dissimilar semiconductors possess a natural difference
in electric potential (voltage), which causes the electrons to flow through the external
circuit, supplying power to the load. The flow of electricity results from the
characteristics of the semiconductors and is powered entirely by light striking the
cell.
Advantages of Solar Energy
1. Renewable Energy Source
Among all the benefits of solar panels, the most important thing is that solar energy
is a truly renewable energy source. It can be harnessed in all areas of the world and
is available every day. We cannot run out of solar energy, unlike some of the other
sources of energy. Solar energy will be accessible as long as we have the sun,
therefore sunlight will be available to us for at least 5 billion years when according
to scientists the sun is going to die.
2. Reduces Electricity Bills
Since you will be meeting some of your energy needs with the electricity your solar
system has generated, your energy bills will drop. How much you save on your bill
will be dependent on the size of the solar system and your electricity or heat usage.
Moreover, not only will you be saving on the electricity bill, there is also a possibility
to receive payments for the surplus energy that you export back to the grid. If you
generate more electricity than you use (considering that your solar panel system is

connected to the grid).

3. Diverse Applications
Solar energy can be used for diverse purposes. You can generate electricity
(photovoltaics) or heat (solar thermal). Solar energy can be used to produce
electricity in areas without access to the energy grid, to distill water in regions with
limited clean water supplies and to power satellites in space. Solar energy can also
be integrated into the materials used for buildings. Not long ago Sharp introduced
transparent solar energy windows.
4. Low Maintenance Costs
Solar energy systems generally don’t require a lot of maintenance. You only need to
keep them relatively clean, so cleaning them a couple of times per year will do the
job. If in doubt, you can always rely on specialized cleaning companies, which offer
this service from around £25-£35. Most reliable solar panel manufacturer’s offer 20-
25 years warranty. Also, as there are no moving parts, there is no wear and tear. The
inverter is usually the only part that needs to be changed after 5-10 years because it
is continuously working to convert solar energy into electricity and heat (solar PV
vs. solar thermal). Apart from the inverter, the cables also need maintenance to
ensure your solar power system runs at maximum efficiency. So, after covering the
initial cost of the solar system, you can expect very little spending on maintenance
and repair work.
5. Technology Development
Technology in the solar power industry is constantly advancing and improvements
will intensify in the future. Innovations in quantum physics and nanotechnology can
potentially increase the effectiveness of solar panels and double, or even triple, the
electrical input of the solar power systems.
Wind energy:
Wind power, form of energy conversion in which turbines convert the kinetic energy
of wind into mechanical or electrical energy that can be used for power. Wind power
is considered a renewable energy source. Historically, wind power in the form of
windmills has been used for centuries for such tasks as grinding grain and pumping
water. Modern commercial wind turbines produce electricity by using rotational
energy to drive an electrical generator. They are made up of a blade or rotor and an
enclosure called a nacelle that contains a drive train atop a tall tower. The largest

turbines can produce 4.8–9.5 megawatts of power, have a rotor diameter that may
extend more than 162 metres (about 531 feet), and are attached to towers
approaching 240 metres (787 feet) tall. The most common types of wind turbines
(which produce up to 1.8 megawatts) are much smaller; they have a blade length of
approximately 40 metres (about 130 feet) and are attached to towers roughly 80
metres (about 260 feet) tall. Smaller turbines can be used to provide power to
individual homes. Wind farms are areas where a number of wind turbines are
grouped together, providing a larger total energy source.wind energy generation
system is shown in fig.3.
Figure 3: wind energy generation system

Disadvantages of Solar Energy
1. Cost
The initial cost of purchasing a solar system is fairly high. This includes paying for
solar panels, inverter, batteries, wiring, and for the installation. Nevertheless, solar
technologies are constantly developing, so it is safe to assume that prices will go
down in the future.
2. Weather Dependent
Although solar energy can still be collected during cloudy and rainy days, the
efficiency of the solar system drops. Solar panels are dependent on sunlight to
effectively gather solar energy. Therefore, a few cloudy, rainy days can have a
noticeable effect on the energy system. You should also take into account that solar
energy cannot be collected during the night. On the other hand, if you also require
your water heating solution to work at night or during wintertime, thermodynamic
panels are an alternative to consider.
3. Solar Energy Storage Is Expensive
Solar energy has to be used right away, or it can be stored in large batteries. These
batteries, used in off-the-grid solar systems, can be charged during the day so that
the energy is used at night. This is a good solution for using solar energy all day long

but it is also quite expensive. In most cases, it is smarter to just use solar energy
during the day and take energy from the grid during the night (you can only do this
if your system is connected to the grid). Luckily your energy demand is usually
higher during the day so you can meet most of it with solar energy.
4. Uses a Lot of Space
The more electricity you want to produce, the more solar panels you will need, as
you want to collect as much sunlight as possible. Solar PV panels require a lot of
space and some roofs are not big enough to fit the number of solar panels that you
would like to have. An alternative is to install some of the panels in your yard but
they need to have access to sunlight. If you don’t have the space for all the panels
that you wanted, you can opt for installing fewer to still satisfy some of your energy
needs.
5. Associated with Pollution
Although pollution related to solar energy systems is far less compared to other
sources of energy, solar energy can be associated with pollution. Transportation and
installation of solar systems have been associated with the emission of greenhouse
gases. There are also some toxic materials and hazardous products used during the
manufacturing process of solar photovoltaic systems, which can indirectly affect the
environment. Nevertheless, solar energy pollutes far less than other alternative
energy sources.
Advantages of Wind Energy:
Clean & Environment friendly Fuel source:– It doesn’t pollute air like power
plant relying on combustion of fossil fuel. It does not produce atmospheric emissions
that cause acid rain or green house gases (carbon dioxide (CO2) or methane (CH4)).
Noise and visual pollution are both environmental factors, but they don’t have a
negative effect on the earth, water table or the quality of the air we breathe.
Renewable & Sustainable:– Winds are caused by heating of atmosphere by the sun,
earth surface irregularities and the rotation of the earth. For as long as the sun shines
the wind blows, the energy produced can be harnessed and It will never run out,
unlike the Earth’s fossil fuel reserves.
Cost Effective:– Wind energy is completely free. There’s no market for the demand
and supply of wind energy’s, It can be used by anyone and is one of the lowest price
renewable technologies available today, depending upon the wind resource and the

particular project’s financing.

Industrial and Domestic Installation:– Wind turbines can be built on existing
farms or ranches where most of the best wind sites are found. Wind turbines uses
only a fraction of the land which causes no trouble in work for the farmers and
rancher, providing landowners with additional income paid by the owners of the
wind power plants. Many landowners opt to install smaller, less powerful wind
turbines in order to provide part of a domestic electricity supply.
Job Creation:– Jobs have been created for the manufacture of wind turbines, the
installation and maintenance of wind turbines and also in wind energy consulting.
According to the Wind Vision Report, wind has the potential to support more than
600,000 jobs in manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and supporting services
by 2050.
Disadvantages of Wind Energy:
Fluctuation of Wind and Good wind sites:– Wind energy has a drawback that it is
not a constant energy source. Although wind energy is sustainable and will never
run out, the wind isn’t always blowing. This can cause serious problems for wind
turbine developers who will often spend significant time and money investigating
whether or not a particular site is suitable for the generation of wind power. For a
wind turbine to be efficient, the location where it is built needs to have an adequate
supply of wind energy.
Noise and aesthetic pollution:– Wind turbines generate noise and visual pollution.
A single wind turbine can be heard from hundreds of meters away. Although steps
are often taken to site wind turbines away from dwellings. Many people like the look
of wind turbines, others do not and see them as a blot on the landscape.
Not a profitable use of land:– Alternative uses for the land might be more highly
valued than electricity generation.
Threat to wildlife:– Birds have been killed by flying into spinning turbine blades.
However it is believed that wind turbines pose less of a threat to wildlife than other
man made structures such as cell phone masts and radio towers. Most of the
problems have been resolved or greatly reduced through technological development
or by properly siting wind plants.
6. How geothermal energy and hydroelectric energy is produced? Give its benefits
and limitations.

Electricity from Geo-thermal energy :

Geothermal power plants use steam to produce electricity. The steam comes from
reservoirs of hot water found a few miles or more below the earth's surface. The
steam rotates a turbine that activates a generator, which produces electricity. There
are three types of geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle.
Dry Steam:
Dry steam power plants draw from underground resources of steam. The steam is
piped directly from underground wells to the power plant where it is directed into a
turbine/generator unit.
Flash Steam
Flash steam power plants are the most common and use geothermal reservoirs of
water with temperatures greater than 360°F (182°C). This very hot water flows up
through wells in the ground under its own pressure. As it flows upward, the pressure
decreases and some of the hot water boils into steam. The steam is then separated
from the water and used to power a turbine/generator. Any leftover water and
condensed steam are injected back into the reservoir, making this a sustainable
resource.
Binary Steam
Binary cycle power plants operate on water at lower temperatures of about 225-
360°F (107-182°C). Binary cycle plants use the heat from the hot water to boil a
working fluid, usually an organic compound with a low boiling point. The working
fluid is vaporized in a heat exchanger and used to turn a turbine. The water is then
injected back into the ground to be reheated. The water and the working fluid are
kept separated during the whole process, so there are little or no air emissions.
Currently, two types of geothermal resources can be used in binary cycle power
plants to generate electricity: enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) and low-
temperature or co-produced resources.
Geothermal energy has many advantages, especially when compared to
conventional sources of energy:
1. Geothermal Energy Sourcing Is Good for the Environment
First and foremost, geothermal energy is extracted from the earth without burning
fossil fuels, and geothermal fields produce practically no emissions. What’s more,
geothermal energy can be very beneficial, as you can achieve savings of up to 80%

over conventional energy usage.

2. Geothermal Is a Reliable Source of Renewable Energy
Geothermal energy also has many advantages when compared to other renewable
sources like solar, wind or biomass. It is an exceptionally constant source of energy,
meaning that it is not dependent on neither wind nor sun, and available all year long.
When looking at the availability factor, which shows how reliable and constant
specific energy sources are, geothermal is ranking on the top (see the figure below),
way above the other groups, which supports the argument of its independence on
inconstant external circumstances when delivering energy.
3. High Efficiency of Geothermal Systems
Geothermal heat pump systems use 25% to 50% less electricity than conventional
systems for heating or cooling, and with their flexible design they can be adjusted to
different situations, requiring less space for hardware as opposed to conventional
systems.
4. Little to No Geothermal System Maintenance
Due to the fact that geothermal systems only have few movable parts which are
sheltered inside a building, the life span of geothermal heat pump systems is
relatively high. Heat pump pipes even have warranties of between 25 and 50 years,
while the pump can usually last for at least 20 years.
Disadvantages of Geo-thermal energy:
1. Environmental Concerns about Greenhouse Emissions
Unfortunately, no matter its reputation of being an environmentally friendly
alternative energy source, geothermal energy also causes some minor concerns in
regards to the environment.
The extraction of geothermal energy from the grounds leads to a release of
greenhouse gases like hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, methane and ammonia.
However, the amount of gas released is significantly lower than in the case of fossil
fuels.
2. Possibility of Depletion of Geothermal Sources
Furthermore, despite being considered a sustainable and renewable energy, the
chances are that specific locations might cool down after time, making it impossible
to harvest more geothermal energy in future.
The only non-depletable option is sourcing geothermal energy right from magma but

the technology for doing so is still in the process of development. This option is
worth the investment mainly thanks to the fact that magma will be around for billions
of years.
3. High Investment Costs for Geothermal System
Another disadvantage is the high initial cost for individual households. The need for
drilling and installing quite a complex system into one’s home makes the price climb
quite high. Nevertheless, the return on such investment is very promising, being able
to earn the investment back within 2 to 10 years.
4. Land Requirements for Geothermal System to Be Installed
In case of geothermal systems, having a piece of land next to the house is required
in order to be able to install one. That makes geothermal systems hard to be
implemented for homeowners in big cities, unless a vertical ground source heat
pump is used.
Electricity from hydro-electric power plant:
Hydro-electric and coal-fired power plants produce electricity in a similar way. In
both cases a power source is used to turn a propeller-like piece called a turbine,
which then turns a metal shaft in an electric generator, which is the motor that
produces electricity. A coal-fired power plant uses steam to turn the turbine blades;
whereas a hydroelectric plant uses falling water to turn the turbine. The results are
the same.
Figure 4 shows the hydro-electric power generation system.The theory is to build a
dam on a large river that has a large drop in elevation (there are not many
hydroelectric plants in Kansas or Florida). The dam stores lots of water behind it in
the reservoir. Near the bottom of the dam wall there is the water intake. Gravity
causes it to fall through the penstock inside the dam. At the end of the penstock there
is a turbine propeller, which is turned by the moving water. The shaft from the
turbine goes up into the generator, which produces the power. Power lines are
connected to the generator that carries electricity to your home and mine. The water
continues past the propeller through the tailrace into the river past the dam. By the
way, it is not a good idea to be playing in the water right below a dam when water
is released.

Figure 4:Hydro-electric power generation

Advantages of Hydroelectric Energy
1. Renewable
Hydroelectric energy is renewable. This means that we cannot use up. However,
there’s only a limited number of suitable reservoirs where hydroelectric power plants
can be built and even less places where such projects are profitable.
2. Green
Generating electricity with hydro energy is not polluting itself. The only pollution
occurs during the construction of these massive power plants.
3. Reliable
Hydroelectricity is very reliable energy. There are very little fluctuations in terms of
the electric power that is being by the plants, unless a different output is desired.
Countries that have large resources of hydropower use hydroelectricity as a base
load energy source. As long as there is water in the magazines electricity can be
generated.
4. Flexible
As previously mentioned, adjusting water flow and output of electricity is easy. At
times where power consumption is low, water flow is reduced and the magazine
levels are being conserved for times when the power consumption is high.
5. Safe
Compared to among others fossil fuels and nuclear energy, hydroelectricity is much
safer. There is no fuel involved (other than water that is).
Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Energy
1. Environmental Consequences

The environmental consequences of hydropower are related to interventions in

nature due to damming of water, changed water flow and the construction of roads
and power lines.
Hydroelectric power plants may affect fish is a complex interaction between
numerous physical and biological factors. More user interests related to exploitation
of fish species, which helps that this is a field that many have strong opinions on.
Fish habitats are shaped by physical factors such as water level, water velocity and
shelter opportunities and access to food. Draining would be completely devastating
to the fish. Beyond this, the amount of water may have different effects on the fish
in a river, depending on the type and stage of the lifecycle. Not all unregulated river
systems are optimal in terms of fish production, because of large fluctuations in flow.
2. Expensive
Building power plants in general is expensive. Hydroelectric power plants are not an
exception to this. On the other hand, these plants do not require a lot of workers and
maintenance costs are usually low.
3. Droughts
Electricity generation and energy prices are directly related to how much water is
available. A drought could potentially affect this.
4. Limited Reservoirs
We have already started using up suitable reservoirs for hydroelectric power plants.
There are currently about 30 major power plants that are expected to generate more
than 2.000 MW under construction. Only one of these projects was started in the last
two years.
7. Explain the concept of biomass energy production and hydrogen energy with
its benefits and limitations.
Electricity from bio-mass energy:
Biomass is used for facility heating, electric power generation, and combined heat
and power. The term biomass encompasses a large variety of materials, including
wood from various sources, agricultural residues, and animal and human waste.
Biomass can be converted into electric power through several methods. The most
common is direct combustion of biomass material, such as agricultural waste or
woody materials. Other options include gasification, pyrolysis, and anaerobic
digestion. Gasification produces a synthesis gas with usable energy content by

heating the biomass with less oxygen than needed for complete combustion.
Pyrolysis yields bio-oil by rapidly heating the biomass in the absence of oxygen.
Anaerobic digestion produces a renewable natural gas when organic matter is
decomposed by bacteria in the absence of oxygen.
Most biopower plants use direct-fired combustion systems. They burn biomass
directly to produce high-pressure steam that drives a turbine generator to make
electricity. In some biomass industries, the extracted or spent steam from the power
plant is also used for manufacturing processes or to heat buildings. These combined
heat and power (CHP) systems greatly increase overall energy efficiency to
approximately 80%, from the standard biomass electricity-only systems with
efficiencies of approximately 20%. Seasonal heating requirements will impact the
CHP system efficiency.
A simple biomass electric generation system is made up of several key components
as shown in fig 5. For a steam cycle, this includes some combination of the following
items:
Fuel storage and handling equipment,Combustor / furnace,Boiler,Pumps,Fans
Steam turbine,Generator,Condenser,Cooling tower,Exhaust / emissions controls
System controls (automated).
Direct combustion systems feed a biomass feedstock into a combustor or furnace,
where the biomass is burned with excess air to heat water in a boiler to create steam.
Instead of direct combustion, some developing technologies gasify the biomass to
produce a combustible gas, and others produce pyrolysis oils that can be used to
replace liquid fuels. Boiler fuel can include wood chips, pellets, sawdust, or bio-oil.
Steam from the boiler is then expanded through a steam turbine, which spins to run
a generator and produce electricity.
Figure 5: Direct combustion /steam turbine system

8. Why renewable energy has a sustainable development? Explain

Sustainable energy is the practice of using energy in a way that "meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.
Meeting the world's needs for electricity, heating, cooling, and power for transport
in a sustainable way is widely considered to be one of the greatest challenges facing
humanity in the 21st century. Worldwide, nearly a billion people lack access to
electricity, and around 3 billion people rely on smoky fuels such as wood, charcoal
or animal dung in order to cook. These and fossil fuels are a major contributor to air
pollution, which causes an estimated 7 million deaths per year. Production and
consumption of energy emits over 70% of human-caused greenhouse gas emissions.
Proposed pathways for limiting global warming to 1.5 °C describe rapid
implementation of low-emission methods of producing electricity and a shift
towards more use of electricity in sectors such as transport. The pathways also
include measures to reduce energy consumption; and use of carbon-neutral fuels,
such as hydrogen produced by renewable electricity or with carbon capture and
storage. Achieving these goals will require government policies including carbon
pricing, energy-specific policies, and phase-out of fossil fuel subsidies.
When referring to methods of producing energy, the term "sustainable energy" is
often used interchangeably with the term "renewable energy". In general, renewable
energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric energy are widely considered
to be sustainable. However, particular renewable energy projects, such as the
clearing of forests for the production of biofuels, can lead to similar or even worse
environmental damage when compared to using fossil fuel energy. Nuclear power
is a zero emission source and while its sustainability is debated, the European Union
has chosen it to be the part of a low-carbon energy backbone by 2050.
Moderate amounts of wind and solar energy, which are intermittent energy sources,
can be integrated into the electrical grid without additional infrastructure such as
grid energy storage. These sources generated 7.5% of worldwide electricity in 2018,
a share that has grown rapidly. As of 2019, costs of wind, solar, and batteries are
projected to continue falling.
9. Present Indian and international energy scenario of conventional and RE
sources. Explain .

India has made important progress towards meeting the United Nations
Sustainable Development Goals, notably Goal 7 on delivering energy access. Both
the energy and emission intensities of India’s gross domestic product (GDP) have
decreased by more than 20% over the past decade. This represents commendable
progress even as total energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions continue to
rise. India’s per capita emissions today are 1.6 tonnes of CO2, well below the global
average of 4.4 tonnes, while its share of global total CO2 emissions is some 6.4%.
India is an active player at international fora in the fight against climate change. The
country’s Nationally Determined Contribution under the Paris Agreement sets out
targets to reduce the emissions intensity of its economy and increase the share of
non-fossil fuels in its power generation capacity while also creating an additional
carbon sink by increasing forest and tree cover. Although the emissions intensity of
India’s GDP has decreased in line with targeted levels, progress towards a low-
carbon electricity supply remains challenging.
India has taken significant steps to improve energy efficiency, which have avoided
an additional 15% of annual energy demand and 300 million tonnes of CO2
emissions over the period 2000‑18, according to IEA analysis. The major
programmes target industry and business, relying on large-scale public procurement
of efficient products such as LEDs and the use of tradable energy efficiency
certificates. The government’s LED programme has radically pushed down the price
of the products in the global market and helped create local manufacturing jobs to
meet the demand for energy-efficient lighting.
Based on current policies, India’s energy demand could double by 2040, with
electricity demand potentially tripling as a result of increased appliance ownership
and cooling needs. Without significant improvements in energy efficiency, India
will need to add massive amounts of power generation capacity to meet demand
from the 1 billion air-conditioning units the country is expected to have by 2050. By
raising the level of its energy efficiency ambition, India could save some USD 190
billion per year in energy imports by 2040 and avoid electricity generation of 875
terawatt hours per year, almost half of India’s current annual power generation.
Recent IEA analysis shows that in 2018, India’s investment in solar PV was greater
than in all fossil fuel sources of electricity generation together. Large-scale auctions

have contributed to swift renewable energy development at rapidly decreasing

prices. By December 2019, India had deployed a total of 84 GW of grid-connected
renewable electricity capacity. By comparison, India’s total generating capacity
reached 366 GW in 2019. India is making progress towards its target of 175 GW of
renewables by 2022. In September 2019, it is announced that India’s electricity mix
would eventually include 450 GW of renewable energy capacity. Progress towards
these targets will require a focus on unlocking the flexibility needed for effective
system integration. This can potentially be achieved by improving the design of
renewables auctions, with clear trajectories and criteria to reflect quality, location
and system value, along with measures to foster grid expansion and demand-side
response across India.
India has been addressing energy-related environmental pollution since the 1980s,
including air, water, land and waste issues. Reducing the health impacts of air
pollution is a key priority. Over the years, the government has been progressively
strengthened rules to combat air pollution, and adopted the National Clean Air
Programme (NCAP), which focuses on monitoring and enforcement. Real progress
on the ground has so far been limited, with the deadline for the enforcement of
stringent air pollution standards for thermal power plants pushed back from 2017 to
2021/22. However, the implementation of the NCAP is expected to help improve
this issue.
India is particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts and is exposed to growing

water stress, storms, floods and other extreme weather events. Adaptation and
resilience of the energy system to these extreme climate conditions should be a high
political priority. Furthermore, the energy sector is a large water user. As India’s
energy demand continues to grow, the government should ensure that energy
planning takes into account the water–energy nexus, as well as future space cooling
needs.
10. What is fuel cell? Why it plays a vital role now-a-day? Explain.
A fuel cell uses the chemical energy of hydrogen or another fuel to cleanly and
efficiently produce electricity. If hydrogen is the fuel, electricity, water, and heat are
the only products. Fuel cells are unique in terms of the variety of their potential

applications; they can provide power for systems as large as a utility power station
and as small as a laptop computer.
Significance of fuel cell with its working:
Fuel cells work like batteries, but they do not run down or need recharging. They
produce electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two
electrodes—a negative electrode (or anode) and a positive electrode (or cathode)—
sandwiched around an electrolyte. A fuel, such as hydrogen, is fed to the anode, and
air is fed to the cathode. In a hydrogen fuel cell, a catalyst at the anode separates
hydrogen molecules into protons and electrons, which take different paths to the
cathode. The electrons go through an external circuit, creating a flow of electricity.
The protons migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode, where they unite with
oxygen and the electrons to produce water and heat.
Parts of a fuel cell:
Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells are the current focus of research for
fuel cell vehicle applications. PEM fuel cells are made from several layers of
different materials. The main parts of a PEM fuel cell are described below.
The heart of a PEM fuel cell is the membrane electrode assembly (MEA), which
includes the membrane, the catalyst layers, and gas diffusion layers (GDLs).
Hardware components used to incorporate an MEA into a fuel cell include gaskets,
which provide a seal around the MEA to prevent leakage of gases, and bipolar
plates, which are used to assemble individual PEM fuel cells into a fuel cell stack
and provide channels for the gaseous fuel and air.
Figure 6: diagram of a PEM fuel cell

PEM fuel cell is shown in fig 6. The proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) uses
a water-based, acidic polymer membrane as its electrolyte, with platinum-based

electrodes. PEMFC cells operate at relatively low temperatures (below 100 degrees
Celsius) and can tailor electrical output to meet dynamic power requirements. Due to
the relatively low temperatures and the use of precious metal-based electrodes, these
cells must operate on pure hydrogen. PEMFC cells are currently the leading technology
for light duty vehicles and materials handling vehicles, and to a lesser extent for
stationary and other applications. The PEMFC fuel cell is also sometimes called a
polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (also PEMFC).Hydrogen fuel is processed at
the anode where electrons are separated from protons on the surface of a platinum-based
catalyst. The protons pass through the membrane to the cathode side of the cell while
the electrons travel in an external circuit, generating the electrical output of the cell. On
the cathode side, another precious metal electrode combines the protons and electrons
with oxygen to produce water, which is expelled as the only waste product; oxygen can
be provided in a purified form, or extracted at the electrode directly from the air.
11. Describe the various renewable energy resource available in India and its
potential to supplement the conventional energy sources (November 2020)
Renewable energy:
Renewable energy can be defined as the energy sources that are natural and continually
replenished either at the same rate or faster than the rate at which they are being used up
by humans more or less indefinitely such as the sun, wind, rain, tides, biomass and
geothermal energy.
Green energy, alternative energy and sustainable energy are the other synonyms
sometimes used to describe the renewable energy that is converted into electricity, heat
or mechanical power for use in homes or in industries by clean, harmless and non-
polluting methods
Types:
1. Solar energy
2. Wind energy
3. Hydro power
4. Geo-thermal energy
5. Ocean energy
6. Fuel cell
7. Bio-mass
Solar Energy:

Sunlight is one of our planet’s most abundant and freely available energy resources. The
amount of solar energy that reaches the earth’s surface in one hour is more than the
planet’s total energy requirements for a whole year. Although it sounds like a perfect
renewable energy source, the amount of solar energy we can use varies according to the
time of day and the season of the year as well as geographical location.
Next to wind power, solar power is the fastest growing renewable energy in the world.
Being a tropical country, India is blessed with lots of sunshine for most of the time in a
year. India lies in a sunny tropical belt (of high insolation) of total theoretical potential
over 5000 trillion kWh annually (see Figure 1.4). Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar
Mission (JNNSM) is an example which is initiated by MNRE to tap this resource.
The high costs of solar power have been decreasing significantly with the sharp drop in
the prices of solar panels. The current cost of production (after bidding) is around 3.00
per kWh. This includes operation and maintenance, amortised / depreciated capital
costs, loan repayment costs and other expenses such as insurance. With the level of
technology advancement that is going ahead, it is expected that the costs of production
of solar PV power plants will come down to 3 per kWh by 2022. Further, with JNNSM
and other Generation Based Incentives (GBI) through MNRE, there is a great scope to
tap the solar power. The challenges and constraints for the use of solar power are also
there. The per capita land availability is a scarce resource in India. Dedication of land
area for exclusive installation of solar panels might have to compete with the other
necessities that require land. The amount of land required for utility scale solar power
plants (currently, it is approximately 1 km2 for every 20 MW–60 MW power generated)
could pose a strain on India’s available land resource. Although the present high cost of
solar PV, high population density (land scarcity) and technology obsolescence are seen
as the bottlenecks and barriers, there is still a lot of potential for solar power in India
which needs to be tapped. For producing grid-connected electric power, following two
major types of solar energy technologies are commercially viable:
• Concentrated solar power (CSP) technology
• Solar photo voltaic (PV) technology.
The government of India is expected to spend $19 billion on these till 2022. By putting
solar CSP and solar PV together, JNNSM attempts to reach an installed capacity of 100
GW by 2022
Solar PV Technology: The government of India is providing considerable incentives

for promoting the use of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems consisting of a sequence of
series and parallel connected PV cells. A PV cell is a wafer made of semiconducting
material such as silicon that absorbs the sunlight. The solar cell (PV) systems convert
sunlight directly into electricity. (a) PV System Due to the irradiance of sunlight, the
electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms allowing them to flow
through the material to produce a variable direct current (DC) at a fixed open circuit
voltage (Voc) of about 0.5 to 0.6 volts at 25°C depending upon the type. This PV cell
voltage remains fairly constant as long as there is a sufficient irradiance of light from
dull to bright sunlight. The PV cell converts only a small fraction of the irradiance into
electrical energy (less than 20%), the balance is converted into heat, resulting in the
heating of the cell.
When connected to an external load, the output voltage of the PV cell drops and this is
due to the resistance and resulting power losses within the cell structure. In solar PV
parlance, full sun can be defined when a solar cell (PV) gives 1000 W/m2 or 1 kW/m2
at midday at the equator. Less than full sun will reduce the current output of the cell
proportionally. Under the standard conditions of sunlight and temperature with no
shading (full sun), the I–V (current-voltage) curves of a solar PV cell are generally given
by the manufacturers. There is only one point on the characteristic at which the
maximum electrical power is produced. In practical applications, the I–V characteristics
keep on changing with changing the insolation and temperature. Hence, an electronic
maximum power point tracker (MPPT) need to be introduced between the PV system
and the load.
The conversion efficiency of a solar cell is the ratio of the electrical output to the incident
solar power and this is in the range of 12%–15% for commercially available single solar
cells. A number of series or parallel connected solar cells are put together to make a
module. Typically, each module holds about 40 cells. The module of solar cells converts
the solar energy into usable amount of DC. A number of modules are put together and
then mounted on a panel to make an array (see Figure 1.13). PV arrays can be used to
generate electricity for a single building and even for a power plant when these are
present in large numbers. A typical 12 V solar PV panel consisting of 32 or 36 individual
cells connected together in a series arrangement gives about 20.8 V peak output
(assuming 0.58 V cell voltage) which is enough to charge a standard 12 V battery.
Typically, about 10 modules are mounted in a PV array and are fixed onto the iron

fixtures of solar panels so that it can withstand the wind and weight.
Crystalline PV cells are of silicon that is first melted and then crystallised into ingots of
pure silicon from which thin slices of silicon wafers are sliced out. Following are the
three grades of PV cells in the market:
• A grade PV cells are primarily flawless.
• B grade PV cells are those that contain a visual flaw that does not affect the power.
Their price is a little lower than A grade cells.
• C grade PV cells have flaws that affect the power output which is lower quality than
A and B grade cells and so the price is also the lowest.
As silicon is a brittle material, the size of the solar cell’s area is also limited and the sizes
that are generally available are 100 mm diameter or 100 mm (or 125 mm) square single
crystalline. There are basically three types of solar cells:
• Amorphous
• Crystalline  Monocrystalline silicon  Polycrystalline silicon
• Thin film silicon.
Thin film PV is produced by printing or spraying a thin semiconductor layer of PV
material on a glass, metal or plastic foil substrate. Solar PV cells have solar power
ratings (in watts): Pm = Vout Im W (1.2) where, Pm = Maximum deliverable solar power
or watts Vout = Cell voltage Im = Maximum cell current. If a tracking system is
incorporated to the solar PV system, it would track the sun throughout the day from east
to west. This solar tracker will help the solar PV panels to have greater amount of full
sun time for extracting greater kW from the sun every day
Wind energy:
Wind is a plentiful source of clean energy. Wind farms are an increasingly familiar sight
with wind power making an ever-increasing contribution to the National Grid. To
harness electricity from wind energy, turbines are used to drive generators which then
feed electricity into the National Grid. Although domestic or ‘off-grid’ generation
systems are available, not every property is suitable for a domestic wind turbine.
With increasing prices for fossil fuels, wind power has already become one of the
cheapest energy sources available. The cost of producing power per kilowatt hour from
conventional fossil-based sources has increased over the years, whereas the cost of
electric power produced per kilowatt has shown a reduction. As a rule of thumb, the

capital cost of 1 MW of wind power project can be around ` 6 crores per MW from
concept to commissioning. This gives a levelised cost of energy generation in the range
of ` 2.00/kWh to ` 2.50/kWh taking into consideration the fiscal benefits and other
incentives extended by the government of India. This explains the current wind rush in
India by wind power developers as well as investors. GWEC has reported that wind
farms generate power between 17 and 39 times as much power as they consume as
compared to 16 times for nuclear plants and 11 times for coal plants. In just a few
decades, the wind power has turned from an alternative energy source to a new fast
growing industrial branch worldwide. Today wind power plants (WPPs) produce
electric power at competitive costs and contribute a large share of the power in many
countries. The cost of electricity from wind has fallen in the past few years with the
advancements of technology. Wind energy is competitive with new coal and new
nuclear capacity, even before any environmental costs of fossil fuel and nuclear
generation are considered. Almost all WPPs start operating at wind speeds around 3 m/s
and produce rated power output between 11 m/s to 15 m/s and continue to do so till the
very 28 l Wind Power Technology high wind speed of 25 m/s (gale force) is achieved
as such winds are rare. Although in a year, it typically generates around 15–30% (or
more) of the theoretical rated output, the capacity factor is less than the conventional
power plants. As a simple rule of thumb, a typical 1 MW WPP produces 2 GWh/acre on
land and 3 GWh/acre offshore. With new WPPs of 80 m–100 m hub heights, these
figures would be higher; 2.5 GWh on land and 4 GWh offshore. But as the wind is free,
hence, no fuel costs; it is not logical to compare the efficiency of the WPP energy
technologies with those fossil-based power plants.
Hydro energy:
As a renewable energy resource, hydro power is one of the most commercially
developed. By building a dam or barrier, a large reservoir can be used to create a
controlled flow of water that will drive a turbine, generating electricity. This energy
source can often be more reliable than solar or wind power (especially if it's tidal rather
than river) and also allows electricity to be stored for use when demand reaches a peak.
Like wind energy, in certain situations hydro can be more viable as a commercial energy
source (dependant on type and compared to other sources of energy) but depending very
much on the type of property, it can be used for domestic, ‘off-grid’ generation.

A small hydroelectric (hydel) power plant essentially uses water pressure to drive a
turbine, which in turn feeds into a generator that creates electricity. The small hydel
power plant potential already identified in India is 15,000 MW, is largely unexploited.
Small hydel schemes use small dams or weirs, water storage reservoirs or diversion of
the rivers’ water flow through tunnels or canals. Many of the hydel plants in India could
be seasonal especially in the hilly regions during the rainy season and can be used to
power single properties or small villages, depending on the size of the installation.
Microhydro plants typically below 100 kW basically consist of two types: impulse and
reaction type. Flow is the speed of water passing in each second. The rate of flow is
called flow rate (Q) measure in litres per second. Head (H) is the vertical level difference
of water in metres from the source (say settling tank) to the turbine level. The greater is
the head, the greater will be the power output. The types of turbine to be chosen depend
on the ‘flow rate’ and the ‘head’ of the source of water flow that is available. The amount
of potential energy available at a site can be determined by multiplying the ‘head’ (in
metres) by the ‘flow rate’ (litres per second) by 9.81 m2 (gravity). The power ‘P’
available from a hydel power plant is given by: P = hG H Q (1.1) where, h = Efficiency
of the hydro turbine (between 80%–95%) G = Gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2 ) Q =
Flow rate of water (in cubic metre per second) H = Head of water (in metres)
Ocean Energy
The oceans cover three-fourth part of the earth and contain a great store of energy. The
main big advantage of ocean energy is that it is more predictable and less variable, unlike
wind energy or solar energy.
There are two broad types of ocean energy—mechanical energy from the tides and
waves, and the thermal energy from the sun’s heat. Ocean mechanical energy is quite
different from ocean thermal energy.
This ocean energy can be classified as follows:
• Tidal energy
• Wave energy
• Ocean current energy
• Ocean thermal energy.
All of these types of energy sources can be tapped for generating useful electric energy.
Tidal energy:
This is another form of hydro energy that uses twice-daily tidal currents to drive turbine

generators. Although tidal flow unlike some other hydro energy sources isn’t constant,
it is highly predictable and can therefore compensate for the periods when the tide
current is low.
The influences of the gravitational forces of the earth, sun and the moon become very
strong and cause millions of gallons of water to move or flow towards the shore creating
high tides and low tides. The coastal water level fluctuates twice daily at the seashores,
alternatively filling and emptying natural basins along the shoreline. This process of
ebbing and flowing of the tides happens twice during each period of rotation of the earth
with stronger weekly and annual lunar cycles superimposed onto these tides. The various
tidal energy technologies exploit this regular renewable energy resource.
The energy available from tidal power plant barrage that can be built to harness the tides
is dependent on the potential energy contained in the volume of water which can be
represented as follows:
E = Mg h
where,
M = Mass of water
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2 at the earth’s surface)
h = Height of the tide. Flowing water carries kinetic energy.
Moving water carries much more energy than the moving air used in wind power
because water is more denser than air. From a practical perspective, it is evident that
even the slow tidal currents may represent an economical energy source such as the very
first, La Rance tidal power plant in France. The currents flowing in and out of these
basins can be exploited to turn mechanical devices in order to produce electricity.
Wave Energy : Waves are formed by the transfer of energy from the wind to the ocean
surface. Wave height is determined by the wind speed (the length of time for which the
wind has been blowing), the fetch (distance over which the wind has been blowing),
depth and the topography of the sea floor. Wave power devices extract energy directly
from surface waves or from pressure fluctuations below the surface. The common
measure for wave power levels is the average annual power per metre of the wave crest
width parallel to the shoreline.
The average wave energy E is given as follows: E= (1/ 8)* ρgHs
where, E = Energy averaged over specific time interval
ρ = Sea water density

g = Gravitational constant
Hs = Significant wave height.
Most of the energy within a wave is contained near the surface and it falls off sharply
with depth, thereby creating the possibility of a number of technologies that can
maximise the energy capture. Depending on the location, the wave energy conversion
devices can be classified as follows:
• Shoreline wave energy devices that are embedded in the shoreline.
• Nearshore wave energy devices that are at about 20 m depth in order to extract the
wave power directly from and beyond the breaker zone.
• Offshore wave energy devices that are beyond the breaker zone using the high energy
densities and higher power wave profiles of the deeper waters.
Ocean Thermal Energy: Oceans’ cover of earth’s surface makes them the world’s
largest solar collectors. The sun’s heat warms the surface water a lot more than the deep
ocean water and this temperature difference provides exploitation of ocean thermal
energy. Tropical oceans and seas have surface water temperatures between 24°C and
33°C. Below 500 m of sea level, the temperature ranges from 9°C to 5°C. This provides
a maximum exploitable temperature difference of 28°C. In practice, the temperature
difference is likely to be closer to 20°C providing a theoretical energy conversion
efficiency of 6.7%. But since this is freely available, ocean thermal energy conversion
(OTEC) technologies can be researched and deployed to obtain grid compatible electric
power.
Geothermal energy:
By harnessing the natural heat below the earth’s surface, geothermal energy can be used
to heat homes directly or to generate electricity.
Geothermal energy makes the use of the energy stored as heat in the water deep below
the earth’s surface. Different types of geothermal energy are given below:
• Direct geothermal energy wherein the geothermal hot water is available very close to
the earth’s surface that can be used directly for heating, bathing or washing.
• Ground source geothermal wherein the geothermal hot water resource is a little deep,
but by boring it can be accessed for heating, bathing or washing.
• Geothermal power plants wherein the hot water (having very high temperature) or
steam is deep underground, but can be accessed by boring for generating geothermal

steam and then, the electricity.

Although not exploited, India’s geothermal potential stands at 10,600 MW of power .
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) of India has already taken an initiative
for implementing the demonstration projects in geothermal
energy. Under this programme, geothermal resource assessment studies will be
supported for bringing the data on potential geothermal energy exploitation sites,
especially in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand.
12. (i)Discuss the present status of world energy scenario. Nov.2020

Renewable energy can be defined as the energy sources that are natural and continually
replenished either at the same rate or faster than the rate at which they are being used
up by humans more or less indefinitely such as the sun, wind, rain, tides, biomass and
geothermal energy. Green energy, alternative energy and sustainable energy are the
other synonyms sometimes used to describe the renewable energy that is converted into
either electricity, heat or mechanical power for use in homes or in industries by clean,
harmless and non-polluting methods. But it is important to understand the differences
between the technologies used by each of the different sources to make the right choice
for any particular application.
The crude oil crisis which began in 1971 and the continuously increasing prices for
fossil fuels, has adversely affected the economic growth of developing countries. This
woke up the world to look for the alternative and sustainable energy solutions.
Therefore, energy security calls for using renewable energy resources.
With rapid economic growth, the demand for energy is increasing. Energy is by far the
largest industry in the world. It is worth about US $ 7 trillion per year while the world’s
total GDP is about US $ 55 trillion. Thus, the energy industry is worth more than 10%
of the entire world’s economy. As reported by Renewable Energy World Magazine in
their February 2, 2018 Issue, for the first time in history in 2017 in the 28 nation
European Union, the power from renewables generated jointly by wind, solar and
biomass was an all time high of 20.9% of all power, overtaking the power generated by
coal which was down to 20.6%. Since 1980s, the government of India (and many other
governments) has introduced myriad of incentives for the use and promotion of
renewable energy sources.

Table: shows a comparison of renewable and conventional energy
India has made important progress towards meeting the United Nations
Sustainable Development Goals, notably Goal 7 on delivering energy access. Both the
energy and emission intensities of India’s gross domestic product (GDP) have
decreased by more than 20% over the past decade. This represents commendable
progress even as total energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions continue to rise.
India’s per capita emissions today are 1.6 tonnes of CO2, well below the global average
of 4.4 tonnes, while its share of global total CO2 emissions is some 6.4%.
India is an active player at international fora in the fight against climate change. The
country’s Nationally Determined Contribution under the Paris Agreement sets out
targets to reduce the emissions intensity of its economy and increase the share of non-
fossil fuels in its power generation capacity while also creating an additional carbon
sink by increasing forest and tree cover. Although the emissions intensity of India’s
GDP has decreased in line with targeted levels, progress towards a low-carbon
electricity supply remains challenging.
India has taken significant steps to improve energy efficiency, which have avoided an
additional 15% of annual energy demand and 300 million tonnes of CO2 emissions over
the period 2000‑18, according to IEA analysis. The major programmes target industry
and business, relying on large-scale public procurement of efficient products such as
LEDs and the use of tradable energy efficiency certificates. The government’s LED
programme has radically pushed down the price of the products in the global market
and helped create local manufacturing jobs to meet the demand for energy-efficient
lighting.
Based on current policies, India’s energy demand could double by 2040, with electricity
demand potentially tripling as a result of increased appliance ownership and cooling

needs. Without significant improvements in energy efficiency, India will need to add
massive amounts of power generation capacity to meet demand from the 1 billion air-
conditioning units the country is expected to have by 2050. By raising the level of its
energy efficiency ambition, India could save some USD 190 billion per year in energy
imports by 2040 and avoid electricity generation of 875 terawatt hours per year, almost
half of India’s current annual power generation.
Recent IEA analysis shows that in 2018, India’s investment in solar PV was greater
than in all fossil fuel sources of electricity generation together. Large-scale auctions
have contributed to swift renewable energy development at rapidly decreasing prices.
By December 2019, India had deployed a total of 84 GW of grid-connected renewable
electricity capacity. By comparison, India’s total generating capacity reached 366 GW
in 2019. India is making progress towards its target of 175 GW of renewables by 2022.
In September 2019, it is announced that India’s electricity mix would eventually include
450 GW of renewable energy capacity. Progress towards these targets will require a
focus on unlocking the flexibility needed for effective system integration. This can
potentially be achieved by improving the design of renewables auctions, with clear
trajectories and criteria to reflect quality, location and system value, along with
measures to foster grid expansion and demand-side response across India.
India has been addressing energy-related environmental pollution since the 1980s,
including air, water, land and waste issues. Reducing the health impacts of air pollution
is a key priority. Over the years, the government has been progressively strengthened
rules to combat air pollution, and adopted the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP),
which focuses on monitoring and enforcement. Real progress on the ground has so far
been limited, with the deadline for the enforcement of stringent air pollution standards
for thermal power plants pushed back from 2017 to 2021/22. However, the
implementation of the NCAP is expected to help improve this issue.
India is particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts and is exposed to growing

water stress, storms, floods and other extreme weather events. Adaptation and resilience
of the energy system to these extreme climate conditions should be a high political
priority. Furthermore, the energy sector is a large water user. As India’s energy demand
continues to grow, the government should ensure that energy planning takes into
account the water–energy nexus, as well as future space cooling needs.

(ii) Criticize the energy planning issues aiming to bridge the gap between the
energy demand and supply situation in India. (November 2020)
India is world’s 3rd largest producer (3,44,690 MW) and 3rd largest electrical energy
consumer as on September 2018. Massively expanding the large scale deployment of
both centralised and distributed renewable energy including solar, wind, small hydro,
biomass, and geothermal will ease the strain on the present transmission and distribution
systems. As on September 2018 .India is having the 6th largest installed electric
generation capacity of 3,44,002 MW. Of this total installed power, the contribution from
thermal power plants is 2,22,906 MW (64.80%), large hydroelectric power plants is
45,293 MW (13.17%), nuclear power is 6,780 MW (1.97%) and that from all renewable
sources put together is 70,648 MW (20.54%).
The grid connected renewable energy in India is (see Figure 1.2): 70,648 MW (on
September 2018), wind power 34,294 MW (9.9%) small hydro—4,493 MW (1.3%),
biomass—8,839 MW (2.6%), Solar PV—23,023 MW (6.7%). India plans to make a
massive switch over from coal, oil, natural gas and nuclear power plants to renewable
energy power plants, as MNRE has targeted to have an installed capacity of 1,00,000
MW of solar power and 60,000 MW of wind power by the year 2022. The large scale
deployment of solar and wind power projects which represent a bright spot on India’s
economic future needs to be continued even at a quicker pace in order to effect the
smooth transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources. In 1982, the foundation
stone for harnessing renewable energy was laid in India by the establishment of the
Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (DNES). In 1992 the DNES was
converted into the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) and later in
2006 it was re-christened as Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Sources (MNRE).

In order to fully exploit the indigenous renewable energy sources at its doorstep, the
MNRE has been addressing several challenges to remove the barriers that are holding
back the development, by formulating suitable policies and setting up demonstration
projects for various types of renewable energy power plants in various parts of India
build up investor confidence and to promote research even in the private sector.
Table depicts the presently available potential of the grid connected renewable sources
in India
The initial policy support for renewable energy began in 1993 when MNES issued
guidelines for purchase of power prescribing the power purchase tariff of ` 2.25 kWh
with annual escalation of 5% for the power generated from renewable energy sources.
The renewable energy initiatives got a shot in the arm with the enactment of Indian
Electricity Act 2003 and the State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERC), which
states that every utility will have to mandatorily purchase the energy from the renewable
energy sector. In 2011, the trading of renewable energy certificates (REC) started in
India in line with the renewable purchase obligations (RPO) by various states of India.
Under the National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC), the government has set
a goal for 15% of renewable energy (excluding the large hydroelectric power plants)
and 15% of wind power by 2020 to promote renewable energy. India has reiterated its

commitment by upscaling the renewable energy target to 175 GW capacity by 2022 to

provide equitable sustainable development.
Table provides an overview of the capital cost for 1 kW of energy and generation cost
of 1 kWh of electrical energy from various energy sources.
UNIT II WIND ENERGY

PART - A
1. What is wind power?
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into more useful forms, such as
electricity, using wind turbines. Wind power is used in large scale wind farms
for national electrical grids as well as in small individual turbines for providing
electricity to rural residences or grid-isolated locations.
2. Mention two important wind turbine generator installations in India.
There is a growing number of wind energy installations in states across
India. some of them are
RANK POWER PLANT PRODUCER LOCATION STATE MWe
Muppandal
1 Muppandal Wind Kanyakumari Tamil Nadu 1500
windfarm[33]

Jaisalmer Wind
2 Suzlon Energy Jaisalmer Rajasthan 1064
Park[34]
Brahmanvel Parakh Agro

3 Dhule Maharashtra 528
windfarm[35] Industries
Dhalgaon Gadre Marine

4 Sangli Maharashtra 278
windfarm[36] Exports
Vankusawade Suzlon Energy Satara

5 Maharashtra 259
Wind Park Ltd. District.
3. Write and explain wind power equation.

The wind power equation is expressed as follows:
P = 0.5*ρ*A*V³*E
Where: P = Power in Watts; ρ= Air Density in Kg/m³ (about 1.225Kg/m³ at sea

level, less higher up); A = Rotor Swept Area in m² = πr² (r= radius or blade
length); V = Wind Speed in m/s (cubed); E = Efficiency in percent
4. What is the type of generator used in wind power plant?

Several different types of generators which are used in wind turbines are as
follows. Asynchronous (induction) generator and synchronous generator.
Squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG) and wound rotor induction generator
(WRIG) are comes under asynchronous generators. Wound rotor generator
(WRSG) and permanent magnet generator (PMSG) are comes under
synchronous generator.
5. Define Tip speed ratio.
The Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) is an extremely important factor in wind turbine
design. TSR refers to the ratio between the wind speed and the speed of the tips
of the wind turbine blades.

TSR (λ) = Tip Speed of Blade /Wind Speed

TSR is the speed of the blade at its tip divided by the speed of the wind. For
example, if the tip of a blade is traveling at 100 mph (161 kph) and the wind
speed is 20 mph (32 kph or 9 m/s), then the TSR is 5 (100 mph/20 mph). Simply
put, the tip of the blade is traveling five times faster than the speed of the wind.
The Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) is used by wind turbine designers to properly match
and optimize a blade set to a particular generator (i.e. the permanent magnet
alternator).
6. State the significance of induction generator based wind power generation.
Induction Generator construction is based on the very common squirrel-cage induction
motor type machine as they are cheap, reliable, and readily available in a wide range of
electrical sizes The induction generator can be connected directly to the utility grid and
driven directly by the turbines rotor blades at variable wind speeds. For economy and
reliability many wind power turbines use induction motors as generator which are
driven through a mechanical gearbox to increase their speed of rotation, performance
and efficiency.
7. What are wind farms?

A wind farm or wind park, also called a wind power station or wind power
plant, is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce
electricity. Wind farms vary in size from a small number of turbines to several
hundred wind turbines covering an extensive area. Wind farms can be either
onshore or offshore.
8. How the wind mills are classified?
There are different types of windmills,Which windmill to use is dependent on the

requirement.
Post Mill
One of the basic use of post mill is for grinding stone,but since it is small in size , there
is limitation in grinding. The two types of post mill, open and close post mill for open
bottom timber is exposed to the elements and for closed bottom timber are enclosed and
is used for storage.
Simple Drain Mill
As the name suggest Simple Drain Mill is used in irrigation to pump water into irrigation

canals. This small mill is designed with sails fixed in hollow pipe with archimedean
screw. This drain mill is used in extremely swampy lands
American windmill
This windmill does not require attention by the operator. Initially the windmill was build
from wood and required lot of maintenance. As time went the wood was replaced by
metal and found lot of reliability .Also there was improvement with self-oiling gearboxs
and pivoting wind wheels used by windmill. This were more efficient and maintenance
free.
Tower Mill
Tower mill are install across the sea shore facing the sea to generate energy.The sail of
the tower is similar to sail of the boats. The sails have several masts–structure above the
upper part of the boat to hold sails–are fixed to a rotating shaft.
9. What are the advantages of wind power?

• Clean & Environment friendly Fuel source:– It doesn’t pollute air like power
plant relying on combustion of fossil fuel. It does not produce atmospheric
emissions that cause acid rain or green house gases (carbon dioxide (CO2) or
methane (CH4)). Noise and visual pollution are both environmental factors, but
they don’t have a negative effect on the earth, water table or the quality of the
air we breathe.
• Renewable & Sustainable:– Winds are caused by heating of atmosphere by the
sun, earth surface irregularities and the rotation of the earth. For as long as the
sun shines the wind blows, the energy produced can be harnessed and It will
never run out, unlike the Earth’s fossil fuel reserves.
• Cost Effective:– Wind energy is completely free. There’s no market for the
demand and supply of wind energy’s, It can be used by anyone and is one of the
lowest price renewable technologies available today, depending upon the wind
resource and the particular project’s financing.
• Industrial and Domestic Installation:– Wind turbines can be built on existing
farms or ranches where most of the best wind sites are found. Wind turbines uses
only a fraction of the land which causes no trouble in work for the farmers and
rancher, providing landowners with additional income paid by the owners of the
wind power plants. Many landowners opt to install smaller, less powerful wind
turbines in order to provide part of a domestic electricity supply.

• Job Creation:– Jobs have been created for the manufacture of wind turbines,
the installation and maintenance of wind turbines and also in wind energy
consulting. According to the Wind Vision Report, wind has the potential to
support more than 600,000 jobs in manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and
supporting services by 2050.
10. What are the disadvantages of wind power?
• Fluctuation of Wind and Good wind sites:– Wind energy has a drawback that
it is not a constant energy source. Although wind energy is sustainable and will
never run out, the wind isn’t always blowing. This can cause serious problems
for wind turbine developers who will often spend significant time and money
investigating whether or not a particular site is suitable for the generation of wind
power. For a wind turbine to be efficient, the location where it is built needs to
have an adequate supply of wind energy.
• Noise and aesthetic pollution:– Wind turbines generate noise and visual
pollution. A single wind turbine can be heard from hundreds of meters away.
Although steps are often taken to site wind turbines away from dwellings. Many
people like the look of wind turbines, others do not and see them as a blot on the
landscape.
• Not a profitable use of land:– Alternative uses for the land might be more
highly valued than electricity generation.
• Threat to wildlife:– Birds have been killed by flying into spinning turbine
blades. However it is believed that wind turbines pose less of a threat to wildlife
than other man made structures such as cell phone masts and radio towers. Most
of the problems have been resolved or greatly reduced through technological
development or by properly siting wind plants.
11. Define Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT).
A vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWT) is a type of wind turbine where the main
rotor shaft is set transverse to the wind (but not necessarily vertically) while the
main components are located at the base of the turbine. This arrangement allows
the generator and gearbox to be located close to the ground, facilitating service
and repair. A vertical axis wind turbine has its axis perpendicular to the wind
streamlines and vertical to the ground.
12. What is meant by pitch angle?

The angle of pitch is the angle between the main body axis and the horizon.
Wind turbines use this to adjust the rotation speed and the generated power. The
pitch angle is a potential parameter to enhance the performance of VAWTs.
13. What is called teethering?

The tethered wind turbine uses an aerodynamic, flow-concentrating shape and
lighter-than-air construction utilizing a lifting gas and an electrically conductive
tether fixed to ground to reap energy from the wind at low or high altitude. The
process of adding above features to conventional wind turbine is known as teethering.
14. How the turbine is rotated at variable speed?
Most wind turbines run at almost constant speed with direct grid connection. With
indirect grid connection, the wind turbine generator runs in its own AC-grid. This grid
is controlled by an inverter, so that the frequency of the alternating current in the stator
of the generator may be varied. In this way it is possible to run the turbine at variable
rotational speed.
15. Draw the schematic diagram of grid integrated PMSG based WECS
16. How to assess the wind energy pattern for a particular location?
Towers equipped with anemometers, wind vanes, and temperature, pressure,
and relative humidity sensors are installed. Data from these towers must be
recorded for at least one year to calculate an annually representative wind speed
frequency distribution.
17. Draw torque speed characteristics of Induction Generator (Nov/Dec 2018)

18. Why are Induction generators preferred over DC generators?

The Induction generator is preferred over DC generators for the following
reasons:
• It is less expensive and more readily available than a synchronous

generator.
• It does not require DC field excitation voltage
• It automatically synchronize with the power system, so its controls are
simple and less expensive
19. How the turbine is rotated at variable speed?
Most wind turbines run at almost constant speed with direct grid connection.
With indirect grid connection, the wind turbine generator runs in its own AC-
grid. This grid is controlled by an inverter, so that the frequency of the alternating
current in the stator of the generator may be varied. In this way it is possible to
run the turbine at variable rotational speed.
20. What are the advantages and disadvantages of self-excited Induction

generator?
Advantages: a) It has robust construction requiring less maintenance. Also it is
relatively cheaper b) It has small size per kW output power c) It runs in parallel
without hunting d) No synchronization to the supply line is required like a
Disadvantages: a)It cannot generate reactive volt amperes from the supply line
to furnish its excitation.
21. What are the main site selection consideration foe WECS?
Some of the main site selection consideration are given below:

• High annual average wind speed:

• Availability of anemometry data:
• Availability of wind V(t) Curve at the proposed site:
• Wind structure at the proposed site:
• Altitude of the proposed site:
• Terrain and its aerodynamic:
• Local Ecology.
22. What are the basic principles of wind conversion?
The wind mill works on the principle of converting Kinetic energy of the wind to
mechanical energy. We know that power is equal to energy per unit time.
The energy available is the kinetic energy of the wind. The kinetic energy of any
particle is equal to one half its mass times the square of its velocity.
23. What are the main components of WECS?

The electrical aspect of WECS can be divided into three main components,
which are wind turbine generators (WTGs), power electronic converters (PECs)
and the utility grid.
24. What are some of the main points of installation?

• Dig a hole . The depth of the hole will depend upon your location and soils.
Hard rock obviously needs a smaller hole than sandy or loose soils.
• Place the anchor bolts, rebarand pour concrete.
• Unload the turbine, bolt the pole together, assemble ladder, platform, blades,
wiring, tail assembly.
• Run the wiring through the center of the pole, dig a trench, put wire in conduit,
run to building,
• Rent a crain and they will lift the pole up so it can be bolted onto the anchors.
Use the crain to lift the turbine up, screw on the blades
• Hook the electric lines to your inverter (grid tie) and attach controller, inverter
and dump load to system, turbine and breaker box.
• Some utilities require a contract, the owner will need to fill this out and deal
with them, or ask the electrician to do so.
• Turn it on.

25. How Efficient is Wind vs Coal?

Coal fired power plans lose about 2/3 of the energy that is burned, the losses
mean that only 33% of the energy in the coal becomes electricity. The
electricity leaves the power plant and depending on the efficiency of the energy
"lines" and the distance, we see transmission losses from 11% to 15%. So, let's
assume a transmission loss of 13%,(making transmission efficiency 87 percent.
So the end to end efficiency of coal fired power is probably .33 x . 87 =
28.71 %.(71.29% of the energy never makes it to the consumer). Of course in
the process coal leaves coal sludge, dirty air, and a huge health problem for
millions of people. Coal also uses millions of gallons of water and leaves that
water residue toxic.
An average wind turbine converts about 30% of the energy in the wind into
electricity. Line losses for locally used industrial or commercial turbiines are 1
to 2% (vs 12% line loss for the central grid system. So .30 x .98 =29.4 So wind
is more efficient, and also uses no water, creates no pollution, and is much
cheaper to build and install, with no negative impacts upon the land, water or
air.
26. Mention the factors which determine the power in wind.(Nov. 2020)
Power in the wind is given by the equation,

P = 0.5*ρ*A*V³
Where: P = Power in Watts; ρ= Air Density in Kg/m³ (about 1.225Kg/m³ at sea level,
less higher up); A = Rotor Swept Area in m² = πr² (r= radius or blade length); V = Wind
Speed in m/s (cubed)
The factors which determine the power in the wind are the air density, rotor swept area,
wind speed.
PART B
1) Explain about wind turbine generators.
Wind turbines work on a simple principle: instead of using electricity to make

wind—like a fan—wind turbines use wind to make electricity. Wind turns the propeller-
like blades of a turbine around a rotor, which spins a generator, which creates electricity.

Wind is a form of solar energy caused by a combination of three concurrent events:

• The sun unevenly heating the atmosphere
• Irregularities of the earth's surface
• The rotation of the earth.
Wind flow patterns and speeds vary greatly and are modified by bodies of water,
vegetation, and differences in terrain. Humans use this wind flow, or motion energy, for
many purposes: sailing, flying a kite, and even generating electricity.
The terms "wind energy" and "wind power" both describe the process by which the
wind is used to generate mechanical power or electricity. This mechanical power can
be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can
convert this mechanical power into electricity.
Figure shows the wind turbine system.A wind turbine turns wind energy into electricity
using the aerodynamic force from the rotor blades, which work like an airplane wing or
helicopter rotor blade. When wind flows across the blade, the air pressure on one side
of the blade decreases. The difference in air pressure across the two sides of the blade
creates both lift and drag. The force of the lift is stronger than the drag and this causes
the rotor to spin. The rotor connects to the generator, either directly (if it’s a direct drive
turbine) or through a shaft and a series of gears (a gearbox) that speed up the rotation
and allow for a physically smaller generator. This translation of aerodynamic force to
rotation of a generator creates electricity.

Figure : wind turbine system
Types of Wind Turbines

The majority of wind turbines fall into two basic types:
Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT)
Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT)
2) Explain the operating principle of Squirrel cage induction generator SCIG
coupled with wind turbine.
Working of SCIG with wind turbine:
SCIG and DFIG are used almost exclusively in the energy conversion stage of the
induction generator wind power system. The most commonly used system topologies
are SCIG directly connected into the power grid and DFIG fed by back-to-back
converter .The first topology implies a constant frequency and voltage of the SCIG that
establishes a fixed-speed operation. In such system, the SCIG relies on the grid (or
capacitor bank) to provide reactive power which is necessary to build electromagnetic
excitation for rotary field. The generating mode of SCIG is triggered by driven torque
which acts opposite to the generator speed within the super-synchronous speed
operation region. Due to the absence of the power electronics interface, such system
can only serve the grid support applications, wherein just limited control (pitch angle
control) can be applied.

As a fixed-speed wind power system, SCIG is directly connected to the grid through
transformer and thus operates at almost constant speed without controlling from power
electronics interface. It was commonly used in Denmark during 1980s and 1990s and
thus is also called “Danish Concept” system.
Figure shows the schematics of entire SCIG wind system including the wind turbine,
pitch control, and reactive power compensator. The entire system includes three stages
for delivering the energy from wind turbine to the power grid. The first one is wind
farm stage which handles with low-voltage Vwt; the second is distribution stage which
has medium-voltage Vdis; the third is grid transmission stage which has high-voltage
Vgrid. The three-phase transformers take care of the interface between two stages . The
nominal power is considered as active power reference to regulate the pitch angle, while
the distribution line-to-line voltage and phase current are monitored to favor the reactive
power compensation for distribution line. This fairly straightforward technique was
firstly used since it is simple, with rugged construction, has reliable operation and is
low cost. However, the fixed-speed nature and potential voltage instability problem
severely limit the operations of SCIG wind system .
Figure : SCIG wind power system configuration
3) Explain the principle and operation of induction generator for wind energy
conversion system.
Model and control of DFIG (doubly fed induction generator):

Squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG) and Doubly fed induction generator can be
used for wind energy conversion system. (WECS). SCIG is explained in the above
section clearly and this section portrays the DFIG based system.
DFIG based WECS:
Traditionally, the dynamic slip control is employed to fulfill the variable-speed

operation in induction generator wind system, in which the rotor windings are connected
with variable resistor and control the slip by varied resistance. This type of system
attains limited variations of generator speed but external reactive power source is still
necessary. In order to completely remove the reactive power compensation and control
both active and reactive power independently, DFIG wind power system is one of most
popular methods in wind energy applications
The DFIG wind power system with associated back-to-back converter is a typical
variable speed system as shown in Figure 9.The generator stator windings are connected
directly to grid (with fixed voltage and frequency of grid) while the rotor windings are
fed by an AC/DC/AC IGBT-based PWM converter (back-to-back converter with
capacitor dc-link), at variable frequency through slip rings and brushes. Although such
system needs the gearbox and slip rings to function, many advantages enable DFIG
system to dominate most wind market nowadays. It facilitates variation of a wide speed
range (±30% around synchronous speed), the lower rating requirement on power
converters (30% of generator power), and thus lower cost. Also, it has high efficiency
induced by bidirectional power flow, and the ability to perform reactive power
compensation and smooth grid integration. In this configuration, the back-to-back
converter consists of two parts: the stator/grid-side converter and the rotor-side
converter. Both are voltage source converters while a capacitor bank between two
converters acts as a dc voltage interface.

Figure : DFIG wind power system configuration
4) Discuss about the cooling system adopted for generators.
Generator Cooling Systems:

Each generator set manufacturer offers different options for design of the cooling
system. The two most common styles of cooling systems are closed loop and open loop
systems. Closed loop systems incorporate cooling pump(s), cooling fan and radiator(s)
located on a skid as an all in one unit. In addition, container and trailer options are
offered.
An ethylene glycol based coolant is circulated through the cooling system components.
Three common cooling system configurations are:
Single Pump Single Loop (SPSL) – SPSL systems are common in smaller to mid-size
generator applications.It is shown in fig.10. Operation for this system as follows:
• Engine starts, direct drive pump is driven and fan clutch is rotating.
• Engine reaches operating temperature, coolant thermostat opens and fan clutch
engages.
• Ethylene glycol coolant is supplied to engine block and cylinder head internal
components, such as oil cooler and intercooler.
• Air is pulled through the radiator.
• Return coolant flow is directed to radiator.

Figure : SPSL Cooling System Configuration
Double Pump Double Loop (DPLP) – DPLP cooling system configurations are
common to large generators and when a generator is located in a high ambient
temperature atmosphere.It is shown in fig.11. Operations for this system as follows:
• Engine starts, direct drive pump is driven and fan clutch is rotating.
• Engine reaches operating temperature, coolant thermostat opens and fan clutch
engages.
• One pump routes ethylene glycol coolant to engine block and cylinder head.
• Remaining pump routes ethylene glycol coolant to internal components, such as oil
cooler and intercooler.
• Air is pulled through the radiator.
• Return coolant flow is directed to the individual radiators.
Figure : DPDL Cooling System Configuration

Open Loop (SPSL) – Open loop systems are generally used in marine applications,
although could be used where any acceptable body of water is available. Operation for
this system as follows:
• Engine starts, direct drive pump is driven supplying seawater to thermostat.
• Engine reaches operating temperature, seawater thermostat opens and allows seawater
flow through engine block, cylinder head and components such as oil cooler and
intercooler.
• Return seawater is routed back to source.
Figure : Open Loop (SPSL) Cooling System Configuration
5) Explain the operation of DFIG based wind power generation with its
characteristics and limitations? Illustrate the independent dq control strategy
adopted for dq control.
dq model of DFIG:
The modeling is conducted under the dq reference frame. The equivalent circuits of
DFIG in the dq reference frame are depicted in Figure 12(a, b) and the relationships
between voltage V, current I, flux Ψ, and torque Te can be derived by writing KVL
equations. For stator-side, the d- and q-axis voltage components are given as:
Vds=RsIds−ωsΨqs+(Lls+Lm)dIdsdt+LmdIdrdt
aVqs=RsIqs+ωsΨds+(Lls+Lm)dIqsdt+LmdIqrdt b (1)
And similarly, the d- and q-axis voltage components in rotor-side are given as:

Vdr=RrIdr−sωsΨqr+(Llr+Lm)dIdrdt+LmdIdsdt
aVqr=RrIqr+sωsΨdr+(Llr+Lm)dIqrdt+LmdIqsdt b (2)
Because the flux linkage along d- and q-axis follow:
Ψds= LsIds + LmIdr aΨqs= LsIqs + LmIqr b (3)
Ψdr= LrIdr + LmIds aΨqr= LrIqr + LmIqs b (4)
The reorganized DFIG stator voltages in d- and q-axis, respectively, are presented as:
Vds= RsIds− ωsΨqs+ dΨdsdt aVqs= RsIqs+ ωsΨds+ dΨqsdt b (5)
And the DFIG rotor voltages in d- and q-axis, respectively, are presented as:
Vdr= RrIdr− sωsΨqr+ dΨdrdt aVqr= RrIqr+ sωsΨdr+ dΨqrdt b (6)
The generator electromagnetic torque is correspondingly given as:
Te= 32np(ΨdsIqs− ΨqsIds) (7)
where Ls=Lls+Lm; Lr=Llr+Lm; and sωs = ωs – ωr represents the difference between

synchronous speed and generator speed; subscripts r, s, m, d, q denote the rotor, stator,
magnitizing, d-axis and q-axis components, respectively; Te is electromagnetic torque;
Lm and np are generator mutual inductance and the number of pole pairs, respectively.
Figure : Equivalent circuit of DFIG ((a) d-axis; (b) q-axis)

Control of rotor-side converter:
The control of DFIG modeled above is applied on back-to-back converter and is

therefore also divided into rotor-side control and stator-side control.
First, the rotor-side converter is studied. To d-axis, the rotor flux linkage Ψqr is
Vdr=RrIdr−sωs(LrIqr+LmIqs)+d(LrIdr+LmIds)dt (8)
By substituting the Ids by Ψds in Equation (8a), the Equation (13) can be expressed as:
Vdr=RrIdr−sωsLrIqr−sωsLmIqs+LrdIdrdt+LmLsd(Ψds−LmIdr)dt (9)
Because it is directly connected to the grid, the stator voltage shares constant magnitude
and frequency of grid voltage. One could make the d-axis align with stator voltage
vector, and it is true that Vs=Vds and Vqs=0, thus Ψs=Ψqs and Ψds=0, which are stator
voltage-oriented vector control scheme, as depicted in Figure 13. Therefore, Equation
(14) can be organized as:
Vdr =[Rr+(Lr−Lm2Ls)ddt]Idr−sωs[LrIqr+LmIqs] (10)
Equation (10) implies that the d-axis rotor voltage consists of two voltage components
Vdr1 and Vdr2:
Vdr1 =[Rr+(Lr−Lm2Ls)ddt]Idr aVdr2 =−sωs[LrIqr+LmIqs] (11)

Figure :Stator voltage FOC reference frame
The Vdr1 is called current regulation part and depicted by Figure 14, where σ = Lr -
Lm2/Ls. Due to the linear relationship between Vdr1 and Idr, the PI controller is
employed. Besides, Vdr2 is the cross-coupling part and requires feedforward
compensation for a complete control. Eventually, the rotor-side converter voltage in d-
axis is derived as:
Vdrc= Vdr= Vdr1+ Vdr2 (12)
where subscript rc denotes the rotor-side converter. After the conversion of dq-abc, the
rotor-side converter voltage Vabc_rc can be obtained, which is used to generate PWM
control signals for rotor-side converter.
Figure : Current regulation part of d-axis rotor-side converter voltage.

Limitations:
The DFIG wind turbines are able to control active and reactive power independently.
However, reactive power capability of these generators is limited by rotor current, stator
current, and rotor voltage . This section shows only the maximum reactive power
equations associated with the rotor current, since it is typically the limiting factor
regarding reactive power production. The reactive power limits associated with the
stator current and rotor voltage are stated mathematically. The rotor current limits
depend on the generator design and the rotor converter capacity, which is 30% of the
nominal generator power.
Eq.(1) represents maximum reactive power injected limited by rotor current The rotor
current limits depend on the generator design and the rotor converter capacity, which is
30% of the nominal generator power. Eq.(1) represents maximum reactive power
injected limited by rotor current.
Qs max = SIr max2 − P2 s + Q0s

(1)
SIr max = |Ir max|.|Vs|. Xm Xm + Xs
(2)
Q0s = − |Vs| 2 Xm + Xs
(3)
where Qs max, stator reactive power limit(p.u.); SIr max, stator apparent power limit as
a function ofthe rotor current(p.u.); Q0s, reactive power absorbed by the machine due
to rotor current (p.u.); Ps,active power injected at the stator (p.u.); Ir max, maximum
rotor current (p.u.); Vs, stator voltage (p.u.); Xm, magnetizing reactance
(p.u.); Xs, stator leakage reactance (p.u.).
6) Explain machine capacity factor and capacity utilization factor. Explain the
principle of operation of double output induction generator system with a neat
diagram.
Machine capacity factor
The capacity factor is defined as the ratio of the total actual energy produced or
supply over a definite period, to the energy that would have been produced if the plant

(generating unit) had operated continuously at the maximum rating. The capacity
factor mainly depends on the type of the fuel used in the circuit.
The power plant always has some reserve capacity for the future expansion like an
increase in load and maintenance. If the rate plant capacity is equal to the peak load,
then the capacity factor and load factor become identical, i.e. in the absence of reverse
capacity.
Capacity Utilisation Factor:
Capacity Utilisation Factor(C.U.F) = (Actual energy from the plant(kwh)) / (Plant

Capacity (kwp) x 24 x 365)
It is the ratio of the actual output from a solar plant over the year to the maximum
possible output from it for a year under ideal conditions. Capacity utilisation factor is
usually expressed in percentage.
Principle of operation of double output induction generator system
A Doubly Fed Induction generator as its name suggests is a 3 phase

induction generator where both the rotor and stator windings are fed with 3 phase AC
signal. It consists of multi phase windings placed on both the rotor and stator bodies. It
also consists of a multiphase slip ring assembly to transfer power to the rotor. It is
typically used to generate electricity in wind turbine generators.
The DFIG consists of a 3 phase wound rotor and a 3 phase wound stator.
The rotor is fed with a 3 phase AC signal which induces an ac current in the rotor
windings. As the wind turbines rotate, they exert mechanical force on the rotor, causing
it to rotate. As the rotor rotates the magnetic field produced due to the ac current also
rotates at a speed proportional to the frequency of the ac signal applied to the rotor
windings. As a result a constantly rotating magnetic flux passes through the stator
windings which cause induction of ac current in the stator winding. Thus the speed of
rotation of the stator magnetic field depends on the rotor speed as well as the frequency
of the ac current fed to the rotor windings.
The basic requirement for the electricity generation using wind energy is to produce ac
signal of constant frequency irrespective of the wind speed. In other words the

frequency of the ac signal generated across the stator should be constant irrespective of
the rotor speed variations. To achieve this, the frequency of ac signal applied to the rotor
windings need to be adjusted.
The frequency of the rotor ac signal increases as the rotor speed decreases and is of
positive polarity and vice versa. Thus the frequency of rotor signal should be adjusted
such the stator signal frequency is equal to the network line frequency. This is done by
adjusting the phase sequence of the rotor windings such that the rotor magnetic field is
in the same direction as the generator rotor (in case of decreasing rotor speed) or in
opposite direction as the generator rotor (in case of increasing rotor speed).
The whole system consists of two back to back converters – a
machine side converter and a grid side converter, connected in the feedback loop of the
system. The machine side converter is used to control the active and reactive powers by
controlling the d-q components of the rotor and also torque and speed of the machine.
The grid side converter is used to maintain a constant dc link voltage and ensures the
unity power factor operation by making the reactive power drawn from the utility grid
to zero. A capacitor is connected between the two converters such that it acts as an
energy storage unit. This back to back arrangement provides a fixed voltage fixed
frequency output irrespective of the variable frequency, variable voltage output of the
generator. Other applications of the induction generators are fly-wheel energy storage
systems, pumped storage power plants, power converters feeding a railway power grid
from public grid where the frequency is fixed.

7) Describe the power conditioning schemes used in WECS.
The term Power Conditioning System (PCS) refers to the general class of
devices that use power electronics technologies to convert electric power from one form
to another; for example, converting between direct current (DC) and alternating current
(AC), and/or providing specific operational interface functionalities required by the
subsystems being interfaced by the PCS.
The power conditioning system (PCS) used for connecting renewable energy
sources to the distribution utility grid requires generation of high quality electric power,
being at the same time flexible, efficient and reliable. The PCS proposed is composed
of a back to back ac-dc-ac power converter that fulfills all the requirements mentioned
above, as depicted in the above figure.
The introduction of variable renewables, storage and microgrids into today's electrical
grid requires conversion of electric power from one form to another (AC to/from DC
and/or conversion between different voltage levels), and requires conditioning the
power quality to what is needed by the subsystems being integrated. These functions
are performed by Power Conditioning Systems (PCSs) that are a key enabler to utilizing
renewables, storage and microgrids on a large scale. This project develops measurement
methods for PCSs and associated high-megawatt power electronics technologies needed
for these applications, and supports PCS performance standards development to provide
smart grid interactive interfaces for these devices. The PCS grid applications supported

include smart grid interfaces for individual renewable/clean energy and storage systems
including plug-in vehicles used as storage, as well as microgrids, and DC circuits. A
long term goal of this project is to demonstrate the interoperability of these devices in
a building and campus scale microgrid demonstration at NIST.
8)i) Explain the working and operation of PMSG with neat diagram. (Nov
2014,May 2015,April 2018, Nov 2018)
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators:
The permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) has several significant

advantageous properties. The construction is simple and does not required external
magnetization, which is important especially in stand-alone wind power applications
and also in remote areas where the grid cannot easily supply the reactive power required
to magnetize the induction generator.
Similar to the previous externally supplied field current synchronous generator, the
most common type of power conversion uses a bridge rectifier
(controlled/uncontrolled), a DC
link, and inverter as shown in Fig. 27.65 [78–80]. Figure 27.66 shows a wind energy
system where a PMSG is connected to a three-phase rectifier followed by a boost
converter. In this case, the boost converter controls the electromagnet torque and the
supply side converter regulates the DC link voltage as well as controlling the input
power factor. One drawback of this configuration is the use of diode rectifier that

increases the current amplitude and distortion of the PMSG.
As a result, this configuration have been considered for small size wind energy
conversion systems (smaller than 50 kW). The advantage of the system in Fig. 27.65
with regardant to the system showed in Fig. 27.66 is, it allows the generator to operate
near its optimal working point in order to minimize the losses in the generator and power
electronic circuit. However, the performance is dependent on the good knowledge of
the generator parameter that varies with temperature and frequency. The main
drawbacks, in the use of PMSG, are the cost of permanent magnet that increase the price
of machine, demagnetization of the permanent magnet material, and it is not possible to
control the power factor of the machine
To extract maximum power at unity power factor from a PMSG and feed this power
(also at unity power factor) to the grid, the use of back-to-back connected PWM voltage
source converters are proposed [81]. Moreover, to reduce the overall cost, reduced
switch PWM voltage source converters (four switch) instead of conventional (six
switch) converters for variable speed drive systems can be used. It is shown that by
using both rectifier and inverter current control or flux based control, it is possible to
obtain unity power factor operation both at the WTG and the grid. Other mechanisms
can also be included to maximize power extraction from the VSWT (i.e. MPPT
techniques) or sensor-less approaches to further reduce cost and increase reliability and
performance of the systems.

ADVANTAGES (PMSG):
• They are relatively secure and stable during their operation and don’t require any
external power supply, to excite their set-up.
• The synchronous generators don’t use slip rings as in case of other traditional
generators, hence they are maintenance free and simple.
• These generators offer high efficiency and power coefficient.
• The synchronous generators are preferred to asynchronous generators especially for
their high capacities, as asynchronous ones would consume enormous reactive
power and thus they are suitable for smaller capacities.
ii) Draw and explain the characteristics of DFIG.
Double Fed Induction Generator-Basic Principles (DFIG)
Wound rotor induction generators (WRIGs) are provided with three phase
windings on the rotor and on the stator. They may be supplied with energy at both rotor
and stator terminals. This is why they are called doubly fed induction generators
(DFIGs) or double output induction generators (DOIGs). Both motoring and generating
operation modes are feasible, provided the power electronics converter that supplies the
rotor circuits via slip-rings and brushes is capable of handling power in both directions.
As a generator, the WRIG provides constant (or controlled) voltage Vsand frequency
f1 power through the stator, while the rotor is supplied through a static power converter
at variable voltage Vrand frequency f2. The rotor circuit may absorb or deliver electric
power. As the number of poles of both stator and rotor windings is the same, at steady
state, according to the frequency theorem, the speed ωmis as follows:


A WRIG works, in general, for ω2 ≠ 0 (S ≠ 0), the machine retains the

characteristics of an induction machine. The main output active power is delivered
through the stator, but in super synchronous operation, a good part, about slip stator
powers (SPs), is delivered through the rotor circuit. With limited speed variation
range, say from Smaxto −Smax, the rotor-side static converter rating — for zero
PCONV  S max PS
reactive power capability on the rotor side — would be With
Smaxtypically equal to ±0.2 to 0.25, the static power converter ratings and costs
would correspond to 20 to 25% of the stator delivered output power. At maximum
speed, the WRIG will deliver increased electric power, Pmax
9)Using the schematic explain the working of doubly fed induction generator.
DOUBLE FED INDUCTION GENERATOR:
• DFIG is an abbreviation for Double Fed Induction Generator, a generating

principle widely used in WIND TURBINES.
• It is based on an induction generator with a multiphase wound rotor and a
multiphase slip ring assembly with brushes for access to the rotor windings
SPECIAL FEATURES:
• The wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine is the only electric machine that
operates with rated torque to twice synchronous speed for a given frequency of
excitation (i.e., 7200 rpm @ 60 Hz and one pole-pair versus 3600 rpm for singly-
fed electric machines).
• Higher speed with a given frequency of excitation gives lower cost, higher
efficiency, and higher power density.

The mechanical efficiency in a wind turbine is dependent of the power coefficient. The
power coefficient of a rotating wind turbine is given by the pitch angle and the tip speed
ratio. Adjustable speed will improve the system efficiency since the turbine speed can
be adjusted as a function of wind speed to maximize output power.
To develop adjustable speed one possible solution is a doubly fed induction generator.
A dynamic model is needed. The construction of a dynamic model of a doubly fed
induction generator is similar to a wound rotor induction machine.
It is necessary to consider several factors when designing the control system in a wind
turbine. These factors are electric system stability, power quality, mechanical stresses
in the shaft system, wind turbine blade transients, vortex tower interaction and the
converter currents. The torque transmitted in the shaft varies with different speed of
control.

The proportional plus integral controller has two parameters, the proportional gain
constant and the integral time constant.
A large proportional constant gives large gain and a small integral time constant gives
fast control. Simulations show that fast control of the electric torque gives oscillations
in the torque that transmits through the shaft when a change in torque at the turbine
occurs. If there are mechanical reasons to avoid oscillations in the torque transmitted
through the shaft, a control with large time constant will help avoiding the oscillations
that take place. Torque pulsation from the mechanical system may take place. In
simulations it can be seen that the torque transmitted in the shaft system will contain
these pulsations. The pulsations will be damped with a large proportional gain constant
in the speed controller.
A large gain constant in the speed controller makes the electromagnetic torque to vary
more and it starts tracking the torque pulsations from the turbine. When the
electromagnetic torque has pulsations the power will contain the same pulsations. When
choosing the gain constant in the speed controller a choice between pulsations in the
torque transmitted in the shaft or pulsations in the power from the generator must be
done.
To avoid unnecessary oscillations, the gain at the resonance frequency in the shaft
system should be small. In a wind power generating system, it is required that the
generator tracks a prescribed torque-speed profile. Variablespeed operation is
introduced to gain high efficiency in the generating system. Otherwise the generating
system cannotcapture the largest possible energy available from the wind and the blades
of the wind turbine will subject to torsional stress and windage friction. The mechanical
efficiency in a wind turbine is dependent of the power coefficient. The power coefficient
of the rotating wind turbine is given by [1] the Cp(λ,θ) curve,

where λ is the tip speed ratio and θ is the pitch angle.
When converters in the rotor circuit provide the doubly fed induction generator the
opportunity to realize adjustable speed, the maximal mechanical efficiency can be
obtained and operation at the maximum power output can be realized over a wide power
range.
To construct a variable speed constant frequency system, an induction generator is

considered attractive due to its flexible rotor speed characteristic with respect to the
constant stator frequency. One solution to expand the speed range and reduce the slip
power losses simultaneously is to doubly excite the stator and rotor windings. The
power converters in the rotor circuit regenerate the majority of the slip power.
A dynamic model of the doubly fed induction machine is needed to develop decoupled
control of torque and reactive power. The model consists of a multi-mass model to
represent the shaft system, a wound induction machine model, rotor- and grid side
converters and a grid model. The dynamic model vector control use the Park
Transformation. In systems PWM converters are introduced in the rotor circuit. Here
the converters are simulated as current sources.
Advantages of DFIG:
• Low cost
• High efficiency
• High power density

• Variable speed operation
10) Distinguish between induction generator and synchronous generator .
In a synchronous generator, the waveform of generated voltage is

synchronized with (directly corresponds to) the rotor speed. The frequency of output
can be given as f = N * P / 120 Hz. Where N is speed of the rotor in rpm and P is number
of poles.
In case of inductions generators, the output voltage frequency is regulated by the power
system to which the induction generator is connected. If induction generator is
supplying a standalone load, the output frequency will be slightly lower (by 2 or 3%)
that calculated from the formula f = N * P / 120.
Separate DC excitation system is required in an alternator (synchronous generator).

Induction generator takes reactive power from the power system for field excitation. If
an induction generator is meant to supply a standalone load, a capacitor bank needs to
be connected to supply reactive power.
Construction of induction generator is less complicated as it does not require brushes

and slip ring arrangement. Brushes are required in synchronous generator to supply DC
voltage to the rotor for excitation.
Basic differences between induction generators and synchronous generators can be

better understood from the figures shown below
Induction Generator
Synchronous Generator

11)Draw the equivalent circuit and show the steady state analysis of PMSG
Explain the merits and demerits of PMSG for wind energy conversion system.
Considering the equivalent circuit of PMSG based on WECS in figure

below the model of PMSG is established in the d-q synchronous reference frame, the
three-phase sinusoidal mathematical equations are expressed in the rotor reference
frame (d-q frame). All quantities in the rotor reference frame are referred to the stator.
And it is give as
The electromagnetic torque equation is given by

Where Lq & Ld are q and d axis inductance, R is resistance of the stator windings, Iq
& Id are q and d axis current,Vq & Vd are q and d axis voltage, ωr is angular velocity
of the rotor, 𝜆 is amplitude of flux induced by permanent magnets of rotor in the stator
phase , Р is the number of pole pairs.
Where J is combined inertia of rotor & load, F is combined viscos friction of rotor &
load, ϴ is rotor angular position, Tm is shaft mechanical torque, Tf is shaft static friction
torque.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the PMSG Generator

The PMSG generator offers many advantages.
The PMSG machine is the most efficient of all electric machines since it has a
movable magnetic source inside itself. Use of permanent magnets for the excitation
consumes no extra electrical power. Therefore, copper loss of the exciter does not exist
and the absence of mechanical commutator and brushes or slip rings means low
mechanical friction losses. Another advantage is its compactness.
The recent introduction of high-energy density magnets (rare-earth magnets) has

allowed the achievement of extremely high flux densities in the PMSG generator,
therefore rotor winding is not required. These in turn allow the generator to be of small,
light, and rugged structure. As there is no current circulation in the rotor to create a
magnetic field, the rotor of a PMSG generator does not heat up. The only heat
production is on the stator, which is easier to cool down than the rotor because it is on
the periphery of the generator and the static.

The absence of brushes, mechanical commutators, and slip rings suppresses the
need for the associated regular maintenance and suppresses the risk of failure in these
elements. They have very long lasting winding insulation, bearing, and magnet life
length. Since no noise is associated with the mechanical contacts and the driving
converter switching frequency could be above 20 kHz producing only ultrasound
inaudible for human beings.
When the PMSG generator is compared with respect to the conventional ones for
low-speed water flows, the list of advantages is increased: (1) No speed multiplier or
gears since there may be multiple permanent or electromagnets in the rotor for more
current production; (2) Few maintenance services because of its simplified mechanical
design; (3) Easy mechanical interface; (4) Cost optimization; (5) Highest power-to-
weight ratio in a direct drive; (6) Location of a moving magnetic field being generated
in the center of the field; (7) More precise operations since a microprocessor controls
the generator/motor electrical output and current instead of mechanical brushes; (8)
Higher efficiency for the brushless generation of electrical current and digitally
controllable flexible adjustment of the generator speed with less friction, fewer moving
components, less heat, and reduced electrical noise; (9) Since the permanent or
electromagnets are located on the rotor, they are kept cooler and thus have a longer life.
The PMSG generator has some inherent disadvantages.
Two of them are related to the high cost of the permanent magnets and the
commercial availability. The cost of higher energy density magnets prohibits their use
in applications where initial cost is a major concern. Another problem is the field-
weakening operation for the PMSG machine is somewhat difficult due to the use of
permanent magnets. An accidental speed increase might damage the power electronic
components above the converter rating, especially for vehicle applications. In addition,
the surface-mounted permanent magnet generators cannot reach high speeds because of
the limited mechanical strength of the assembly between the rotor yoke and the
permanent magnets. Finally, the demagnetization of the permanent magnet is possible
by the large opposing magneto-motive-force (m. m.f.) and high temperatures. The
critical demagnetization force is different for each magnet material where Br stands for
relative flux density, pr is the corresponding relative magnetic permeability and p is the

volumetric density. Also, extreme care must be taken to cool the generator, especially
if it is compact.
12)Show the relative merits of wind energy conversion system with PMSG,SCIG
and DFIG.
Advantages of the DFIG based Wind Turbine Generator System
The DFIG is having lot of advantages
• It has the ability of decoupling the control of the active and reactive power by
controlling the rotor terminal voltages. Hence, the power factor control can be
implemented in this system.
•The DFIG is usually a wound rotor induction generator, which is simple in construction
and cheaper than a PMSG. • In a DFIG based wind turbine generator system, the power
rating of the power converters is typically rated ±30% around the rated power. This
characteristic leads to many merits, such as reduced converter cost, reduced filter
volume and cost, less switching losses, less harmonic injections into the connected grid.
Improved overall efficiency (approx. 2-3% more than full-scale frequency converter) if
only the generator and power converters are considered.
• Aerodynamic, gearbox and converter losses of the DFIG are less. Because of the above
reasons, DFIG is chosen for this research among the other common types.
Advantages of the SCIG based Wind Turbine Generator System
The Squirrel Cage Induction Generator (SCIG) is a very popular machine due to its
mechanical simplicity and robust construction.The stator winding is con-nected to the
load/excitation source, and is insulated.The rotor is provided withan uninsulated
winding, which is very resistant to the effects of possible dirtingress, and
vibration.Maintenance is generally restricted to bearing lubrication only.A major
problem is the necessity of obtaining the excitation current from the stator terminals.
Advantages of the PMSG based Wind Turbine Generator System
When the PMSG generator is compared with respect to the conventional ones for
low-speed water flows, the list of advantages is increased: (1) No speed multiplier or
gears since there may be multiple permanent or electromagnets in the rotor for more

current production; (2) Few maintenance services because of its simplified mechanical
design; (3) Easy mechanical interface; (4) Cost optimization; (5) Highest power-to-
weight ratio in a direct drive; (6) Location of a moving magnetic field being generated
in the center of the field; (7) More precise operations since a microprocessor controls
the generator/motor electrical output and current instead of mechanical brushes; (8)
Higher efficiency for the brushless generation of electrical current and digitally
controllable flexible adjustment of the generator speed with less friction, fewer moving
components, less heat, and reduced electrical noise; (9) Since the permanent or
electromagnets are located on the rotor, they are kept cooler and thus have a longer life.
13)A. Explain the construction and working of PMSG and analyze the system
using steady state equation with phasor diagram.
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
The permanent magnet synchronous generator called so because in this

synchronous generator excitation is provided with the permanent magnet instead of
the external excitation source.
Construction of PMSG
● Its rotor is consists of the permanent that generates a field for excitation and
replaces the external supply source for the generator.
● Like other generators, the physical structure of this generator is the same it
also consists of the rotor which also comprises of the permanent magnet with
the shaft connected with it.
● Like stator of other generators, this generator also has a stator that provides
protection to internal structure from the exterior environment.
● In permanent synchronous generator, there is no need of the slip rings and
carbon brushes, which make the machine less expensive, lightweight, and
maintenance of the generator also decreases.
● But in high rating generators, large size generators are used that make
machines somewhat expensive and increases the price.
● The generator attached with the power electronic conversion circuitry can
work on the less speed and so there is no need of the gearbox.

● The presence of gearboxes increases the price, energy losses, and cost of
repairing the generator but without the gearbox price and weight of circuitry
deceases but it also the best option for the offshore applications.
● With the direction of flux lines, the permanent synchronous generator is
divided into three categories first one is the radial flux permanent magnet
synchronous generator, the second one is the axial flux permanent magnet
synchronous generator and the third one is the transverse flux permanent
What is Synchronous Speed

● PMSG is called synchronous generators since the voltage produced frequency
in the stator or armature calculated in the hertz is directly the proportion to
rotation cycles of the rotor.
● The formula to find the synchronous speed is 120 (fe/P).
● In this equation, the fe is the frequency of the voltage induced at the stator.
● P is the no of a pole in the generator.
Working Principle of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
● The working of the PMSG depends on the field produced by the permanent
magnet attached at the rotor of the generator for the conversion of mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
● In PMSG, there are two types of windings first one is the armature that is
wound on the stator and the second one is the field winding that is wound on
the rotor.

● At the stator of generator 6 coils of copper, windings are wound and fixed at
their respective places.
● The rotor that has a permanent magnet is connected to the bearing rotating on
the shaft. In this generator, there are 2 rotors first one is behind the stator and
second one is at the exterior side.
● Both of these are connected with each other through the long studs moving
by the hole in the stator.
● The blades are also surfaced on these studs that connecting the rotors with
each other.
● These blades rotate the rotor for the production of electrical energy.
● In the given figure you can see the construction of the generator.
Phasor diagram of PMSG

As balanced steady load is drawn from the three-phase stator winding, the stator
currents produce synchronously rotating flux Φa/pole (in the direction of rotation of the
rotor). This flux, called armature reaction flux, is therefore stationary with respect to
field flux Φf. It intuitively follows that Φ a is in phase with phase a current Ia which
causes it. Since the magnetic circuit has been assumed to be unsaturated, the

superposition principle is applicable so that the resultant air gap flux is given by the
phasor sum
Further assuming that the armature leakage reactance and resistance are negligible,
Φr induces the armature emf which equals the terminal voltage V t. Phasor Diagram of
Synchronous Motor under loaded (balanced) conditions showing fluxes, currents and
voltages as phasors is drawn in Fig. below
Here
θ = power factor angle
δ = angle by which Ef leads Vt called load angle or torque angle
Steady state analysis of PMSG

B. A horizontal axis wind turbine has a diameter of 6m.whn the wind speed
unaffected by the turbine is 10m/s. the turbine rotates at 300 rpm and produces
5kW of mechanical power. Find the tip speed ratio and the power coefficient.

Output Power of wind turbine
P=1/2*ρ*A*V3*Cp
(P: power; ρ:density of air; A: swept area; V: wind speed; Cp: power coefficient)
ρ = 1.2 Kg/m3
P=5kW
A=π*r2
V= 10m/s
Cp=0.295
14) Explain the steady state equivalent circuit model and performance
characteristics of squirrel cage induction generator in detail.
Various analytical (and numerical) methods to calculate the steady-state performance

of SEIGs were proposed. They seem, however, to fall into two main categories:
• Loop impedance models
• Nodal admittance models
Both models are based on the SEIG equivalent circuit (Figure 5) expressed in per unit
(P.U.) form for frequency f (P.U.) and speed U (in P.U.) as follows:
f1 np1
f = ; u= ;
f1b f1b
The base frequency for which all reactances X 1l , X 2l , X m ( I m ) are calculated is f1b

With an RL, LL, CL load, the equivalent circuit in Figure 5 with speed and frequency in
P.U. terms becomes as shown in Figure 6.
The presence of frequency f in the load, the dependence of core loss resistance
Rm of frequency f, and the nonlinear dependence on Xm of Im makes the solving of the
equivalent circuit difficult. The SEIG plus load show zero total impedance:
Re (IG+load) =0
Xe (IG+excitation_capacitor+load) =0
for self-excitation, under load.
To solve it simply, the problem is reduced to two unknowns: f (frequency) and Xm for
given excitation capacitor, IG (R1, R2, X 1l , X 2l , X m ( I m ) ), load (RL, XL, Xc), and speed U
• High-order polynomial equation (in f) approaches.

• Optimization approaches.
Second-Order Slip Equation Methods
The standard equivalent circuit of Figure 6 may be changed by lumping together the IG
jX c
stator (R1, jfX 1l ), the excitation capacitor reactance (− ), and the load
f
X CL
( RL , jfX L ,− j ) into an equivalent series circuit ( R1L , jfX 1L ) .For self-excitation,
f
X1L ≤ 0


Performance Characteristics of pole changing Variable speed SCIG


15) Draw the equivalent circuit and explain the steady state analysis of induction
generator.
Steady state analysis of self-excited induction generator SEIG is important to

evaluate its performance and proper design of controller and excitation. These
generators are generally realized from commercially available single-phase induction
motors. These motors have two windings at quadrature with respect to each other,
known as main winding and auxiliary windings of the motor. In some machines the
auxiliary winding is rated for continuous operation while in other, the auxiliary winding
remains in circuit only during starting and is opened by using a centrifugal switch, once
the rotor picks up some speed. When used as generator the former type is known as
singlephase two winding and later as single-phase single-winding induction generator.
In this chapter the steady state analysis, performance evaluation and experimented
verification is carried out for single phase, single-winding SEIG.

Self-excited Induction Generator (SEIG) Model The schematic diagram of

single-phase single-winding SEIG is shown in Figure 3.1. It has only one winding on
stator. The required cage rotor is driven by synchronous speed. When a proper
capacitance Cjh is connected across the terminals of the stator winding, a voltage is
induced due to the self-excitation phenomena. The magnetic saturation limits the rise
of induced voltage V, and stabilizes it at the steady state value. The machine current I^^
is equal to the phasor sum of excitation current I and load current IL .
The standard steady state equivalent circuit (normalized to base frequency f^,) of the
SEIG having a single-winding and feeding power to a load of the impedance ZL is given
in Figure 3.2. Where R^, and R^ are the stator and rotor winding resistances,
respectively, X,^ and Xi^ are the leakage reactances of stator and rotor respectively at
base frequency f^. X^ is the magnetizing reactance at base frequency f^. f and T are the
per unit frequency and per unit speed respectively. X^ is the excitation reactance at base
frequency f;, and V^, is the air gap voltage. The magnetizing reactance relating to the
backward field of the SEIG is relatively very large compared to its parallel branch
R^/2(f + r), hence it can be neglected resulting the approximate equivalent circuit shown
in Figure 3.3. As next step of simplification, the per unit generated frequency f is
assumed to be equal to per unit rotor speed x except in the term (f-r). And finally an
approximate equivalent circuit shown in Figure 3.4 is obtained. This assumption is used
only in computation of frequency f which leads to considerable simplification and will
not make much difference in terms of Rm/ f etc.,



16.(i) Clearly explain the principle of WECS with neat block diagram.
(Nov. 2020)
Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECS)

A wind energy conversion system (WECS) is composed of blades, an electric
generator, a power electronic converter, and a control system, as shown in Fig.1.The
WECS can be classified in different types, but the functional objective of these systems
is the same: converting the wind kinetic energy into electric power and injecting this
electric power into the electrical load or the utility grid.
2 Classification of wind turbine rotors

Wind turbines are usually classified into two categories, according to the
orientation of the axis of rotation with respect to the direction of wind, as shown in
Fig. 4.2
✓ Vertical-axis turbines
✓ Horizontal-axis turbines :
1 Vertical-axis wind turbine (VAWT) The first windmills were built based on the
vertical-axis structure. This type has only been incorporated in small-scale installations.
Typical VAWTs include the Darrius rotor, as shown in Fig. 4.2(a). Advantages of
the VAWT are:
✓ Easy maintenance for ground mounted generator and gearbox, Receive wind from
any direction (no yaw control required), and Simple blade design and low cost of
fabrication.
Disadvantages of a vertical-axis wind turbine are:
✓ Not self starting, thus, require generator to run in motor mode at start,
✓ Lower efficiency (the blades lose energy as they turn out of the wind),
✓ Difficulty in controlling blade over-speed, and \
✓ Oscillatory component in the aerodynamic torque is high.
2. Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) The most common design of modern turbines
is based on the horizontal-axis structure. Horizontal axis wind turbines are mounted on

towers as shown in Fig. 2(b).The tower's role is to raise the wind turbine above the
ground to intercept stronger winds in order to harness more energy.
Advantages of the HAWT:
✓ Higher efficiency
✓ Ability to turn the blades, and
✓ Lower cost-to-power ratio.
Disadvantages of the horizontal-axis:
✓ Generator and gearbox should be mounted on a tower, thus restricting servicing,

and
✓ More complex design required due to the need for yaw or tail drive. The HAWT
can be classified as upwind and downwind turbines based on the direction of receiving
the wind, as shown in Fig. 4.3. In the upwind structure the rotor faces the wind directly,
while in downwind structure, the rotor is placed on the lee side of the tower. The upwind
structure does not have the tower shadow problem because the wind stream hits the rotor
first. However, the upwind needs a yaw control mechanism to keep the rotor always
facing the wind. On the contrary, the downwind may be built without a yaw mechanism.
However, the drawback is the fluctuations due to the tower shadow.
3 Common generator types in wind turbines
The function of an electrical generator is providing a means for energy conversion

between the mechanical torque from the wind rotor turbine, as the prime mover, and the

local load or the electric grid. Different types of generators are being used with wind
turbines. Small wind turbines are equipped with DC generators of up to a few kilowatts
in capacity. Modern wind turbine systems use three-phase AC generators. The common
types of AC generator that are possible candidates in modern wind turbine systems are
as follows:
Squirrel-Cage rotor Induction Generator (SCIG),
✓ Wound-Rotor Induction Generator (WRIG),
✓ Doubly-Fed Induction Generator (DFIG),
✓ Synchronous Generator (with external field excitation),
✓ Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG).
For assessing the type of generator in WECS, criteria such as operational

characteristics, weight of active materials, price, maintenance aspects and the
appropriate type of power electronic converter, are used.
Historically, the induction generator (IG) has been extensively used in commercial
wind turbine units. Asynchronous operation of induction generators is considered an
advantage for application in wind turbine systems, because it provides some degree
of flexibility when the wind speed is fluctuating.
There are two main types of induction machines: squirrel-cage (SC), and
wound rotor (WR). Another category of induction generator is the DFIG; the DFIG
may be based on the squirrelcage or wound-rotor induction generator.
The induction generator based on SCIG is a very popular machine because of its
low price, mechanical simplicity, robust structure, and resistance against disturbance
and vibration.
The wound-rotor is suitable for speed control purposes. By changing the rotor
resistance, the output of the generator can be controlled and also speed control of the
generator is possible. Although the WRIG has the advantage described above, it is more
expensive than a squirrel-cage rotor.

The DFIG is a kind of induction machine in which both the stator windings and the
rotor windings are connected to the source. The rotating winding is connected to the
stationary supply circuits via power electronic converter. The advantage of connecting
the converter to the rotor is that variable-speed operation of the turbine is possible with
a much smaller and therefore much cheaper converter. The power rating of the
converter is often about 1/3 the generator rating.
Another type of generator that has been proposed for wind turbines in several
research articles is a synchronous generator. This type of generator has the capability of
direct connection (direct drive) to wind turbines, with no gearbox. This advantage is
favorable with respect to lifetime and maintenance. Synchronous machines can use
either electrically excited or permanent magnet (PM) rotor.
The PM and electrically-excited synchronous generators differ from the induction

generator in that the magnetization is provided by a Permanent Magnet pole system or
a dc supply on the rotor, featuring providing self-excitation property. Self-excitation
allows operation at high power factors and high efficiencies for the PM synchronous. It
is worth mentioning that induction generators are the most common type of generator
use in modern wind turbine systems.
4 Mechanical Gearbox
The mechanical connection between an electrical generator and the turbine rotor
may be direct or through a gearbox. In fact, the gearbox allows the matching of the
generator speed to that of the turbine. The use of gearbox is dependent on the kind of
electrical generator used in WECS. However, disadvantages of using a gearbox are
reductions in the efficiency and, in some cases, reliability of the system.
5 Control Method With the evolution of WECS during the last decade, many different
control methods have been developed. The control methods developed for WECS are
usually divided into the following two major categories:
✓ Constant-speed methods, and
✓Variable-speed methods.

In constant-speed turbines, there is no control on the turbine shaft speed. Constant

speed control is an easy and low-cost method, but variable speed brings the following
advantages:
✓ Maximum power tracking for harnessing the highest possible energy from the
wind,
✓ Lower mechanical stress,
✓ Less variations in electrical power, and
✓ Reduced acoustical noise at lower wind speeds.
(ii) Discuss the various considerations taken into account for site selection of a
wind energy system. (Nov. 2020)
The power available in the wind increases rapidly with the speed, hence wind
energy conversion machines should be located preferable in areas where the winds are
strong and persistent. Although daily winds at a given site may be highly variable, the
monthly and especially annual average are remarkably constant from year to year. The
major contribution to the wind power available at a given site is actually made by winds
with speeds above the average. Nevertheless, the most suitable sites for wind turbines
would be found in areas where the annual average wind speeds are known to be
moderately high. The site choice for a single or a spatial array of WECS is an important
matter when wind electrics is looked at from the systems point of view of aeroturbine
generators feeding power into a conventional electric grid. If the WECS sites are
wrongly or poorly chosen the net wind electrics generated energy per year may be sub
optimal with resulting high capital cost for the WECS apparatus, high costs for wind
generated electric energy, and low returns on investment. Even if the WECS is to be a
small generator not tied to the electric grid, the siting must be carefully chosen if
inordinately long break even times are to be avoided. Technical, Economic,
Environmental, Social and other factors are examined before a decision is made to erect
a generating plant on a specific site.
Some of the main site selection consideration are given below :
1. High annual average wind speed
2. Availability of anemometry data

3. Availability of wind v(t) curve at the proposed site

4. Wind structure at the proposed site
5. Altitude of the proposed site
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic
7. Local ecology
8. Distance to road or railways
9. Nearness of site to local centre/users
10. Nature of ground
11. Favourable land cost.
High annual average wind speed : The speed generated by the wind mill depends
on cubic values of velocity of wind, the small increases in velocity markedly affect the
power in the wind. For example, Doubling the velocity, increases power by a factor of
8. It is obviously desirable to select a site for WECS with high wind velocity. Thus a
high average wind velocity is the principle fundamental parameter of concern in initially
appraising WECS site. For more detailed estimate value, one would like to have the
average of cube of the velocity. Availability of anemometry data : It is another
improvement siting factor. The aenometry data should be available over some time
period at the precise spot where any proposed WECS is to be built and that this should
be accomplished before a siting decision is made. Availability of wind v(t) curve at the
proposed site : This important curve determines the maximum energy in the wind and
hence is the principal initially controlling factor in predicting the electrical output and
hence revenue return to the WECS machines. It is desirable to have average wind speed
‘v’ such that v>=12-16 km/hr (3.5 – 4.5 m/sec) which is about the lower limit at which
present large scale WECS generators ‘cut in’ i.e., start turning. The v(t) curve also
determines the reliability of the delivered WECS generator power, for if the v(t) curve
goes to zero thereby no generated power during that time.
If there are long periods of calm the WECS reliability will be lower than if the
calm periods are short. In making such realiability estimates it is desirable to have
measured v(t) curve over about a 5 year period for the highest confidence level in the
reliability estimate. Wind structure at the proposed site : The ideal case for the WECS
would be a site such that the v(t) curve was flat, i.e., a smooth steady wind that blows
all the time; but a typical site is always less than ideal. Wind specially near the ground
is turbulent and gusty, and changes rapidly in direction and in velocity. This departure

from homogeneous flow is collectively referred to as “the structure of the wind”.

Altitude of the proposed site : It affects the air density and thus the power in the wind
and hence the useful WECS electric power output. Also, as is well known, the wind
tend to have higher velocities at higher altitudes. One must carefully distinguish altitude
from height above ground. They are not the same except for a sea level WECS site.
Terrain and its aerodynamic : One should know about terrain of the site to be chosen. If
the WECS is to be placed near the top but not on the top of a not too blunt hill facing
the prevailing wind, then it may be possible to obtain a ‘speed-up’ of the wind velocity
over what it would otherwise be. Also the wind here may not flow horizontal making it
necessary to tip the axis of the rotor so that the aeroturbine is always perpendicular to
the actual wind flow. It may be possible to make use of hills or mountains which channel
the prevailing wind into a pass region, thereby obtaining higher wind power. Local
ecology If the surface is base rock it may mean lower hub height hence lower structure
cost. If trees or grass or vegetation are present, all of which tend to destructure the wind,
the higher hub heights will be needed resulting in large system costs than the bare
ground case. Distance to road or railways : This is another factor the system engineer
must consider for heavy machinery, structure, materials, blades and other apparatus will
have to be moved into any choosen WECS site
Nearness of site to local centre/users : This obvious criterion minimizes transmission
line length and hence losses and cost. After applying all the previous siting criteria,
hopefully as one narrows the proposed WECS sites to one or two they would be
relatively near to the user of the generated electric energy. Nature of ground : Ground
condition should be such that the foundation for a WECS are secured. Ground surface
should be stable. Erosion problem should not be there, as it could possibly later wash
out the foundation of a WECS, destroying the whole system. Favourable land cost :
Land cost should be favourable as this along with other siting costs, enters into the total
WECS system cost. Other conditions such as icing problem, salt spray or blowing dust
should not present at the site, as they may affect aeroturbine blades or environment is
generally adverse to machinery and electrical apparatus.
17.(i) Explain the peak power tracking scheme in WECS. (Nov. 2020)

The typical turbine torque vs. rotor speed is plotted in Figure. It shows a small torque
at zero speed, rising to a maximum value before falling to nearly zero when the rotor
just floats with the wind. Two such curves are plotted for different wind speeds V1 and
V2, with V2 being higher than V1. The corresponding power vs. rotor speed at the two
wind speeds are plotted in Figure 8. As the mechanical power converted into the electric
power is given by the product of the torque T and the angular speed, the power is zero
at zero speed and again at high speed with zero torque. The maximum power is
generated at a rotor speed somewhere in between, as marked by Pimax and P2max for
speeds Vi and V2, respectively. The speed at the maximum power is not the same speed
at which the torque is maximum. The operating strategy of a well-designed wind power
system is to match the rotor speed to generate power continuously close to the P max
points. Because the Pmax point changes with the wind speed, the rotor speed must,
therefore, be adjusted in accordance with the wind speed to force the rotor to work
continuously at Pmax. This can be done with a variable-speed system design and
operation. At a given site, the wind speed varies over a wide range from zero to high
gust. We define tip speed ratio (TSR) as follows:
TSR (λ) = Tip Speed of Blade /Wind Speed

For a given wind speed, the rotor efficiency Cp varies with TSR as shown in Figure 9.
The maximum value of Cp occurs approximately at the same wind speed that gives peak
power in the power distribution curve of Figure 8. To capture high power at high wind,
the rotor must also turn at high speed, keeping TSR constant at the optimum level.
However, the following three system performance attributes are related to TSR:
1.The maximum rotor efficiency Cp is achieved at a particular TSR, which is specific

to the aerodynamic design of a given turbine. As was seen in Figure 3.4, the TSR needed
for maximum power extraction ranges from nearly one for multiple-blade, slow-
speed machines to nearly six for modern high-speed, two-blade machines.
2. The centrifugal mechanical stress in the blade material is proportional to the TSR.
The machine working at a higher TSR is necessarily stressed more. Therefore, if
designed for the same power in the same wind speed, the machine operating at a higher
TSR would have slimmer rotor blades.
3. The ability of a wind turbine to start under load is inversely proportional to the design
TSR. As this ratio increases, the starting torque produced by the blade decreases. A
variable speed control is needed to maintain a constant TSR to keep the rotor efficiency
at its maximum. At the optimum TSR, the blades are oriented to maximize the lift and
minimize the drag on the rotor. The turbine selected for a constant TSR operation allows
the rotational speed of both the rotor and generator to vary up to 60% by varying the
pitch of the blades.

MAXIMUM ENERGY CAPTURE

The wind power system design must optimize the annual energy capture at a given site.
The only operating mode for extracting the maximum energy is to vary the turbine speed
with varying wind speed such that at all times the TSR is continuously equal to that
required for the maximum power coefficient Cp. The theory and field experience
indicate that the variable-speed operation yields 20 to 30% more power than with the
fixed-speed operation. Nevertheless, the cost of variable speed control is added. In the
system design, this trade-off between energy increase and cost increase has to be
optimized. In the past, the added costs of designing the variable pitch rotor, or the speed
control with power electronics, outweighed the benefit of the increased energy capture.
However, the falling prices of power electronics for speed control and the availability
of high strength fiber composites for constructing high-speed rotors have made it
economical to capture more energy when the speed is high. The variable-speed operation
has an indirect advantage. It allows controlling the active and reactive powers separately
in the process of automatic generation control. In fixed-speed operation, on the other
hand, the rotor is shut off during high wind speeds, losing significant energy. The pros
and cons of fixed- and variable speed operations are listed in Table 1.

Almost all major suppliers now offer variable-speed systems in combination

with pitch regulation. Potential advantages of the variable-speed system include active
grid support, peakpower-tracking operation, and cheaper offshore foundation structure.
MAXIMUM POWER OPERATION As seen earlier, operating the wind turbine at a

constant TSR corresponding to the maximum power point at all times can generate 20
to 30% more electricity per year. However, this requires a control scheme to operate
with a variable speed to continuously generate the maximum power.
Two possible schemes for such an operation are as follows:
1 CONSTANT-TSR SCHEME
In this scheme the machine is continuously operated at its optimum TSR, which is
a characteristic of the given wind turbine. This optimum value is stored as the reference
TSR in the control computer. The wind speed is continuously measured and compared
with the blade tip speed. The error signal is then fed to the control system, which
changes the turbine speed to minimize the error in the below Figure. At this time the
rotor must be operating at the reference TSR, generating the maximum power. This
scheme has the disadvantage of requiring the local wind speed measurements, which
could have a significant error, particularly in a large wind farm with shadow effects.
Being sensitive to the changes in the blade surface, the optimum TSR gradually changes
with age and environment. The computer reference TSR must be changed accordingly
many times, which is expensive. Besides, it is difficult to determine the new optimum
TSR with changes that are not fully understood or easily measured.

2 PEAK-POWER-TRACKING SCHEME
The power vs. speed curve has a single well-defined peak. If we operate at the
peak point, a small increase or decrease in the turbine speed would result in no change
in the power output, as the peak point locally lies in a flat neighborhood. In other words,
a necessary condition for the speed to be at the maximum power point is as follows:
This principle is used in the control scheme in the above Figure. The speed is increased
or decreased in small increments, the power is continuously measured, and AP/Aw is
continuously evaluated. If this ratio is positive — meaning we get more power by
increasing the speed — the speed is further increased. On the other hand, if the ratio is
negative, the power generation will reduce if we change the speed any further. The
speed is maintained at the level where AP/Aw is close to zero. This method is insensitive
to errors in local wind speed measurement, and also to wind turbine design. It is,
therefore, the preferred method. In a multiple-machine wind farm, each turbine must be
controlled by its own control loop with operational and safety functions incorporated.
(ii) Explain the working of grid tied WECS with neat diagram. (Nov. 2020)

GRID INTEGRATED PMSG BASED WECS:
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators:
The permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) has several significant

advantageous properties. The construction is simple and does not required external
magnetization, which is important especially in stand-alone wind power applications
and also in remote areas where the grid cannot easily supply the reactive power
required to magnetize the induction generator. Similar to the externally supplied field
current synchronous generator, the most common type of power conversion uses a
bridge rectifier (controlled/uncontrolled), a DC link, and inverter as shown in Fig (a).
below.
(a) Grid-connected PMSG wind energy system through

DC/AC converter.
Figure shows a wind energy system where a PMSG is connected to a three-phase

rectifier followed by a boost converter. In this case, the boost converter controls the
electromagnet torque and the supply side converter regulates the DC link voltage as
well as controlling the input power factor. One drawback of this configuration is the
use of diode rectifier that increases the current amplitude and distortion of the PMSG.
As a result, this configuration have been considered for small size wind energy
conversion systems (smaller than 50 kW

(b) Grid-connected PMSG wind energy system throughDC/AC

converter with a boost chopper.
The advantage of the system in Fig (a) with regard to the system showed in
Fig.(b) is, it allows the generator to operate near its optimal working point in order to
minimize the losses in the generator and power electronic circuit. However, the
performance is dependent on the good knowledge of the generator parameter that
varies with temperature and frequency. The main drawbacks, in the use of PMSG, are
the cost of permanent magnet that increase the price of machine, demagnetization of
the permanent magnet material, and it is not possible to control the power factor of
the machine.
To extract maximum power at unity power factor from a PMSG and feed this
power (also at unity power factor) to the grid, the use of back-to-back connected PWM
voltage source converters are proposed. Moreover, to reduce the overall cost, reduced
switch PWM voltage source converters (four switch) instead of conventional (six
switch) converters for variable speed drive systems can be used. It is shown that by
using both rectifier and inverter current control or flux based control, it is possible to
obtain unity power factor operation both at the WTG and the grid. Other mechanisms
can also be included to maximize power extraction from the VSWT (i.e. MPPT
techniques) or sensor-less approaches to further reduce cost and increase reliability
and performance of the systems.
GRID INTEGRATED SCIG BASED WECS
Squirrel-cage Induction Generator:
Possible architecture for systems using conventional induction generators which

have a solid squirrel-cage rotor has many similarities to those with synchronous
generators. The main difference is that the induction generator is not inherently self-
exciting and it needs a source of reactive power. This could be done by a generator side
self-commutated converter operating in the rectifier mode. A significant advantage of
this configuration is the low cost and low maintenance requirements of induction
generators. Another advantage of using the self-commutated double converter is that it

can be on the ground, completely separate from the wind machine. If there is a problem
in the converter, it could be switched out of the circuit for repair and the wind machine
could continue to run at constant speed. The main disadvantage with this configuration
is that, as with the synchronous generator, the power conversion system would have to
take the full power generated and could be relatively costly compared to some other
configurations. There would also be additional complexities associated with the supply
of reactive power to the generator.
In this set up the stator of the squirrel cage induction generator will be connected
to the grid by the means of back to back connected power electronic converter bridges.
Since the power converter has to convert all the stator power, the converter size depends
on the stator power rating.
ADVANTAGE:
➢ Ability to make the best use of available wind power.
➢ It eliminates the need for a capacitor bank.
DISADVANTAGE:
➢ Cost of power converter is high.
18.Wind at 1 standard atmospheric pressure and 15°C temperature has a velocity
of 10 m/sec. The turbine has diameter of 120 m and its operating speed in 40 rpm
at maximum efficiency, Calculate : i) The total power density in the wind stream
ii) The maximum obtainable power density assuming η = 40% iii) The total power
produced in kW iv) The torque and axial thrust.(Part-C)
(Nov. 2020)
For air, the value of has constant is R =0.287kJ/ kgK
1atm = 1.01325*105 Pa, T=273+15 =288k
Air density ρ =P/RT =(1.01325*105)/287*288 =1.226kg/m3
i)Total Power = Ptotal = ρA(V1)3 /2

Power density will be Ptotal/A =(1/2) ρA(V1)3 =(1/2)*1.226*103 = 613W/m2

ii) Maximum power density
= Pmax/A
= (1/2)(16/27)AV1 3 = (1/2)(16/27) x 1.226 x 103
= 363.25 W/m2
(iii)Efficiency = 40%
Power density, P/A = η(Ptotal/A) = 0.40 x 613 = 245.2 W/m2
(iv) Total power P = Power density x area = 245.2 x (/4)D2 watt = 2771.740 kW
(v) Torque at maximum efficiency Tmax
Tmax = (2/27)(DV1 3 /N) = (2/27)(1.226 x 120 x 103/(40/60) = 16347N
(vi) Maximum axial thrust Fx,max = (/9)D2 V1 2
= (/9)(1.226 x 1202 x 102 ) = 615942 N
UNIT III SOLAR PV AND THERMAL SYSTEMS

PART - A
1. What is solar Radiation?
Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear fusion reaction that
creates electromagnetic energy. The spectrum of solar radiation is close to that of a black
body with a temperature of about 5800 K. About half of the radiation is in the visible
short-wave part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The other half is mostly in the near-
infrared part, with some in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum.
2. How is Solar Radiation Measured?

Solar radiation is measured in wavelengths or frequency. The energy of the wavelength
increases with the frequency and decreases with the size of the wavelength. In other
words, shorter wavelengths are more energetic than longer ones.
3. What is solar irradiance?
solar irradiance is the intensity with which radiation enters Earth’s atmosphere. The
solar irradiance received by a particular location or body of water depends on the
elevation above sea level, the angle of the sun (due to latitude, season and time of day)
and scattering elements such as clouds.
4. Indicate the instruments for measuring solar radiation and sun shine
There are two important types of instruments to measure solar radiation:

• Pyrheliometer is used to measure direct beam radiation at normal incidence.

• Pyranometer is used to measure total hemispherical radiation - beam plus
diffuse - on a horizontal surface.
• Photoelectric sunshine recorder: The device has two selenium photovoltaic
cells, one of which is shaded, and the other is exposed to the available solar
radiation. When there is no beam radiation, the signal output from both cells
is similar, while in bright sunshine, signal difference between the two cells is
maximized. This technique can be used to monitor the bright sunshine hours.
5. Compose the extraterrestrial and terrestrial solar radiation
Extraterrestrial solar radiation:
The extraterrestrial radiation is the solar radiation which is incident outside the
earth’s surface. The extraterrestrial radiation is 1367 watts/m2.
terrestrial solar radiation:
It is the electromagnetic radiation which originates from earth and its atmosphere.
Terrestrial Radiation is a longer wavelength which is totally infrared.
6. Write the difference between beam radiation and diffuse radiation?
Beam Radiation is the radiation which moves through the atmosphere in a straight
line without being scattered, reflected or absorbed by particles in the air.
Diffuse Radiation is the solar radiation which is being scattered, reflected or
absorbed by the particles while passing through the atmosphere but ultimately
reaches the earth’s surface.
7. What are the main components of a flat plate solar collector?
The main components of a typical flat-plate solar collector are:
• Black surface - absorbent of the incident solar energy
• Glazing cover - a transparent layer that transmits radiation to the absorber, but
prevents radiative and convective heat loss from the surface
• Tubes containing heating fluid to transfer the heat from the collector
• Support structure to protect the components and hold them in place
• Insulation covering sides and bottom of the collector to reduce heat losses
8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a flat plate collector?
The main advantage of a flat plate collector is that the beam and diffuse
components of the solar radiation. In addition because of its simple stationary
design, its construction is easy. Moreover it does not require sun tracking and

therefore it can be properly secured in a rigid platform, and thus becomes

mechanically stronger than those requiring flexibility for tracking purpose. As
the collector is installed outdoors and exposed to atmospheric disturbances like
rain, storm etc., the flat plate collector is more likely to withstand harsh outdoor
conditions.
The principal disadvantage of a flat plate collector is that because of the absence
of optical concentration, the area from which heat is lost is large. Also due to the
same reason high temperatures cannot be attained and as a result the collection
efficiency is generally low.
9. What is solar collectors?
Solar Flat Plate Collector (FPC) is basically a solar thermal energy collector in
which solar energy is collected by absorbing radiation in an absorber and then
transferring to a fluid. The liquid flat plate collector is the most widely used solar
collector because it is simple in design, has no moving parts and requires little
maintenance. It can be used for a variety of applications in which temperatures
ranging from 40 degree Celsius to about 100 degree Celsius are required. Flat plate
collectors have no optical concentrator and the collector area as well as the absorber
area is numerically the same. A flat plate collector is placed at a location in a position
such that its length aligns with the line of longitude and is suitably tilted towards
south if located in a northern hemisphere to have maximum collection.
10. What are the different types of solar thermal hot water technologies?
• Evacuated tube solar thermal systems
• Flat plate solar thermal systems
• Thermodynamic panels
• Solar thermal air collectors
• Solar thermal bowl collectors
• Domestic Solar Hot Water Systems
10. List out the classification of concentrating collectors.
Types of concentrating sunlight collectors:

(a) tubular absorbers with diffuse back reflector, (b) tubular absorbers with specular
cusp reflectors, (c) plane receiver with plain reflectors (V-trough), (d) multisectional
planar concentrator, (e) compound parabolic concentrator (f) parabolic trough, (g)
fresnel concentrator, (h) array reflectors (heliostats) with central receiver.

11. Differentiate flat plate collectors and concentrating collectors.
Flat plate collectors concentrating type collectors
Absorber area is large. Absorber area is small.
Concentration ratio is 1. Concentration ratio is high.
It is uses both beam and diffuse

radiation. It is uses mainly beam radiation.
Application limited to low

temperature uses suitable for all High temperature application such
places as it can work in clear and as power generation suitable where
cloudy days. there are more clear days in a year.
Simple in maintenance. Difficult in maintenance.
12. What are the types of absorber plate?
The absorber plate can be broadly divided into three basic types depending on the extent
of wetted area relative to the absorbing surface area.
• Pipe and Fin type: Here the liquid flows only in the pipe and hence they have a
comparatively low wetted area and liquid capacity.
• Rectangular or Cylindrical Full sandwich type: In this type both the wetted area and
water capacity are high.
• Roll bond or Semi sandwich type: It is an intermediate between the above two types.
13. Examine the effects of various parameters affecting the performance of a flat
plate collector.
• A large number of parameters influence the performance of a liquid flat plate collector.
These parameters could be classified as design parameters, operational parameters,
meteorological parameters and environmental parameters. Some of the parameters are
given below:

• Selective Surface: Absorber plate surfaces which exhibit characteristics of a high value
of absorptivity for solar radiation incoming and low value emissivity for re-radiation
outgoing called selective surfaces. Such surfaces are desirable because of the net
energy collection. Some examples of selective surface layers are copper oxide, nickel
black and black chrome.
• Number of covers: With the increase in the number of covers, the value of heat loss
from the absorber plate decreases. However the amount of decrease is not the same in
both cases. Maximum efficiency is obtained with one or two covers.
• Spacing: Heat loss also varies with spacing between two covers and that between the
absorber plate and first cover. The spacing at which minimum loss occurs varies with
temperature and also with tilt. Since collectors are designed to operate at different
locations with varying tilts and under varying service conditions, an optimum value of
spacing is difficult to specify. Spacing in the range from 4 to 8 cm is normally
suggested. Also large spacing reduces the collector area requirements.
• Effect of shading: The main problem associated with the use of larger spacings is that
shading of the absorber plate by the side walls of the collector casing increases. Some
shading always occurs in every collector and needs to be corrected for. In some
collectors the inside of the side walls is lined with reflecting surface in order to
alleviate the effects of shading.
• Collector tilt: Flat plate collectors are normally used in a fixed position and do not
track the sun. Therefore the tilt angle at which they are fixed is very important.
Optimum tilt depends on the application.
• Dust on the top of the cover: When a collector is deployed in a practical system, dust
gets accumulated over it, reducing the transmitted flux through the cover. This requires
continuous cleaning of the cover, which is not possible in a practical situation.
Cleaning is generally done once in a few days. For this reason it is recommended that
the incident flux be multiplied by a correction factor which accounts for the reduction
in the intensity because of accumulation of dust.
• Fluid inlet temperature: The efficiency of the collector decreases more or less linearly
with the increasing value of fluid inlet temperature. This decrease is because of the
higher temperature level at which the collector as a whole operates when the fluid in
let temperature increases.

• Cover transmissivity: The transmissivity of the cover affects the performance of a

collector significantly. The higher the transmissivity, the better is the performance of
the collector.
14. Compose the energy balance equation for solar collector.
The energy balance can also be expressed via the following key equation:
Qu=Ac[S−UL(Tplate−Tambient)]
where S is the absorbed solar radiation, UL is the total losses, Tplate is the temperature
of the absorbing plate, and Tambient is the temperature of the air, and Ac again is the
area of the collector surface.
15. Summarize the Concentration Ratio (CR).
The term "concentration ratio" is used to describe the amount of light energy
concentration achieved by a given collector. Two different definitions of concentration
ratio are in general use. They are defined briefly here so that the terms may be used.
Optical Concentration Ratio (CRo). The averaged irradiance (radiant flux)
(Ir ) integrated over the receiver area (Ar), divided by the insolation incident on the
collector aperture.
Geometric Concentration Ratio (CRg). The area of the collector aperture Aa divided by
the surface area of the receiver Ar
16. What is solar charge controller sizing?
The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage capacities.
Select the solar charge controller to match the voltage of PV array and batteries and then
identify which type of solar charge controller is right for the application. The solar charge
controller has enough capacity to handle the current from PV array.
17. Write the various aspects of battery sizing.
Sizing a stationary battery is important to ensure that the loads being supplied or the
power system being supported are adequately catered by the battery for the period of
time (i.e. autonomy) for which it is designed. Improper battery sizing can lead to poor
autonomy times, permanent damage to battery cells from over-discharge, low load
voltages, etc.

18. Define Sensible in solar energy storage.
Sensible heat storage means shifting the temperature of a storage medium without phase
change. It is the most common simple, low-cost, and longstanding method. This storage
system exchanges the solar energy into sensible heat in a storage medium (usually solid
or liquid) and releases it when necessary. The amount of stored sensible heat in a
material depends on its heat capacity (energy density) and the thermal diffusivity (rate
at which the heat can be released and extracted) :
Q =mCp(Tf−Ti)
where Q is the amount of heat stored, Ti is the initial temperature, Tf is the final
temperature, m is the mass of heat storage medium, and Cp is the specific heat.
19. List out the types of batteries.
Lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, lithium, zinc bromide, zinc chloride, sodium–sulfur, nickel–

hydrogen, redox and vanadium batteries.
20. What is a solar pond?
A solar pond is a pool of saltwater which collects and stores solar thermal energy. The
saltwater naturally forms a vertical salinity gradient also known as a "halocline", in
which low-salinity water floats on top of high-salinity water. The layers of salt solutions
increase in concentration (and therefore density) with depth. Below a certain depth, the
solution has a uniformly high salt concentration.
21. Draw the block diagram of solar photo voltaic system.(Nov/Dec 2017,
April/May 2018)
22. What is battery sizing?

(i)The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle battery.
Deep cycle battery is specifically designed for to be discharged to low energy level and
rapid recharged or cycle charged and discharged day after day for years. The battery
should be large enough to store sufficient energy to operate the appliances at night and
cloudy days.
(ii) Sizing a stationary battery is important to ensure that the loads being supplied or the
power system being supported are adequately catered for by the battery for the period of
time (i.e. autonomy) for which it is designed. Improper battery sizing can lead to poor
autonomy times, permanent damage to battery cells from over-discharge, low load
voltages, etc.
23. What is inverter sizing?
An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The input rating of
the inverter should never be lower than the total watt of appliances. The inverter must
have the same nominal voltage as your battery. For stand-alone systems, the inverter
must be large enough to handle the total amount of Watts you will be using at one time.
24. Draw the equivalent circuit diagram of solar cell.
25. List the applications of solar energy.
Some of the major application of solar energy are as follows: (a) Solar water
heating (b) Solar heating of buildings (c) Solar distillation (d) Solar pumping (e)
Solar drying of agricultural and animal products (f) Solar furnaces (g) Solar
cooking (h) Solar electric power generation (i) Solar thermal power production (j)
Solar green houses.
26. Give the types of solar pond. (Nov 2020)

A solar pond is a body of water that collects and stores solar energy. Based on the
working, solar ponds are classified as
Convecting Solar Ponds: This types of solar ponds consists of a large bag of pure water
that allows convection but prevents evaporation. Eg. Shallow solar pond.
Non-Convecting Solar Pond: This type of non-convecting ponds is a salt gradient
ponds. It has three distinct layers of various concentration. Here, as the sunlight falls on
the pond the area of more concentration gets heated and stores the energy.
27. Why the efficiency of solar thermal power generation is lesser than other
systems? (Nov 2020)

Solar thermal energy generation system is characterized by simple system, thermal
conductivity direct usage to generate steam. Though its construction and
maintenance cost is relatively low than other systems, its focus is relatively small
and temperature rise is limited and heat loss during operation is relatively large.
Therefore efficiency of solar thermal generation is less than other systems.
PART B
1. Express solar constant with neat diagram.

Solar constant, the total radiation energy received from the Sun per unit of time
per unit of area on a theoretical surface perpendicular to the Sun’s rays and
at Earth’s mean distance from the Sun. It is most accurately measured
from satellites where atmospheric effects are absent. The value of the constant is
approximately 1.366 kilowatts per square metre.
This number actually varies by 3% because the orbit of the earth is elliptical, and
the distance from the sun varies over the course of the year. Some small variation
of the solar constant is also possible due to changes in Sun's luminosity. This
measured value includes all types of radiation, a substantial fraction of which is
lost as the light passes through the atmosphere.
The solar constant depends basically on three parameters: the temperature of the
Sun, more precisely of the photosphere which emits the major part of the
radiation that leaves the Sun, the size of the Sun, and the distance between Sun
and Earth.
2. Explain and derive expression for beam and diffuse radiation.

"Direct radiation" is also sometimes called "beam radiation" or "direct beam

radiation". It is used to describe solar radiation traveling on a straight line from
the sun down to the surface of the earth.
"Diffuse radiation", on the other hand, describes the sunlight that has been
scattered by molecules and particles in the atmosphere but that has still made it
down to the surface of the earth.
Direct radiation has a definite direction but diffuse radiation is just going any
which way. Because when the radiation is direct, the rays are all travelling in the
same direction, an object can block them all at once. This is why shadows are
only produced when direct radiation is blocked.
Direct radiation on tilted planes

Let’s consider the irradiance of direct radiation on horizontal planes and, finally
on tilted planes. The incidence angle is defined as the angle between the radiation

direction and the normal of the irradiated plane. In the case of a plane perpendicular to
the radiation direction, the incidence angle is 0°.
Diffuse radiation can be characterized by means of a clearness index . is defined as the

ratio of global radiation to the extraterrestrial radiation

This clearness index can be determined empirically by measurements. It allows

ascertaining the diffuse radiation from the global radiation, using empirically
determined correlations between global radiation and diffuse radiation as a function of
the actual clearness index. suppose if the diffuse radiation at a given place and time is
isotropic, this means, that it is equal in all directions from the half-space above the
horizontal plane (non-directed radiation coming from the Earth’s surface, i.e. reflected
radiation, is here not subsumed under diffuse radiation). The irradiance on a tilted
surface, due exclusively to diffuse radiation, is, then:
where is the tilt angle as defined above. A surface facing to the zenith
receives the full diffuse radiation, while a surface facing to the ground
receives no diffuse radiation at all.
3. Tabulate the different types of solar energy measuring instruments.
Solar radiation instruments measure the spectral range of radiation, including global
solar radiation, net radiation, and photosynthetic light.
Types of Solar Radiation
Solar radiation instruments may be produced to measure different types of solar energy.
When sunlight encounters the Earth's atmosphere, some of it is absorbed or scattered
by water vapor, aerosols, clouds, and other air molecules. The radiation which
penetrates to the Earth's surface is termed direct solar radiation. Conversely, the
radiation which scatters out of the direct beam is referred to as diffuse radiation. The

sum of direct and diffuse solar radiation is global solar radiation. Global solar
radiation is sometimes referred to as "sun+sky" radiation.
Typical solar activity on Earth.
Net solar radiation refers to the surface radiation after subtracting the radiation
reflected by the ground surface.
In the image above, then, the global solar radiation would be 198 W·m2, while the net
radiation (penetrating radiation - reflected radiation) is 168 W·m2.
Solar Irradiance
Solar radiation instruments are used to measure and record solar irradiance, which is
one of several variables to consider when discussing radiometry. Being a unit of power,
irradiance is measured and discussed using watts per square meter of surface (W·m 2).
When using solar radiation instruments, the "surface" being discussed is typically the
surface of the Earth or a solar panel.
The irradiance of a beam of monochromatic light can be manually calculated using the
formula below.
where:

E = complex altitude of the wave's electric field

n = refractive index of the surface
c = speed of light within a vacuum
ε0 = vacuum permeability
The graph below shows the typical irradiance of two types of sunlight: the sunlight
above the atmosphere (yellow) and the surface radiation at sea level (red). Note that
irradiance peaks within the visible spectrum and decreases at higher and lower
wavelengths.
The solar radiation spectrum.
Device Types
Solar radiation is measured by some type of radiometer. Meteorologists and

climatologists use various types of radiometers depending upon the type of solar
radiation they intend to measure.
Pyranometers

Pyranometers measure hemispherical solar irradiance, or broadband solar radiation

within a 180-degree field of view; this may be considered the global solar radiation of
a given hemisphere.
A typical analog pyranometer does not require power to operate and consists of a
thermopile sensor beneath a glass dome. The thermopile absorbs all the solar radiation
which encounters it and generates a small, proportional output voltage. Pyranometers
are typically used on or near solar panels to facilitate optimum panel positioning.
A typical thermoelectric pyranometer.
Digital pyranometers are used to record and analyze irradiation data. They are typically
capable of ouputting data in serial form. As shown in the image below, digital
pyranometers may be handheld for taking field measurements.
A handheld digital pyranometer.
Pyrheliometers

Pyrheliometers are similar to pyranometers, but they are designed to measure only direct
beam solar irradiance. To this end they are occasionally used in identical pyranometer
applications, but are also used with solar tracking systems to ensure the system is
consistently aimed toward the sun. The device itself is often mounted directly on the
tracking system so that it is always measuring direct beam sunlight.
Sunlight enters pyrheliometers through an integral lens, which projects sunlight onto a
thermocouple within the device. Most pyrheliometers can convert a thermopile's small
voltage output into watts per square meter and either output or record this data.
The cross-section of a typical pyrheliometer; this device would be mounted on a

tracking system.
Quantum Sensors
Quantum sensors are specialized devices which measure the quantity of
photosynthetically active radiation — or the portion of the visible spectrum which can
be used by photosynthetic organisms — within a band of solar radiation. Specifically,
quantum sensors measure the photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of sunlight.
This measurement is useful in agriculture for choosing productive farmland locations
or maintaining grow houses, and is also used in oceanography to calculate the
boundaries of an ocean's sunlight zone. (For the latter reason, quantum sensors are often
built with waterproof housing.)

Quantum sensors typically use photovoltaic technology to generate a potential output.
A quantum sensor attached to a light meter.
Standards
Instruments used to measure solar radiation may be governed in production, use, and
testing by various standards. A few example standards are listed below. The ISO 9060
standard is a commonly-used document for classifying and using pyranometers.
4. Demonstrate the working of a pyrheliometer.
Definition: The pyrheliometer is one type of instrument, used to measure the direct
beam of solar radiation at the regular occurrence. This instrument is used with a tracking
mechanism to follow the sun continuously. It is responsive to wavelengths bands that
range from 280 nm to 3000 nm. The units of irradiance are W/m². These instruments
are specially used for weather monitoring & climatological research purposes.
Construction & Working Principle
The external structure of the Pyrheliometer instrument looks like a telescope because it
is a lengthy tube. By using this tube, we can spot the lens toward the sun to calculate
the radiance. The Pyrheliometer basic structure is shown below. Here the lens can be
pointed in the direction of the sun & the solar radiation will flow throughout the lens,
after that tube & finally at the last part where the last apart includes a black object at the
bottom.

The irradiance of solar enters into this device through a crystal quartz window and
directly reaches onto a thermopile. So this energy can be changed from heat to an
electrical signal that can be recorded. A calibration factor can be applied once changing
the mV signal to a corresponding radiant energy flux, and it is calculated in W/m² (watts
per square meter). This kind of information can be used to increase Insolation maps. It
a solar energy measurement, that is received on a specified surface region in a specified
time to change around the Globe. The isolation factor for a specific area is very useful
once setting up solar panels.
Circuit Diagram
The circuit diagram of the pyrheliometer is shown below. It includes two equal strips
specified with two strips S1 & S2 with area ‘A’. Here, a thermocouple is used where its
one junction can be connected to S1 whereas the other is connected to S2. A
responsive galvanometer can be connected to the thermocouple.
The S2 Strip is connected to an exterior electrical circuit.
Pyrheliometer Circuit
Once both the strips are protected from the radiation of solar, then the galvanometer
illustrates there is no deflection because both the junctions are at equal temperature.
Now ‘S1’ strip is exposed to the solar radiation & S2 is protected with a cover like M.
When S1 strip gets heat radiations from the sun, then strip temperature will be increased,
thus the galvanometer illustrates deflection.
When current is supplied throughout the S2 strip, then it is adjusted and the
galvanometer illustrates there is no deflection. Now, again both the strips are at equal
temperature.

If the heat radiation amount occurred over the unit area within the unit time on S1 strip
is ‘Q’ & its absorption co-efficient, so the heat radiation amount which is absorbed
through the S1 strip S1 within unit time is ‘QAa’. In addition, the heat generated in unit
time within the S2 strip can be given through VI. Here, ‘V’ is the potential difference
& ‘I’ is the flow of current through it.
When heat absorbed is equivalent to the heat generated, so
Q. Aa = VI
Q=VI/Aa
By substituting the values of V, I, A and a, the value of ‘Q’ can be calculated.
Different Types
There are two types of Pyrheliometers like SHP1 and CHP1

SHP1
The SHP1 type is a better version compare with CHP1 type, as it is designed with an
interface including both improved analog o/p & digital RS-485 Modbus. The response
time of this kind of meter has below 2 seconds & independently calculated temperature
correction will range from -40°C to +70°C.
CHP1
The CHP1 type is the most frequently used radiometer used to measure solar radiation
directly. This meter includes one thermopile detector as well as two temperature
sensors. It generates an utmost o/p like 25mV beneath usual atmospheric situations.
This type of device totally obeys the most recent standards which are set by ISO and
WMO about the criteria of the Pyrheliometer.
5. Interpret the working of a Pyranometer.
A pyranometer is a sensor that converts the global solar radiation it receives into an
electrical signal that can be measured. Pyranometers measure a portion of the solar
spectrum. A pyranometer does not respond to long-wave radiation

Pyranometers must also account for the angle of the solar radiation, which is referred to
as the cosine response. For example, 1000 W/m2 received perpendicular to the sensor
(that is, 0° from zenith) is measured as 1000 W/m2. However, 1000 W/m2 received at
an angle 60° from zenith is measured as 500 W/m2. Pyranometers that have diffusors
instead of glass domes require precise diffusors to provide the correct cosine response.
The pyranometer basically consists of a thermopile detector, aluminium housing, a glass

dome and a special cable. The CM4 is provided with a Pt-100 temperature sensor to
monitor the pyranometer body temperature during operation. A drawing of the
pyranometer is shown in figure 1.1.
The thermopile surface is coated with black absorbent paint. Absorbed radiation is
converted into heat which flows through the thermal resistance of the thermopile to the
heat-sink. The temperature difference (ΔT) across the thermal resistance of the detector
is converted into a voltage. Most electrical and physical specifications are determined

by the thermopile. The thermopile and the dome determine the spectral specifications.
The optimal geometry of both the glass dome and the thermopile enables the
pyranometer to have a 180° field of view with good cosine response.
6. Describe extraterrestrial and terrestrial solar radiation.
Solar radiation is a term used to describe visible and near-visible (ultraviolet and near-
infrared) radiation emitted from the sun. The different regions are described by their
wavelength range within the broad band range of 0.20 to 4.0 µm (microns). Terrestrial
radiation is a term used to describe infrared radiation emitted from the atmosphere. The
following is a list of the components of solar and terrestrial radiation and their
approximate wavelength ranges:
• Ultraviolet: 0.20 - 0.39 µm
• Visible: 0.39 - 0.78 µm
• Near-Infrared: 0.78 - 4.00 µm
• Infrared: 4.00 - 100.00 µm
On the surface of the earth on a clear day, at noon, the direct beam radiation will be
approximately 1000 watts/meter2 for many locations.
The availability of energy is affected by location (including latitude and elevation),

season, and time of day. All of which can be readily determined. However, the biggest
factors affecting the available energy are cloud cover and other meteorological
conditions which vary with location and time.
EXTRA-TERRESTRIAL RADIATION
Solar radiation incident outside the earth's atmosphere is called extra-terrestrial

radiation. On average the extra-terrestrial irradiance is 1367 Watts/meter2 (W/m2).
This value varies by ±3% as the earth orbits the sun. The earth's closest approach to
the sun occurs around January 4th and it is furthest from the sun around July 5th. The
extra-terrestrial radiation is:

Extraterrestrial radiation ( ) is the intensity (power) of the sun at the top of the Earth’s
atmosphere. It is usually expressed in irradiance units (Watts per square meter) on a
plane normal to the sun. It varies throughout the year because of the Earth’s elliptical
orbit, which results in the Earth-Sun distance varying during the year in a predictable
way. This effect can be represented empirically with the following equations:
, where is the solar constant ( ). is the mean

sun-earth distance and is the actual sun-earth distance depending on the day of the
year.
7. Compose the instrument used for measuring total radiation.
The radiation which we perceive on the surface is both direct radiation and indirect
radiation of the sun. The radiation that comes directly from the sun is direct radiation
and it is called beam radiation. The scattered and reflected radiation that is sent to the
earth's surface from all directions (reflected from molecules, particles, animal bodies,
etc.) is indirect radiation and it is called diffuse radiation. And the sum of both, the
beam and diffuse radiation, is defined as global radiation or total radiation.
It is important to differentiate between the beam radiation and diffuse radiation because
the beam radiation can be concentrated while the diffuse radiation cannot. There are
many solar radiation measuring instruments that are used to measure beam radiation
and diffuse radiation.

Solar radiation measuring instruments are of two types:
1. Pyrheliometer
2. Pyranometer
Before going into the working of these instruments you need to understand a couple of
concepts that are used while designing the devices. So now let’s look into those
concepts.
Pyrheliometer Working and Construction
Pyrheliometer is a device used for measuring direct beam radiation at normal incidence.
Its outer structure looks like a long tube projecting the image of a telescope and we have
to point the lens to the sun to measure the radiance. Here we will learn the working
principle of Pyrheliometer and its construction.

Here the lens is pointed towards the sun and the radiation will pass through the lens,
tube and at the end falls on to the black object present at the bottom. Now if we redraw
the entire internal structure and circuit in a simpler manner it will look something like
below.

In the circuit, it can be seen that the black body absorbs the radiation falling from the
lens and as discussed earlier a perfect black body completely absorbs any radiation falls
on it, so the radiation falling into the tube gets absorbed by the black object entirely.
Once the radiation gets absorbed the atoms in the body get excited because of the
increasing temperature of the entire body. This temperature increase will also be
experienced by the thermocouple junction ‘A’. Now with junction ‘A’ of the
thermocouple at high temperature and junction ‘B’ at low temperature, a current
flow takes place in its loop as discussed in the working principle of the thermocouple.
This current in the loop will also flow through the galvanometer which is in series and
thereby causing a deviation in it. This deviation is proportional to current, which in
turn is proportional to temperature difference at junctions.
Deviation ∝ Current in loop ∝ Temperature difference at junctions.
Now we will try to nullify this deviation in the galvanometer with the help of the circuit.
The complete process for nullifying the deviation is explained in step by step below.
▪ First, close the switch in the circuit for starting the current flow.
▪ The current flows like,
Battery -> Switch -> Metal conductor -> Ammeter -> Variable resistor ->
Battery.

▪ With this current flowing through the Metal conductor its temperature rises to a
certain degree.
▪ Being in contact with the Metal conductor the junction ‘B’ temperature also rises.
This reduces the temperature difference between the junction ‘A’ and junction
‘B’.
▪ Because of the reduction in temperature difference, the current flow in the
thermocouple also decreases.
▪ Since the deviation is proportional to current the deviation of the galvanometer also
decreases.
▪ In summary, we can say- The deviation in the galvanometer can be reduced by
adjusting the rheostat to change the current in the Metal conductor.
Now keep adjusting the rheostat until the galvanometer deviation becomes completely
void. Once this happens we can obtain voltage and current readings from the meters and
do a simple calculation to determine the heat absorbed by the black body. This
calculated value can be used to determine the radiation, as heat generated by the black
body is directly proportional to the radiation. This radiation value is none another than
direct beam solar radiation which we are desired to measure from the beginning. And
with this, we can conclude the working of the Pyrheliometer.
Pyranometer Working and Construction
Pyranometer is a device that can be used to measure both beam radiation and diffuse
radiation. In other words, it is used to measure total hemispherical radiation (beam plus
diffuse on a horizontal surface). Here we will learn about Pyranometer working
principle and its construction.
The device looks like a UFO saucer which is the best shape suited for its purpose. This
device is more popular than the others and most of the solar resource data nowadays
measured using it. You can see the original picture and internal structure of the
Pyranometer below.

Here the radiation from the surrounding atmosphere passes through the glass dome and
falls onto the blackbody situated at the center of the instrument. Like before, the
temperature of the body rises after absorbing all the radiation and this rise will also be
experienced by the Thermocouple chain or Thermocouple module present directly
beneath the blackbody. So the one side of the module will be hot and another will be
cold because of the heat sink. The thermocouple module generates a voltage and this
can be seen at the output terminals. This voltage received at the output terminals is
directly proportional to temperature difference according to the principle of a
thermocouple.
Since we know that the temperature difference is related to radiation absorbed by the
black body, we can say the output voltage is linearly proportional to the radiation.
Similar to the previous calculation, the value of total radiation can be easily obtained
from this voltage value. Also by using the shade and following the same procedure, we
can also obtain the diffuse radiation. With total radiation and diffuse radiation value,
beam radiation value can also be calculated. Hence we can calculate both diffuse solar
radiation and total radiation using Pyranometer.
8. Describe the classification of solar energy collectors.
There are many different types of solar collectors, but all of them are constructed
with the same basic premise in mind. In general, there is some material that is used to
collect and focus energy from the Sun and use it to heat water. The simplest of these

devices uses a black material surrounding pipes that water flows through. The black
material absorbs the solar radiation very well, and as the material heats up the water it
surrounds. This is a very simple design, but collectors can get very complex. Absorber
plates can be used if a high temperature increase isn't necessary, but generally devices
that use reflective materials to focus sunlight result in a greater temperature increase.
Flat Plate Collectors
flat plate solar collector.
These collectors are simply metal boxes that have some sort of
transparent glazing as a cover on top of a dark-coloured absorber plate. The sides
and bottom of the collector are usually covered with insulation to minimize heat
losses to other parts of the collector. Solar radiation passes through the transparent
glazing material and hits the absorber plate.[4] This plate heats up, transferring the
heat to either water or air that is held between the glazing and absorber plate.
Sometimes these absorber plates are painted with special coatings designed to
absorb and retain heat better than traditional black paint. These plates are usually
made out of metal that is a good conductor - usually copper or aluminium.
Evacuated Tube Collectors

A diagram of an evacuated tube solar collector]
This type of solar collector uses a series of evacuated tubes to heat water for
use. These tubes utilize a vacuum, or evacuated space, to capture the suns energy
while minimizing the loss of heat to the surroundings. They have an
inner metal tube which acts as the absorber plate, which is connected to a heat
pipe to carry the heat collected from the Sun to the water. This heat pipe is
essentially a pipe where the fluid contents are under a very particular pressure. At
this pressure, the "hot" end of the pipe has boiling liquid in it while the "cold" end
has condensing vapour. This allows for thermal energy to move more efficiently
from one end of the pipe to the other. Once the heat from the Sun moves from the
hot end of the heat pipe to the condensing end, the thermal energy is transported
into the water being heated for use.
Line Focus Collectors

line focus solar collector
These collectors, sometimes known as parabolic troughs, use highly reflective

materials to collect and concentrate the heat energy from solar radiation.[8] These
collectors are composed of parabolically shaped reflective sections connected
into a long trough. A pipe that carries water is placed in the center of this trough
so that sunlight collected by the reflective material is focused onto the pipe,
heating the contents. These are very high powered collectors and are thus
generally used to generate steam for Solar thermal power plants and are not used
in residential applications. These troughs can be extremely effective in generating
heat from the Sun, particularly those that can pivot, tracking the Sun in the sky to
ensure maximum sunlight collection.
Point Focus Collectors

A point focus solar collector
These collectors are large parabolic dishes composed of some reflective material
that focus the Sun's energy onto a single point. The heat from these collectors is
generally used for driving Stirling engines. Although very effective at collecting
sunlight, they must actively track the Sun across the sky to be of any value. These
dishes can work alone or be combined into an array to gather even more energy
from the Sun.
Point focus collectors and similar apparatuses can also be utilized to concentrate
solar energy for use with Concentrated photovoltaics. In this case, instead of
producing heat, the Sun's energy is converted directly into electricity with high
efficiency photovoltaic cells designed specifically to harness concentrated solar
energy.
9. What is flat plate collector? Explain its operation.
FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS
The flat plate collectors forms the heat of any solar energy collection system designed
for operation in the low temperature range, from ambient to 60 or the medium
temperature, form ambient to 100.The flat plat collector is basically a heat exchanger
which transfer the radiant energy of the incident sunlight to the sensible heat of a

working fluid-liquid or air. The term ‘flat plate’ is slightly misleading in the sense that
the surface may not be truly flat-it may be combination of flat, grooved or of other
shapes as the absorbing surface, with some kind of heat removal device like tubes or
channels. Flat plate collectors are used to convert at much solar radiation as possible
into heat at the highest attainable temperature with the lowest possible investment in
material and labour.
Flat plate collector has the following advantage over other types of solar energy
collectors:
(i) Absorb direct, diffuse and reflected components o solar radiation,
(ii) Are fixed in tilt and orientation and thus, there is no needed of tracking the Sun,
(iii) Are easy to make and are low in cost,
(iv) Have comparatively low maintenance cost and Long lie, and
(v) Operate at comparatively high efficiency.
Principle of Flat Plate Collector
The principle behind a flat collector is simple. If a metal sheet is exposed to solar
radiation, the temperature will rise until the rate at which energy is received is equal to
the rate at which heat is lost from the plate; this temperature is termed as the
‘equilibrium’ temperature. If the back of the plate is protected by a heat insulting
material, and the exposed surface of the plate is painted black and is coved by one or
two glass sheets, then the equilibrium temperature will be much higher than that for the
simple exposed sheet. This plate may be covered into a heat collector by adding a water
circulating system, either by making it hollow or by soldering metal pipes to the surface,
and transferring the heated liquid to a tank for storage. For heat with withdrawal from
the system the equilibrium temperature must decrease, since no useful heat can be
extracted at the maximum equilibrium temperature at which the collection efficiency is
zero. The other extreme condition is when the flow of liquid is so flat that the
temperature rise is very small; in such a case although the losses are small and the
efficiency of the heat collection approaches 100 percent, yet no useful heat can be
extracted. The optimum is approximately midway between the equilibrium
temperatures, whereby an output of hot liquid at a useful temperature is obtained.

Components of Liquid flat Plate Collector
A flat collector (Fig 4.14) usually consists of the following components:
(i) Glazing, which may be one or more sheets of glass or other diathermanous (radiation
transmitting) material(Fig.4.15).
(ii) Tubes, fins or passages for conducting or directing the heat transfer fluid from the
inlet to the outlet.
(iii) Absorber plate which may be flat, corrugated or grooved with tubes, fins or
passages attached to it.
(iv) Header or manifolds, to admit and discharge the fluid.
(v) Insulation which minimizes heat loss from the back and sides of the collector.
(vi) Container or casing which surrounds the various components and protects them
from dust, moisture etc.

These liquid flat plate collectors are potentially useful in supplying the low grade
thermal energy at temperature generally less than 100oC and may be used in system for
the supply of heated water for Domestic, Agricultural, Industrial applications, Space
heating and Cooling application.
10. Examine the working principle of various types of concentrating solar

collectors with neat sketch.

The concentrating solar power system (CSP) uses lenses or mirrors to focus
sunlight into a sharp beam with the help of concentrating solar collectors. This
powerful beam is next focused on a small receiver to heat a fluid to a high
temperature.The hot fluid is then used to generate steam that drives a steam
turbine coupled to an electrical generator.
Types of Concentrating Solar Collectors
Various types of concentrating solar collectors are as under:

• Parabolic trough collector.
• Power tower receiver.
• Parabolic dish collector.
• Fresnel lens collector.
Parabolic Trough Collector
It is a line focusing type collector. In this type of collector, the solar radiations falling
on the area of the parabolic reflector are concentrated at the focus of the
parabola. When the reflector is manufactured in the form of a trough with the
parabolic cross-section, the solar radiations gets focused along a line. An absorber
pipe is placed along this line and a working fluid (usually synthetic oil or water) flows
through it. When the focused solar radiations fall on the absorber pipe, it heats the
fluid to a high temperature. Then the heat absorbed by the working fluid is transferred
to water for producing steam.
The focus of solar radiations changes with the change in sun’s elevation. In order to
focus the solar radiations on the absorber pipe, either the trough or the collector pipe is
rotated continuously about the axis of the absorber pipe.
Power Tower Receiver
In this collector, the receiver is located at the top of the tower. It has a large number of
independently-moving flat mirrors (heliostats) spread over a large area of ground to
focus the reflected solar radiations on the receiver. The heliostats are installed all around
the central tower.

Each heliostat is rotated into two directions so as to track the sun. The solar radiations
reflected from heliostats are absorbed by the receiver mounted on a tower of about
500 m height.
The tower supports a bundle of vertical tubes containing the working fluid. The
working fluid in the absorber receiver is converted into the high-temperature steam of
about 600oC – 700oC. This steam is supplied to a conventional steam power plant
coupled to an electric generator to generate electric power.
Parabolic Dish Collector
In these collectors, the receiver is placed at the focal point of the concentrator. The solar
beam radiations are focused at a point where the receiver (absorber) is placed. The solar

radiations are collected in the receiver. A small volume of fluid is heated in the receiver
to a high temperature. This heat is used to run a prime mover coupled with a generator.
A typical parabolic dish collector has a dish of 6 m diameter. This collector requires
two-axis tracking. It can yield temperatures up to 3000oC. Due to the limitations of size
and the small quantity of fluid, dish type solar collectors are suitable for only small
power generation (up to few kW).
Fresnel Lens Concentrating Collector
In this collector, a Fresnel lens which consists of fine, linear grooves on the surface of
refracting material of optical quality on one side and flat on the other side is used. The
angle of each groove is so designed that the optical behavior of the Fresnel lens is similar
to that of a common lens. The solar radiations which fall normally to the lens are

refracted by the lens and are focused on a line where the absorber tube (receiver) is
placed to absorb solar radiations.
11. Explain the principle of operation of Fresnel lens collector.
Fresnel Lens Concentrating Collector
In this collector, a Fresnel lens which consists of fine, linear grooves on the surface
of refracting material of optical quality on one side and flat on the other side is used.
The angle of each groove is so designed that the optical behavior of the Fresnel lens
is similar to that of a common lens. The solar radiations which fall normally to the
lens are refracted by the lens and are focused on a line where the absorber tube
(receiver) is placed to absorb solar radiations.

There are two types of Fresnel Lenses viz ' Refractive Lens' and 'Reflective Mirrors'.
The Refractive Fresnel Lenses are mostly used in the photovoltaic applications
where as Reflective Mirrors are used in the photo thermal applications. Fresnel
Lenses are more flexible as far as optical designs are considered. And can produce
uniform flux density on the absorber. Figure below shows the schematic view of
Refractive Fresnel Lens and Reflecting Mirror Fresnel Concentrator.
The Fresnel Lenses are also classified as 'imaging' and 'non-imaging lenses. Non-
imaging

lenses does not produce image of the light source. Instead it is designed to concentrate
radiation at a density as high as theoretically possible. Imaging lenses in contrast form
images of the source on the absorber. Here we are concerned more with the non-imaging
Fresnel Lens for generating process heat.
12. Demonstrate the operation of solar cell with equivalent circuit and its I-V
characteristics.
Solar cell is the basic unit of solar energy generation system where electrical energy
isextracted directly from light energy without any intermediate process. The working
of a solar cell solely depends upon its photovoltaic effect, hence a solar cell also known
as photovoltaic cell. A solar cell is basically a semiconductor p-n junction device. It is
formed by joining ptype (high concentration of hole or deficiency of electron) and n-
type (high concentration of electron) semiconductor material. at the junction excess
electrons from n-type try to diffuse top-side and vice-versa. Movement of electrons to
the p-side exposes positive ion cores in nside, while movement of holes to the n-side
exposes negative ion cores in the p-side. This results in an electric field at the junction
and forming the depletion region. When sunlight falls on the solar cell, photons with
energy greater than band gap of the semiconductor are absorbed by the cell and generate
electron-hole (e-h) pair. These e-h pairs migrate respectively to n- and p- side of the pn
junction due to electrostatic force of the field across the junction. In this way a potential
difference is established between two sides of the cell. Typically a solar or photovoltaic
cell has negative front contact and positive back contact. A semiconductor p-n junction
is in the middle of these two contacts like a battery. If these two sides are connected by
an external circuit, current will start flowing from positive to negative terminal of the
solar cell. This is basic working principle of a solar cell. For silicon, the band gap at
room temperature is Eg = 1.1 eV and the diffusion potential is UD = 0.5 to 0.7 V.
Construction of a Si solar cell is depicted in Fig.1.

.
The short-circuit current is the current through the solar cell when the voltage across
the solar

cell is zero (i.e., when the solar cell is of light-generated carriers. For an ideal solar cell
at most moderate resistive loss mechanisms, the short-circuit current and the light circuit
current is the largest current which may be drawn from the solar cell.
The above graph shows the current-voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a typical silicon
PV cell operating under normal conditions. The power delivered by a solar cell is the
product of current and voltage ( I x V ). If the multiplication is done, point for point, for
all voltages from short-circuit to open-circuit conditions, the power curve above is
obtained for a given radiation level.
With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load, the current will be
at its minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the
solar cells open circuit voltage, or Voc. At the other extreme, when the solar cell is
short circuited, that is the positive and negative leads connected together, the voltage
across the cell is at its minimum (zero) but the current flowing out of the cell reaches
its maximum, known as the solar cells short circuit current, or Isc.
Then the span of the solar cell I-V characteristics curve ranges from the short circuit
current ( Isc ) at zero output volts, to zero current at the full open circuit voltage ( Voc ).
In other words, the maximum voltage available from a cell is at open circuit, and the
maximum current at closed circuit. Of course, neither of these two conditions generates

any electrical power, but there must be a point somewhere in between were the solar
cell generates maximum power.
However, there is one particular combination of current and voltage for which the power
reaches its maximum value, at Imp and Vmp. In other words, the point at which the cell
generates maximum electrical power and this is shown at the top right area of the green
rectangle. This is the “maximum power point” or MPP. Therefore the ideal operation
of a photovoltaic cell (or panel) is defined to be at the maximum power point.
The maximum power point (MPP) of a solar cell is positioned near the bend in the I-V
characteristics curve. The corresponding values of Vmp and Imp can be estimated from
the open circuit voltage and the short circuit current: Vmp ≅ (0.8–0.90)Voc and Imp ≅
(0.85–0.95)Isc. Since solar cell output voltage and current both depend on temperature,
the actual output power will vary with changes in ambient temperature.
13. Describe in detail about the different methods of solar storage systems.
Solar energy is available only during the sunshine hours. Consumer energy demands
follow their own time pattern and the solar energy does not fully match the demand. As
a result, energy storage is a must to meet the consumer requirement.
METHODS FOR STORING SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY
SENSIBLE HEAT STORAGE

Heating a liquid or solid which does not change phase comes under this category.

Heat that causes a change in temperature in an object is called sensible heat.

The quantity of heat stored is proportional to the temperature rise of the material.
If T1 and T2 represent the lower and higher temperature, V the volume and ρ
the density of the storage material, and Cp the specific heat, then the energy stored
Q is given by:
LATENT HEAT STORAGE (PHASE CHANGE HEAT STORAGE)

All pure substances in nature are able to change their state. Solids can become
liquids (ice to water) and liquids can become gases (water to vapor) but changes such
as these require the addition or removal of heat.
In this system, heat is stored in a material when it melts, and heat is extracted
from the material when it freezes.
Heat can also be stored when a liquid changes to gaseous state, but as the
volume change is large, such a system is not economic.
Latent heat arises from the work required to overcome the forces that hold together
atoms or molecules in a material. The regular structure of a crystalline solid is
maintained by forces of attraction among its individual atoms, which oscillate slightly
about their average positions in the crystal lattice.
THERMO-CHEMICAL STORAGE
With a thermo-chemical storage system, solar heat energy can start an endothermic
chemical reaction and new products of reactions remain intact.
To extract energy, a reverse exothermic reaction is allowed to take place.
Actually, thermo-chemical thermal energy is the binding energy of reversible
chemical reactions.
STRATIFIED STORAGE
A hot water storage tank (also called a hot water tank, thermal storage tank, hot water
thermal storage unit, heat storage tank and hot water cylinder) is a water tank used for
storing hot water for space heating or domestic use.
An efficiently insulated tank can retain stored heat for days.
Hot water tanks may have a built-in gas or oil burner system, electric immersion
heaters, an external heat exchanger such as a central heating system, or heated water
from another energy source such as a wood-burning stove.

14. What are the applications of solar ponds?

Solar ponds can be used in variety of applications such as heating/cooling of buildings,
industrial process heat, power production, heating animal housing and drying crops in
farms, desalination, etc.
Industrial heat process
The thermal energy extracted from a solar pond can be used in the heat process or the
treatment of materials in manufacturing industries. The solar pond can be a potential
process heat supplier for many industries, optimizing the cost of energy and saving gas,
oil and electricity. The heat generated is normally at medium temperatures of 50–90°C.
In addition, the unit cost of supplying industrial process heat from a Salinity Gradient
Solar Pond (SGSP) is less costly than either natural gas or coal for even smaller pond
sizes .
Power production
Solar ponds could be used as heat source for many applications, one of which is
electricity generation. Some of the striking advantages of solar pond power generation
plants, such as no necessity for fossil fuels, they have low running cost, use local
resources and do not litter the environment. The idea of using the solar pond for power
production can be very potential for those regions where there are conditions such as
insulation and suitable soil that allows the building and operating of large solar ponds.
Hence, these can be used to generate considerable electrical energy from the heat
extracted. However, because of the low temperature of operation, typically (70–100°C)
the conversion efficiency is limited. Thus, it is required to use organic fluids which have
low boiling point, for instance hydrocarbons (e.g. propane) and halocarbons (e.g. freon),
to aid in the electric generation [19].
Desalination
A solar pond in conjunction with a desalination plant can be very beneficial. The
thermal energy extracted from a solar pond can be used to desalt or purify water that
can be used for drinking or irrigation. The desalination plant can obtain energy from a
solar pond for heating a body of saline water; which will enhance the heating process
in desalination. Furthermore, it has been found that the production of distilled water

from this sort of desalination plant can be five times more than the conventional basin
type solar still .
15. Working of a solar power plant-Investigate.

Electrical energy can be harvested from solar power by means of either photovoltaics
or concentrated solar power systems.
Photovoltaics (PV)
Photovoltaics directly convert solar energy into electricity. They work on the principle
of the photovoltaic effect. When certain materials are exposed to light, they absorb
photons and release free electrons.
This phenomenon is called as the photoelectric effect. Photovoltaic effect is a method

of producing direct current electricity based on the principle of the photoelectric Effect.
Based on the principle of photovoltaic effect, solar cells or photovoltaic cells are made.
They convert sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity. But, a single photovoltaic cell
does not produce enough amount of electricity. Therefore, a number of photovoltaic
cells are mounted on a supporting frame and are electrically connected to each other to
form a photovoltaic module or solar panel. Commonly available solar panels range
from several hundred watts (say 100 watts) up to few kilowatts They are available in
different sizes and different price ranges. Solar panels or modules are designed to supply
electric power at a certain voltage (say 12v), but the current they produce is directly
dependent on the incident light. As of now it is clear that photovoltaic modules produce
DC electricity.
Photovoltaic solar power system
According to the requirement of power, multiple photovoltaic modules are electrically

connected together to form a PV array and to achieve more power. There are different
types of PV systems according to their implementation.
PV direct systems: These systems supply the load only when the Sun is shining.
There is no storage of power generated and, hence, batteries are absent. An inverter
may or may not be used depending on the type of load.

Off-grid systems: This type of system is commonly used at locations where power
from the grid is not available or not reliable. An off-grid solar power system is not
connected to any electric grid. It consists solar panel arrays, storage batteries and
inverter circuits.
Grid connected systems: These solar power systems are tied with grids so that the
excess required power can be accessed from the grid. They may or may not be
backed by batteries.
Concentrated solar power

As the name suggest, in this type of solar power system, sun rays are concentrated
(focused) on a small area by placing mirrors or lenses over a large area. Due to this, a
huge amount of heat is generated at the focused area. This heat can be used to heat up
the working fluid which can further drive the steam turbine. There are different types
of technologies that are based on the concentrated solar power to produce electricity.
Some of them are - parabolic trough, Stirling dish, solar power tower etc. The following
schematic shows how a solar power tower works.

16. Compare solar PV system with solar thermal system.
Comparison Solar Thermal Solar PV

Parameter
Principle behind the Converts solar energy into heat. Directly converts solar energy
technology into electricity.
Process involved Solar thermal systems usually come Solar PV consists of arrays of
with collectors that face the sun and cells made of semiconductor
absorb heat. This heat is then materials that are designed to
transferred to either water or convert sunlight into
another heating fluid. electricity.
Application of the 1. Solar thermal systems are most Solar PV systems are used for
technology commonly used for direct heating power generation as an
applications. alternative source of energy.

2. Solar water heater is the most

common application of solar
thermal systems. These systems
can also be used for power
generation where a heated fluid is
used to drive a generator to deliver
electricity.
Solar PV systems are Solar PV systems are used for power Solar PV systems convert
used for power generation as an alternative source sunlight to electricity typically
generation as an of energy. within an efficiency rate of 15-
alternative source of 21%, though these numbers
energy. are expected to rise to some
extent with advances in
technology.
To summarise, we can say that solar thermal and solar PV are different technologies.
Solar thermal systems are a good solution for water heating, and other direct industrial
heating applications. Compared to solar thermal, solar PV systems are a relatively new
technology and are beginning to be seen as a good alternative for electricity generation
in many regions worldwide.
17. Analyze about PV effect and state the advantage and disadvantage of PV Solar
Energy.
Photovoltaic Cell:
• Photovoltaic cells consist of two or more layers of semiconductors with one

layer containing positive charge and the other negative charge lined adjacent to
each other.
• Sunlight, consisting of small packets of energy termed as photons, strikes the

cell, where it is either reflected, transmitted or absorbed.

• When the photons are absorbed by the negative layer of the photovoltaic cell, the
energy of the photon gets transferred to an electron in an atom of the cell.
• With the increase in energy, the electron escapes the outer shell of the atom. The
freed electron naturally migrates to the positive layer creating a potential
difference between the positive and the negative layer. When the two layers are
connected to an external circuit, the electron flows through the circuit creating a
current.
Advantages of solar PV
• PV panels provide clean – green energy. During electricity generation with PV

panels there is no harmful greenhouse gas emissions thus solar PV is
environmentally friendly.
• Solar energy is energy supplied by nature – it is thus free and abundant!
• Solar energy can be made available almost anywhere there is sunlight
• Solar energy is especially appropriate for smart energy networks with distributed
power generation – DPG is indeed the next generation power network structure!
• Solar panels cost is currently on a fast reducing track and is expected to continue
reducing for the next years – consequently solar PV panels has indeed a highly
promising future both for economical viability and environmental sustainability.
• Photovoltaic panels, through photoelectric phenomenon, produce electricity in a

direct electricity generation way

• Operating and maintenance costs for PV panels are considered to be low, almost
negligible, compared to costs of other renewable energy systems
• PV panels have no mechanically moving parts, except in cases of sun-tracking

mechanical bases; consequently they have far less breakages or require less
maintenance than other renewable energy systems (e.g. wind turbines)
• PV panels are totally silent, producing no noise at all; consequently, they are a
perfect solution for urban areas and for residential applications (see solar panels
for home)
• Because solar energy coincides with energy needs for cooling, PV panels can
provide an effective solution to energy demand peaks – especially in hot summer
months where energy demand is high.
• Though solar energy panels’ prices have seen a drastic reduction in the past
years, and are still falling, nonetheless, solar photovoltaic panels are one of major
renewable energy systems that are promoted through government subsidy
funding (FITs, tax credits etc.); thus financial incentive for PV panels make solar
energy panels an attractive investment alternative.
• Residential solar panels are easy to install on rooftops or on the ground without
any interference to residential lifestyle.
Disadvantages of Solar PV
• As in all renewable energy sources, solar energy has intermittency issues; not
shining at night but also during daytime there may be cloudy or rainy weather.
• Consequently, intermittency and unpredictability of solar energy makes solar

energy panels less reliable a solution.
• Solar energy panels require additional equipment (inverters) to convert direct

electricity (DC) to alternating electricity (AC) in order to be used on the power
network.
• For a continuous supply of electric power, especially for on-grid connections,

Photovoltaic panels require not only Inverters but also storage batteries; thus
increasing the investment cost for PV panels considerably

• In case of land-mounted PV panel installations, they require relatively large areas

for deployment; usually the land space is committed for this purpose for a period
of 15-20 years – or even longer.
• Solar panels efficiency levels are relatively low (between 14%-25%) compared
to the efficiency levels of other renewable energy systems.
• Though PV panels have no considerable maintenance or operating costs, they

are fragile and can be damaged relatively easily; additional insurance costs are
therefore of ultimate importance to safeguard a PV investment.
18.i) With a schematic diagram explain the structure of medium temperature

solar power plant. (Nov.2020)
Medium Temperature Solar Power Plant
• Concentrating collectors are used in such plant.
• Temperature limit is 250° to 400°C.
• Water is used to heat carrier from collector.
Components of Medium Temperature Solar Power Plant

Figure shows the block diagram of a medium temperature solar power plant.Various
components of medium temperature Solar Power Plant are,
1. Array of solar concentrating collector
2. Storage tank
3. Steam generator,
4. Steam turbine,
5. Generator,
6. Condenser.

1. Array used is concentrated parabolic trough type, collects solar radiations.
2. Heat carried to storage tank.
3. Further in the steam generator, Steam goes to drive steam-turbine.
4. Mechanical energy of turbine drives the generator and it converts mechanical

energyinto electrical energy.
5. Exhaust steam comes to condenser, Where it is condensed by cooled water

from cooling tower and pumped
6. Back to steam generator. This type of plant is running Rajasthan of capacity 30

MW. Temperature
ii) Explain the working of solar water pumping system. (Nov 2020)
Solar water pump operates on the electricity produced by the PV
(photovoltaic) panels or the radiant heat generated by collected sunlight. This is
the opposite of a diesel or grid electricity water pump. The solar powered
pump uses solar energy for operation. It consists of a water storage tank, electrical
cables, a breaker/fuse box, a DC water pump, a solar charge controller (MPPT), and
a solar panel array.
A solar powered water pump is more efficient to operate. These pumps have low
maintenance cost and operation. Solar pumps have a lower environmental impact

compared to pumps powered by IC engines. The pump with a solar system is a

delightful technology with which remote areas can be supplied with water both
ecologically and socially. Therefore, it is always the economic technology of
choice. Remote areas tend to require mostly diesel engines and human resources for
water supply. Solar water pumps replace existing pumps and offer many benefits
such as weather and socio-economy. These pumps are primarily suitable for
reservoirs and irrigation systems.
These pumps utilize in places where grid power is not available, and substitutional
energy sources (especially wind power) cannot provide enough power.
The solar powered water pump can deliver water where power lines can’t reach. These
are commonly found in aeration, pond filtration, aquarium filtration, and well pumps.
These types of pumps mainly use in areas that have power problems. Otherwise, you
will not have a stable power supply. This is an ideal water withdrawal system for green
energy that combines the advantages of reliability, economy, and environmental
protection.
Block Diagram of Solar Water Pump
The block diagram of the solar powered water pump mainly consists of a controller,
electric motor or battery, water pump, and solar panels (PV). Basically, it is an electric
pump that works on the electrical energy obtained from solar panels. These panels
receive energy from the sunlight. The connected battery or motor controls DC or AC.
The controller used of this system uses to adjust the speed and output power.

Working Principle of Solar Water Pump
During the working of a solar pump, PV (photovoltaic) systems absorb radiant solar
energy and transform it into electricity. This produced electricity supplies to the entire
system. The inverter of the solar water pump converts the direct current output of the
PV system into alternating current, which drives the pump. These inverters also adjust
the output frequency and voltage in real-time, corresponding to variations in the sunlight
intensity to attains the highest power point tracking. As the intensity of the sunlight
becomes weaker, the water lifting system realizes the function of switching the
municipal power that works as auxiliary energy for the water lifting system.
Solar-powered Water Pump Types
Solar pumps have many types, but the most major types are given below:
1. Submersible Solar Pump

2. Surface Solar Pump
3. DC Solar Pump
4. AC Solar Pump
1) Submersible Solar Pumps
Submersible pump lifts up to 650ft of water and can install in large wells. As long as
the well water is more than 20ft above the surface, these pumps operate directly to turn
off batteries, solar panels, and in some cases, electricity. When the sun is shining, the
water is usually pumped the whole day, and water is stored in tanks to be used when
needed. The water can’t be pumped in bad weather because the sun can’t shine in bad
weather. Therefore, it is advisable to store the water only in good climate conditions.
These solar pump types mostly use in deep water and undrilled areas. These pumps also
use for livestock watering, pond aeration, home water systems, irrigation,
pressurization, and well pumping. The maximum recommended pump depth is 50m.
50m.

2) Surface Solar Pumps
These types of pumps use in streams, storage tanks, shallow wells, or ponds. When the
well water supply depth is 20ft or less from the ground, we use a surface solar water
pump. In general, they cannot pump very high water from deep wells and can pump
water up to 200ft or more. These pumps can easily lift water from depths of up to 20m.

3) DC Solar Pump
This pump has an electric motor that uses DC. Therefore, no battery or inverter is
required in this pump.

4) AC Solar Pumps
The electric motor used in this type of pump works with alternating current. With the
help of an inverter, the direct current produced by the switchboard is converted into
alternating current. This conversion can lead to power outages during production and
use.
Components of Solar Water Pump System
The solar water pump has the following major components:

1) Water Pump
A water pump is an important part of a water pumping system. These pumps have
various types such as sump pump, booster pump, circulating pump, and submersible
pump.
• Submersible Pump: These pumps pump water from deep depth, e.g.,
underground water sources such as shallow wells and boreholes.
• Circulator Pump: These pumps circulate the water to keep it warm and
prepared for utilization and ensure a continuous water supply.
• Booster Pump: The booster pump provides the pressure needed to pump
water from a storage tank and deliver it to the entire home or facility.

2) Solar Panels
Solar panels are a key part of the solar-powered water pump. A group of solar panels is
called an array. Solar panels generate electrical energy by separating electrons from
atoms by permitting photons and light arrays, which creates electricity.
Solar panels are made up of small units called solar cells that change sunlight into
electrical energy. There are several types of solar energy technologies like concentrated
solar energy and solar thermal. These work differently than PV solar panels. However,
these also use the energy of sunlight to generate electricity to drive water pumps.
3) Solar Batteries
The battery of the solar powered water pump system stores the charge produced by the
solar panel; in the presence of sunlight, the energy produced by the solar panel supplies
to a load and a battery. If the load requirement is greater compared to the energy
obtained by the solar panels, these batteries deliver a stable source of energy to the
pumping system. The battery ensures that the water pumping system is working in the
sunlight or not.
Deep cycle batteries often use for solar energy purposes because they are repetitively
and deeply discharged.
4) Pump Controllers
The pump controller can adjust the pump system parameters to meet user needs and
shield the pump system. These can use for the water to set an extraction schedule. The
scheduled water helps to maximize the pump life.
5) Invertors
The inverter converts DC into AC. The transformation of direct current to alternating
current is required for a wide variety of electrical equipment involving water pumps.
Therefore, the inverter is an important part of the solar water pump system. But, using
a DC pump removes the need for an inverter.

In cloudy or dark weather, the inverter is a high-performance backup source of energy;

due to that, the pump can continue to run without solar energy.
The prices of solar water pumps have decreased in recent years. Following are
the factors that should be considered while purchasing a solar water pump.
• Economics
• Social justice
• Water management
• Standardization of products and services as well as quality control
• Money accessibility
• Maintenance
• Operation and installation.
With these factors in mind, solar pumps can offer tremendous socio-economic and
environmental advantages at the national and agricultural levels. This technology can
provide reliable power to control areas at the farm levels, particularly areas that aren’t
linked to the electricity grid or where supplies of traditional liquid fuel are rare. At the
national level, solar pumps help diversify, stabilize and increase agricultural production,
which is the economic base of most African countries.
As the name suggests, an efficient solar pumping system is a system that can absorb a
lot of sunlight and is specially installed for the necessities of the farm.
Nowadays, due to the world’s energy crisis, the world is energetically developing
renewable energies. Despite the relatively high cost, the actual efficiency of a solar-
powered system can be seen over the years. Using solar energy is a valuable option as
renewable energy option.
Solar Pump Applications
The major applications of the solar pumps are given below:
• These pumps use to supply water for animals

• They use for irrigation systems
• They also use to supply water for drinking and cooking purposes

• These pumps may also utilize as booster pumps for pumping fluids over
long distance
• Solar pumps use for water treatment applications
• These also use for the extraction of oil and gas
19) Explain the algorithm for maximum power point tracking. Also discuss
the necessary conditions while synchronizing the PV system with grid supply.
(Nov 2020)
Maximum Power Point Tracking Maximum power point is a operating point at which
maximum power can be extracted from the system. Usually represented as MPP. The
output of the solar module is a function of solar irradiance and temperature. Generally
MPPT is installed in between PV system and load. Coupling to the load for maximum
power transfer may require either providing a higher voltage at lower current or lower
voltage at higher current. Maximum power point tracking is a technique used commonly
with wind turbines and photovoltaic (PV) solar systems to maximize power extraction
under all conditions. PV solar systems exist in many different configurations with
regard to their relationship to inverter systems, external grids, battery banks, or other
electrical loads. Regardless of the ultimate destination of the solar power, though, the
central problem addressed by MPPT is that the efficiency of power transfer from the
solar cell depends on both the amount of sunlight falling on the solar panels and the
electrical characteristics of the load. As the amount of sunlight varies, the load
characteristic that gives the highest power transfer efficiency changes, so that the
efficiency of the system is optimized when the load characteristic changes to keep the
power transfer at highest efficiency. This load characteristic is called the Maximum
Power Point (MPP) and MPPT is the process of finding this point and keeping the load
characteristic there. Electrical circuits can be designed to present arbitrary loads to the
photovoltaic cells and then convert the voltage, current, or frequency to suit other
devices or systems, and MPPT solves the problem of choosing the best load to be
presented to the cells inorder to get the most usable power out. Solar cells have a
complex relationship between temperature and total resistance that produces a non-
linear output efficiency which can be analyzed based on the I-V curve. It is the purpose
of the MPPT system to sample the output of the PV cells and apply the proper resistance
(load) to obtain maximum power for any given environmental conditions. MPPT
devices are typically integrated into an electric power converter system that provides

voltage or current conversion, filtering, and regulation for driving various loads,
including power grids, batteries, or motors. • Solar inverters convert the DC power to
AC power and may incorporate MPPT, such inverters sample the output power (I-V
curve) from the solar modules and apply the proper resistance (load) so as to obtain
maximum power. • The power at the MPP (Pmpp) is the product of the MPP voltage
(Vmpp) and MPP current (Impp). Perturb and observe In this method the controller
adjusts the voltage by a small amount from the array and measures power; if the power
increases, further adjustments in that direction are tried until power no longer increases.
This is called the perturb and observe method and is most common, although this
method can result in oscillations of power output. It is referred to as a hill climbing
method, because it depends on the rise of the curve of power against voltage below the
maximum power point, and the fall above that point. Perturb and observe is the most
commonly used MPPT method due to its ease of implementation. Perturb and observe
method may result in top-level efficiency, provided that a proper predictive and adaptive
hill climbing strategy is adopted.

Incremental conductance In the incremental conductance method, the controller

measures incremental changes in PV array current and voltage to predict the effect of a
voltage change. This method requires more computation in the controller, but can track
changing conditions more rapidly than the perturb and observe method (P&O). Like the
P&O algorithm, it can produce oscillations in power output. This method utilizes the
incremental conductance (dIpv/dVpv) of the photovoltaic array to compute the sign of
the change in power with respect to voltage (dPpv/dVpv). The incremental conductance
method computes the maximum power point by comparison of the incremental
conductance (Ipv / Vpv) to the array conductance (I / V). When these two are the same
(I / V = Ipv / Vpv), the output voltage is the MPP voltage. The controller maintains this
voltage until the irradiation changes and the process is repeated.
The incremental conductance method is based on the observation that at the maximum
power point dPpv/dVpv = 0, and that P = IV. The current from the array can be

expressed as a function of the voltage : P = Ipv(V)Vpv. Therefore, dPpv/dVpv =

VdIpv/dVpv + I(V). Setting this equal to zero yields : dIpv/dVpv = -Ipv(V)/Vpv.
Therefore, the maximum power point is achieved when the incremental conductance is
equal to the negative of the instantaneous conductance.
Current sweep The current sweep method uses a sweep waveform for the PV array
current such that the I-V characteristic of the PV array is obtained and updated at fixed
time intervals. The maximum power point voltage can then be computed from the
characteristic curve at the same intervals.

Constant voltage The term "constant voltage" in MPP tracking is used to describe
different techniques by different authors, one in which the output voltage is regulated
to a constant value under all conditions and one in which the output voltage is regulated
based on a constant ratio to the measured open circuit voltage (VOC). The latter
technique is referred to in contrast as the "open voltage" method by some authors. If the
output voltage is held constant, there is no attempt to track the maximum power point,
so it is not a maximum power point tracking technique in a strict sense, though it does
have some advantages in cases when the MPP tracking tends to fail, and thus it is
sometimes used to supplement an MPPT method. In the "constant voltage" MPPT
method (also known as the "open voltage method"), the power delivered to the load is
momentarily interrupted and the open-circuit voltage with zero current is measured. The
controller then resumes operation with the voltage controlled at a fixed ratio, such as
0.76, of the open-circuit voltage VOC. This is usually a value which has been
determined to be the maximum power point, either empirically or based on modelling,
for expected operating conditions. The operating point of the PV array is thus kept near
the MPP by regulating the array voltage and matching it to the fixed reference voltage

Vmodule = kVOC. The value of Vmodule may be also chosen to give optimal
performance relative to other factors as well as the MPP, but the central idea in this
technique is that Vmodule is determined as a ratio to VOC. One of the inherent
approximations in the "constant voltage" ratio method is that the ratio of the MPP
voltage (Vmp) to VOC is only approximately constant, so it leaves room for further
possible optimization.
Temperature method This method of MPPT estimates the MPP voltage (Vmpp) by
measuring the temperature of the solar module and comparing it against a reference.
Since changes in irradiation levels have a negligible effect on the maximum power point
voltage, its influences may be ignored - the voltage is assumed to vary linearly with the
temperature changes. This algorithm calculates the following equation : Vmpp (T) =
Vmpp (Tref) + uVmpp (T – Tref) Where : Vmpp is the voltage at the maximum power
point for a given temperature; Tref is a reference temperature; T is the measured
temperature; uVmpp is the temperature coefficient of Vmpp

Advantages • Simplicity : This algorithm solves one linear equation. Therefore, it does
not consume much computational power. • Can be implemented as analog or digital
circuits. • Since temperature varies slowly with time, there are no steady-state
oscillation and instability. • Low cost : Temperature sensors are usually very cheap. •
Robust against noise. Disadvantage • Estimation error might not be negligible for low
irradiation levels (e.g. below 200 W/m²).
GRID INTEGRATED SOLAR SYSTEM:

Grid-connected photovoltaic systems are designed to operate in parallel with
the electric utility grid as shown. There are two general types of electrical designs for
PV power systems:
➢ Systems that interact with the utility power grid as shown in Fig. 26.15a and
have no battery backup capability, and
➢ Systems that interact and include battery backup as well, as shown in Fig.
26.15b.

FIGURE Grid-connected PV system: (a) without battery back-up and (b) with
battery storage.
The latter type of system incorporates energy storage in the form of a battery to
keep “critical load” circuits operating during utility outage. When an outage occurs,
the unit disconnects from the utility and powers specific circuits of the load. If the
outage occurs in daylight, the PV array is able to assist the load in supplying the loads.
The major component in both systems is the dc–ac inverter or also called the
power conditioning system (PCS). Figure 26.16 shows the block diagram of such
connection.

The inverter, used to convert photovoltaic dc energy to ac energy, is the key to

the successful operation of the system, but it is also the most complex hardware. The
most important inverter characteristics requirement are: operate over a wide range of
voltages and currents, regulate output voltage and frequency, in addition to providing
ac power with good power quality.
The grid-connected system can be classified as:

1) Rooftop application of grid-connected PV system.
2) Utility scale large system.
For small household PV applications, a roof mounted PV array can be the best
option. Solar cells provide an environmentally clean way of producing electricity, and
rooftops have
always been the ideal place to put them. With a PV array on the rooftop, the solar
generated power can supply residential load. The rooftop PV systems can help in
reducing the peak summer load to the benefit of utility companies by feeding the
household lighting, cooling, and other domestic loads. The battery storage can further
improve the reliability of the system at the time of low insolation level, nighttime, or
cloudy days. But the battery storage has some inherent
problems like maintenance and higher cost.
For roof-integrated applications, the solar arrays can be either mounted on the
roof or directly integrated into the roof. If the roof integration does not allow for an air
channel behind the PV modules for ventilation purpose, then it can increase the cell
temperature during the operation consequently leading to some energy losses. The

disadvantage with the rooftop application is that the PV array orientation is dictated
by the roof. In case, when the roof orientation differs from the optimal orientation
required for the cells, then efficiency of the entire system would be suboptimal.
Utility interest in PV has centered on the large gridconnected PV systems. In

Germany, USA, Spain, and in several other parts of the world, some large PV scale
plants have been installed. The utilities are more inclined with large scale, centralized
power supply. The PV systems can be centralized or distributed systems.
Grid-connected PV systems must observe the islanding situation, when the

utility supply fails. In case of islanding, the PV generators should be disconnected
from mains. PV generators can continue to meet only the local load, if the PV output
matches the load. If the grid is re-connected during islanding, transient overcurrents
can flow through the PV system inverters and the protective equipments like circuit
breakers may be damaged. The islanding control can be achieved through inverters or
via the distribution network. Inverter controls can be designed on the basis of
detection of grid voltage, measurement of impedance, frequency variation, or increase
in harmonics. Protection shall be designed for the islanding, short circuits, over/under-
voltages/currents, grounding, and lightening, etc.
The importance of the power generated by the PV system depends upon the
time of the day specially when the utility is experiencing the peak load. The PV plants
are well suited to summer peaking but it depends upon the climatic condition of the
site. PV systems being investigated for use as peaking stations would be competitive
for load management. The PV
users can defer their load by adopting load management to get the maximum benefit
out of the grid-connected PV plants and feeding more power into the grid at the time
of peak load.
The assigned capacity credit is based on the statistical probability with which
the grid can meet peak demand. The capacity factor during the peaks is very similar to
that of conventional plants and similar capacity credit can be given for the PV
generation except at the times when the PV plants are generating very less power

unless adequate storage is provided. With the installation of PV plants, the need of
extra transmission lines, transformers can be delayed or avoided. The distributed PV
plants can also contribute in providing reactive power support to the grid and reduce
burden on VAR compensators.
Inverters for Grid-connected Applications:

Power conditioner is the key link between the PV array and mains in the grid-
connected PV system. It acts as an interface that converts DC current produced by the
solar cells into utility grade AC current. The PV system behavior relies heavily on the
power-conditioning unit. The inverters shall produce good quality sine-wave output.
The inverter must follow the frequency and voltage of the grid and the inverter has to
extract maximum power from the solar cells with the help of MPPT and the inverter
input stage varies the input voltage until the MPP on the I–V curve is found. The
inverter shall monitor all the phases of the grid. The inverter output shall be controlled
in terms of voltage and frequency variation. A typical grid-connected inverter may use
a PWM scheme and operates in the range of 2–20 kHz.
Solar energy grid connection requirements
1. Point of common coupling
The “point of common coupling (PCC)” is a point at which solar power plant is
connected to the grid. It is sometimes called the “grid connection point (GCP).” The
PCC is usually the connection point at the high-voltage terminals of the generator step-
up transformer; it is generally located at the grid side of the isolating switch between
the solar power plant and the grid. Normally, the solar energy grid connection code
specifies the following technical requirements at the PCC.
2. Range of voltage
The grid-connected solar power plant shall be able to deliver its actual active power
when the voltage at the point of common coupling remains within the ranges shown
in Table below. If required by the transmission system operator, the solar plant shall be
also capable of automatically disconnecting from the grid at specified voltages.

Range of voltage
Time of operation
(pu)
0.85–1.10 Unlimited
1.10–1.15 30 min
3.Frequency range
In the case of a deviation of the grid frequency from its permissible value, the solar
power plant shall perform as follows:
1. If the frequency is <50 Hz, the solar plant shall continue injecting active power
until the frequency reduces below 47.5 Hz.
2. For over-frequency between 50 and 50.2 Hz, the solar power plant shall
maintain the 100% of active power.
3. If the frequency is >50.2 Hz, the solar power plant shall inject active power up
to 51.5 Hz
4. Starting up solar power plants
The solar power plant shall only be connected to the power grid if the frequency and
the voltage at the PCC are within the limits given in table or as otherwise stated in the
Connection Agreement (CA) between the transmission system operator and the owner
of solar power plant.
Frequency 48.0 Hz ≤ f ≤ 51.0 Hz
Voltage 0.90 u ≤ U ≤ 1.10 pu
5. Power quality requirements
The solar plants connected to the power grid shall endeavor to maintain the quality of
the voltage waveform at the PCC.
6.Harmonic distortion
The maximum harmonic distortion levels at the PCC which are attributable to the
solar power plant shall obey the stipulations in the IEEE Standard 519-1992 as

specified of Performance Code and/or the applicable section in the Electricity

Distribution Code.
It is well known that a linear load, such as incandescent lamps or heaters, draws
electric current from the source proportional to the applied voltage, while a nonlinear
load such as an adjustable-speed drive draws currents apart from the voltage wave.
The current of the nonlinear load comprises odd harmonics (third, fifth, seventh, etc.).
Components of harmonic currents will interact with source currents, thus causing
voltage harmonics. The voltage harmonic components are superimposed on the
fundamental voltage component leading to a distorted voltage waveform.
UNIT IV - BIOMASS ENERGY
1. What is meant by biomass energy and biomass energy resource?
Organic matters derived from biological organisms are called Biomass. The energy
obtained from biomass is called biomass energy. The raw organic matter obtained from
nature for extracting secondary energy is called biomass energy resource.
2. Classify the biomass resources.
Biomass resources are broadly classified into two categories: Biomass from cultivated
fields, crop, forest and harvested periodically. Biomass derived from waste e.g.,
municipal waste, animal excreta/dung, forest waste, agricultural waste, bioprocess
waste, butchery waste, fishery waste/processing waste etc.
3. What do you mean by fossil fuels?
Fossil fuels (coal, petroleum oil and natural gases) are produced from dead, buried
biomass under pressure and in absence of air during several millions of years. However;
they are considered separately as fossils and are not included in the category of biomass.
4. What are the categories of scope of biomass energy?
The scope of biomass energy is of three categories. They are rural application of
biomass energy Urban and industrial applications of biomass energy Biomass as a
primary source for large scale electrical power generation.
5. Name the three categories of Biomass resources.
Bio mass resources fall into three categories:

• Biomass in its traditional solid mass (wood and agricultural residue),and

• Biomass in non-traditional form (converted into liquid fuels).
The first category is to burn the biomass directly and get the energy. In these
category, the biomass is converted into ethanol and methanol to be used as liquid
fuels in engines. The third category is to ferment the biomass anaerobically to
obtain a gaseous fuel called biogas.
6. List the general principles of Energy Conservation
The general principles of Energy Conservation are:
➢ Recycling of waste
➢ Modernization of technology
➢ Waste heat utilization
➢ Proper house keeping
➢ Judicial use of proper types of energy
➢ Judicial use of proper type of fuel
➢ Training of manpower
➢ Adopting daylight saving time
➢ Proper operation and maintenance
➢ Cogeneration
7. What are the draw backs on bio gas?
➢ Biomass combustion produces air pollution
➢ Large scale production of biomass and its harvesting accelerate soil erosion and
nutrient.
➢ Domestic use of biomass in rural areas creates air pollution
8. What are the adverse effects produced by geo thermal energy source?
➢ Ammonia is used as working fluid in closed cycle OTEC system. Its leakage
may cause great damage to the ocean eco system.
➢ An OTEC plant displaces 4 cumec water/ MW generation. Massive flow
disturbs thermal balance, changes salinity gradient and turbidity. It creates
adverse impact on marine environment.
➢ Mining of warm & cold water near the surface develops convection of sinking
cold water. It creates a temporary variation at 40C forcing mortality among
coral and fines.

9. What are the applications of bio mass?

• Cooking
• Lightning
• Mechanical power
• Generation of small electricity
10. What are the environmental concerns of geo thermal energy?
➢ Gases containing H2S are oxidized to SO2 and H2So4 and drops down as acid
rain.
➢ Chemicals like sulphates, Chlorides and Carbonates of lead, boron and arsenic
pollute soil and water
➢ Discharge of waste hot water infects rivers and affect drinking water, farming
and fisheries
➢ Noise pollution caused by exhausts is a health hazard and is controlled by using
silencers
11. List the secondary energy forms of biomass.
The biomass can be converted to useful secondary energy forms suchas
➢ Heat
➢ Gaseous
➢ fuels
➢ Solid fuels
➢ Organic chemical
➢ Liquid fuels
12. Point out the cultivated biomass.
The cultivated biomass (biomass from energy farms) includes:
➢ Sugar cane crops, sweet sorghum crops, sugar beets.

➢ Herbaceous crops which are non-woody plants which can be converted into
biogas or biochemical fuels.
➢ Cereals, potatoes and other carbohydrate fruit crops, etc. grown for producing
in feeds to the fermentation plants
➢ Forests crops of fast growing energy intensive trees specially grown as source
of energy.

➢ Aquatic crops grown in fresh water, sea water, muddy water etc., and these
crops include submerged plants, surface plants and include seaweeds, marine
algae, water hyacinth, floating kelp etc. algae is considered to be a promising
aquatic biomass
13. List out the biomass energy resources from waste.
The waste to energy processes convert organic wastes to intermediate or

secondary energy forms such as heat, biogas, alcohol, fuels, chemicals, etc. The waste
is classified as
➢ Urban (municipal) waste

➢ Industrial organic waste, process waste
➢ Agricultural farm waste
➢ Rural animal waste
➢ Forest waste Fishery, poultry, butchery waste
➢ Animal and human excreta
14. What is meant by biogas plant?
The plant which converts biomass to biogas (methane plus carbon dioxide) by
the process of anaerobic digestion is generally called a biogas plant.
15. Mention advantages of biomass energy
It is a renewable source. The energy storage is an in-built feature of it. It is an

indigenous source requiring little or no foreign exchange. The forestry and agricultural
industries that supply feed stocks also provide substantial economic development
opportunities in rural areas. The pollutant emissions from combustion of biomass are
usually lower than those from fossil fuels.
16. Mention disadvantages of biomass energy
It is a dispersed and land intensive source. It is often of low energy density. It is

also labour intensive and the cost of collecting large quantities for commercial
application is significant. Most current commercial large quantities for commercial
application are significant. Most current commercial applications of biomass energy,
use material that has been collected for other reasons, such as timber and food
processing residues and urban waste. Capacity is determines by availability of biomass
and not suitable for varying loads. Not feasible to set up at all locations.

17. What is meant by biomass gasification?
The word gasification (or thermal gasification) implies converting solid fuel into a
gaseous fuel by thermo chemical method without leaving any solid carbonaceous
residue.
18. Classify the biogas plant.
The biogas plant are classified into:
• Continuous and batch types
• The dome and drum types
19. List the factors affecting bio digestion or generation of gas. (Nov 2020)
The factors affecting bio digestion or generation of gas are: pH or the hydrogen-ion
concentration Temperature Total sold content of the feed material Loading rate Seeding
Uniform feeding Nutrients Type of feed stocks Toxicity due end product Pressure Acid
accumulation inside the digester
20. Why the biogases are mainly utilized?
Biogases are mainly utilized. The biogas can be utilized effectively for Household
cooking, Lighting, Operating small engines, Utilizing power for pumping water,
Chaffing fodder and Grinding flour.
21. List the Feature of continuous plant

It will produce gas continuously. It requires small digestion chambers. It needs
lesser period for digestion. It has less problems compared to batch type and it is
easier in operation.
22. List the Features of batch plant.

➢ The gas production in it is intermittent, depending upon the clearing of the
digester.
➢ It needs several digesters or chambers for continuous gas production, these are
fed alternatively.
➢ Batch plants are good for long fibrous materials
➢ This plant needs addition of fementated slurry to start the digestion process.
➢ This plant is expensive and has problems comparatively; the continuous plant
will have less problems and will be easy for operation.
23. Write the advantages of floating drum plant.

➢ It has scum troubles because solids are constantly submerged.

➢ In it, the danger of mixing oxygen with the gas to form an explosive mixture
is minimized
➢ No problem of gas leakage
➢ Constant gas pressure
24. Write the disadvantages of floating drum plant.
It has higher cost, as cost is dependent on steel and cement. Heat is lost through
the metal gas holder, hence it troubles in colder regions and periods Gas holder
requires painting once or twice a year, depending on the humidity of the location.
Flexible pipe joining the gas holder to the main gas piper quires maintenance, as it
is damaged by ultraviolet rays in the sun. It may be twisted also, with the rotation of
the drum for mixing or scum removal.
25. Mention some advantages of fixed dome type plant
It has low cost compare to floating drum type, as it uses only cement and no
steel. It has no corrosion trouble. Heat insulation is better as construction is beneath
the ground. Temperature will be constant. Cattle and human excreta and long fibrous
stalks can be fed. No maintenance.
26. Mention some disadvantages of fixed dome type plant

This type of plant needs the service of skilled masons, who are rather scarce in
rural areas. Gas production per cum of the digester volume is also less. Scum
formation is a problem as no stirring arrangement. It has variable gas pressure.
27. What are the techniques or methods of maintaining biogas production?
The methods for maintaining biogas production are insulating the gas plant
Composting Hot water circulation Use of chemical solar energy systems
28. What is meant by cogeneration?
A procedure for generating electric power and useful heat in a single installation
is known as cogeneration. Heat may be supplied in the form of steam, hot water or
hot air. The net result is overall increase in the efficiency of fuel utilization.
29. Mention the types and explain the cogeneration principles
Types of cogeneration principles are:
The Topping Cycle:

Primary heat is used to generate high pressure and temperature steam for
electrical energy generation. The discharged low grade heat, which would
otherwise be dispersed to the environment, is utilized in an industrial process or
in other ways.
The Bottoming Cycle:
Primary heat at high temperature is used directly for industrial process

requirements. The remaining low grade heat is then used for electrical power
generation, e.g. high temperature cement kiln.
30. Three general types of cogeneration systems
The three general types of cogeneration principles systems are: Waste heat
utilization space heating and cooling warm water in agriculture warm water in
aquaculture Total/Integrated energy system for residential complex Total energy
system (TES) for industry.
31. What is meant by incineration?
Organic matter can be burnt in presence of oxygen/air to produce heat and

byproducts. This is the well-known process called combustion. Complete
combustion to ashes is called incineration.
32. What are the types of Gasifiers?
In down draft gasifier fuel and air move in a co current manner. In update gasifier
fuel and air move in a counter current manner. But the basic reaction zones remain
the same.
33. What are the types of biomass resources?

• Forests
• Agricultural crops residues
• Energy crops
• Vegetable oil crops
• A quatic crop
• Animal waste
• Urban waste
• Industrial waste
34. What is Transesterification?

The Process where the raw vegetable oils are treated with alcohol (Methanol or
ethanol with a catalyst) to form methyl or ethyl esters is known as
transesterification.
35. Definition of Hydro-Electric Power Plant?
A generating station which utilizes the potential energy of water at a high level
for the generation of electrical energy is known as a hydro-electric power station.
36. Basic Principal of Hydro-Electric Power Plant.
(PE↔KE↔ME↔EE
(Potential Energy↔ Kinetic Energy ↔Mechanical Energy ↔Electrical Energy)
We know that, water is stored in dam by using rain water. This stored water
contains Potential energy, due to height or head of dam. When this water is flow
towards turbine, at that time the Kinetic Energy is converted into Mechanical
Energy. The turbine or prime mover is mechanically coupled with generator.
Whenever turbine starts to rotate with the help of high pressure water, automatically
generator starts to rotate & it produced an electrical energy.
37. Schematic arrangement of Hydro-Electric Power Plant?
38. Classification of plants According to Nature of Load?
a. Base-Load Plants
b. Peak-Load Plants
c. Pumped Storage Hydro-Electric Power Plant for Peak Load.

39. Classification of Hydro-Electric Power Plant
40. What is Biomass cogeneration? (Nov 2020)

A procedure for generating electric power and useful heat in a single installation
is known as cogeneration. During cogeneration of biomass, 30% to 35% of its
energy content is transformed into electrical power and 55% to 60% into useable
heat. Topping cycle and Bottoming cycle are the two types of cogeneration
principles followed. Net result of biomass cogeneration is overall increase in fuel
utilization efficiency.
PART-B
1. Describe in detail the construction and working of various types of bio-gas plants.
State the merits and demerits of the biogas power plant.
Most organic materials undergo a natural anaerobic digestion in the presence of

moisture and absence of oxygen and produce biogas. The biogas so obtained is a mixture of
methane (CH4): 55-65% and Carbon dioxide (CO2) : 30-40%. The biogas contains traces of
H2, H2S and N2. The calorific value of biogas ranges from 5000 to 5500 Kcal/Kg (18.8 to 26.4
MJ /m3 ). Digestion is biological process that occurs in the absence of oxygen and in the
presence of anaerobic organisms at temperatures (35-70ºC) and atmospheric pressure. The
container in which, this process takes place is known as digester.
Types of biogas plants
Biogas plants basically are two types
Floating dome type
o The floating-drum plant with a cylindrical digester (KVIC model)
Fixed dome type
o The fixed-dome plant with a brick reinforced, moulded dome (Janata model)
o The fixed-dome plant with a hemisphere digester (Deenbandhu model)

Floating dome type:

Floating-drum plants consist of an underground digester and a moving gas-
holder. The gasholder floats either directly on the fermentation slurry or in a water jacket of its
own. The gas is collected in the gas drum, which rises or moves down, according to the amount
of gas stored. The gas drum is prevented from tilting by a guiding frame. If the drum floats in
a water jacket, it cannot get stuck, even in substrate with high solid content.
Drum:-In the past, floating-drum plants were mainly built in India. A floating-drum plant
consists of a cylindrical or dome-shaped digester and a moving, floating gas-holder, or drum.
The gas-holder floats either directly in the fermenting slurry or in a separate water jacket. The
drum in which the biogas collects has an internal and/or external guide frame that provides
stability and keeps the drum upright. If biogas is produced, the drum moves up, if gas is
consumed, the gas-holder sinks back.
Size:-Floating-drum plants are used chiefly for digesting animal and human feces on a
continuous feed mode of operation, i.e. with daily input. They are used most frequently by
small to middle-sized farms (digester size: 5-15m3 ) or in institutions and larger agro-industrial
estates (digester size: 20-100m3 ).
KVIC type biogas plant:
This mainly consists of a digester or pit for fermentation and a floating drum
for the collection of gas. Digester is 3.5-6.5 m in depth and 1.2 to 1.6 m in diameter. There is
a partition wall in the center, which divides the digester vertically and submerges in the slurry
when it is full. The digester is connected to the inlet and outlet by two pipes. Through the inlet,
the dung is mixed with water (4:5) and loaded into the digester. The fermented material will
flow out through outlet pipe. The outlet is generally connected to a compost pit. The gas
generation takes place slowly and in two stages. In the first stage, the complex, organic

substances contained in the waste are acted upon by a certain kind of bacteria, called acid
formers and broken up into small-chain simple acids. In the second stage, these acids are acted
upon by another kind of bacteria, called methane formers and produce methane and carbon
dioxide.
Gas holder: -The gas holder is a drum constructed of mild steel sheets. This is cylindrical in
shape with concave. The top is supported radically with angular iron. The holder fits into the
digester like a stopper. It sinks into the slurry due to its own weight and rests upon the ring
constructed for this purpose. When gas is generated the holder rises and floats freely on the
surface of slurry. A central guide pipe is provided to prevent the holder from tilting. The holder
also acts as a seal for the gas. The gas pressure varies between 7 and 9 cm of water column.
Under shallow water table conditions, the adopted diameter of digester is more and depth is
reduced. The cost of drum is about 40% of total cost of plant. It requires periodical
maintenance. The unit cost of KVIC model with a capacity of 2 m3 /day costs approximately
Rs.14, 000.
Fixed-dome type plants:
A fixed-dome plant consists of a digester with a fixed, non-movable gas holder, which sits on
top of the digester. When gas production starts, the slurry is displaced into the compensation
tank. Gas pressure increases with the volume of gas stored and the height difference between
the slurry level in the digester and the slurry level in the compensation tank.

Fig: fixed dome type plants

1 Mixing tank with inlet pipe and sand trap. 6 Entry hatch, with gastight seal
2 Digester 7 Accumulation of thick sludge.
3 Compensation and removal tank 8 Outlet pipe
4 Gasholder 9 Reference level
5 Gaspipe 10 Supernatant scum, broken up by varying level
a) Function - A fixed-dome plant comprises of a closed, dome-shaped digester with an
immovable, rigid gas-holder and a displacement pit, also named 'compensation tank'. The gas
is stored in the upper part of the digester. When gas production commences, the slurry is
displaced into the compensating tank. Gas pressure increases with the volume of gas stored,
i.e. with the height difference between the two slurry levels. If there is little gas in the gas-
holder, the gas pressure is low.
b) Digester - The digesters of fixed-dome plants are usually masonry structures, structures of
cement and ferro-cementexist. Main parameters for the choice of material are:
o Technical suitability (stability, gas- and liquid tightness)
o Cost-effectiveness
o Availability in the region and transport costs
o Availability of local skills for working with the particular building
material.
Fixed dome plants produce just as much gas as floating-drum plants, if they are gas-tight.
However, utilization of the gas is less effective as the gas pressure fluctuates substantially.
Burners and other simple appliances cannot be set in an optimal way. If the gas is required at
constant pressure (e.g., for engines), a gas pressure regulator or a floating gas-holder is
necessary.
c) Gas Holder - The top part of a fixed-dome plant (the gas space) must be gas-tight. Concrete,
masonry and cement rendering are not gas-tight. The gas space must therefore be painted with
a gas-tight layer (e.g. 'Water-proofer', Latex or synthetic paints). A possibility to reduce the
risk of cracking of the gas-holder consists in the construction of a weak-ring in the masonry of

the digester. This "ring" is a flexible joint between the lower (water-proof) and the upper (gas-
proof) part of the hemispherical structure. It prevents cracks that develop due to the hydrostatic
pressure in the lower parts to move into the upper parts of the gas-holder.
Types of Fixed Dome Plants
Janata model: The design of this plant is of Chinese origin but it has been introduced under
the name “Janata biogas plant” by Gobar Gas Research Station, Ajitmal in view of its reduced
cost. This is a plant where no steel is used, there is no moving part in it and maintenance cost
is low. The plant can be constructed by village mason taking some pre-explained precautions
and using all the indigenously available building materials. Good quality of bricks and cement
should be used to avoid the afterward structural problems like cracking of the dome and leakage
of gas.
Substrates other than cattle dung such as municipal waste and plant residues can
also be used in janata type plants. The plant consists of an underground well sort of digester
made of bricks and cement having a dome shaped roof which remains below the ground level
is shown in Fig 3.5.At almost middle of the digester, there are two rectangular openings facing
each other and coming up to a little above the ground level, act as an inlet and outlet of the
plant. Dome shaped roof is fitted with a pipe at its top which is the gas outlet of the plant. The
principle of gas production is same as that of KVIC model. The biogas is collected in the
restricted space of the fixed dome, hence the pressure of gas is much higher, which is around
90 cm of water column.
Deenbandhu Model

Deenbandhu model biogas plant was developed by AFPRO (Action for Food
Production, New Delhi) in 1984. The world Deenbandhu is meant as the friend of the poor.
This plant is designed on the principle that the surface area of biogas plants is reduced
(minimized) to reduce their installation cost without sacrificing the efficiency of the plant. The
design consists of segments of two spheres of different diameters, joined at their bases. The
structure thus formed act as the digester as fermentation chamber as well as the gas storage
chamber. The higher compressive strength of the brick masonry and concrete makes it
preferable to go in for a structure which could always be kept under compression. A spherical
structure loaded from the convex side will be under compression and therefore, the internal
load will not have any residual effect on the structure. The digester is connected with the inlet
pipe and the outlet tank. The upper part above the normal slurry level of the outlet tank is
designed to accommodate the slurry to be displaced out of the digester with the generation and
accumulation of biogas and is called outlet displacement chamber. The size of these plants is
recommended up to 6 m3 per day.
2. Write short notes on: a) Energy from industrial and municipal waste b)
Applications of Bio-Energy.
a.Energy from industrial waste:

The food industry produces a large number of residues and by-products that can
be used as biomass energy sources. These waste materials are generated from all sectors of the
food industry with everything from meat production to confectionery producing waste that can
be utilised as an energy source.Solid wastes include peelings and scraps from fruit and
vegetables, food that does not meet quality control standards, pulp and fibre from sugar and
starch extraction, filter sludges and coffee grounds. These wastes are usually disposed of in
landfill dumps.

Liquid wastes are generated by washing meat, fruit and vegetables, blanching fruit and
vegetables, pre-cooking meats, poultry and fish, cleaning and processing operations as well as
wine making.
These waste waters contain sugars, starches and other dissolved and solid organic matter. The
potential exists for these industrial wastes to be anaerobically digested to produce biogas, or
fermented to produce ethanol, and several commercial examples of waste-to-energy conversion
already exist.
Pulp and paper industry is considered to be one of the highly polluting industries and consumes
large amount of energy and water in various unit operations. The wastewater discharged by
this industry is highly heterogeneous as it contains compounds from wood or other raw
materials, processed chemicals as well as compound formed during processing. Black liquor
can be judiciously utilized for production of biogas using anaerobic UASB technology.
b. Energy from municipal waste:
Municipal Solid Waste(MSW) is solid waste resulting from, or incidental to, municipal,
community, commercial, institutional, and recreational activities, and it includes garbage,
rubbish, ashes, street cleanings, dead animals, medical waste, and all other nonindustrial solid
waste.
MSW is generated by households, offices, hotels, shops, schools, and other institutions.
The major components of MSW are food waste, paper, plastic, rags, metal, and glass,
although demolition and construction debris is often included in collected waste, as are small
quantities of hazardous waste, such as electric light bulbs, batteries, automotive parts, and
discarded medicines and chemicals

Millions of tonnes of household waste are collected each year with the vast
majority disposed of in open fields. The biomass resource in MSW comprises the putrescibles,
paper and plastic and averages 80% of the total MSW collected. Municipal solid waste can be
converted into energy by direct combustion, or by natural anaerobic digestion in the engineered
landfill.
At the landfill sites, the gas produced, known as landfill gas or LFG,
by the natural decomposition of MSW (approximately 50% methane and 50% carbon dioxide)
is collected from the stored material and scrubbed and cleaned before feeding into internal
combustion engines or gas turbines to generate heat and power. The organic fraction of MSW
can be anaerobically stabilized in a high-rate digester to obtain biogas for electricity or steam
generation.
Sewage is a source of biomass energy that is very similar to the other animal wastes. Energy
can be extracted from sewage using anaerobic digestion to produce biogas. The sewage sludge
that remains can be incinerated or undergo pyrolysis to produce more biogas.
b) Applications of Bio-Energy:
Producer gas applications: The producer gas obtained can be used either to produce heat or
to generate electricity.
Thermal applications: Producer gas can also be burnt directly in open air, much like Liquid
Petroleum Gas (LPG), and therefore can be used for cooking, boiling water, producing steam,
and drying food and other materials.
• Dryer: The hot gas after combustion can be mixed with the right quantity of secondary air to
lower its temperature to the desired level for use in dryers in the industries such as tea drying,
cardamom drying etc.
• Kilns: Firing of tiles, pottery articles, limestone and refractories, where temperatures of 800–
950 °C are required.
• Boilers: Producer gas can be used as fuel in boilers to produce steam or hot water.
Power applications: Producer gas can be used for generating motive power to run either dual-
fuel engines (which run on a mixture of gas and diesel, with gas replacement of up to 85% of
diesel) or engines that run on producer gas alone (100% diesel replacement). In general, the
fuel-to electricity efficiency of gasification is much higher than that of direct combustion: The
conversion efficiency of gasification is 35%–45% whereas that of combustion is only 10%–
20%. Generated electricity can be fed into the grid or can be used for farm operations,
irrigation, chilling or cold storage, and other commercial and industrial applications.
3. What is the principle involved in the production of biogas and what is the
chemical composition of the gas? What are the various applications of this gas?

Draw a sketch to illustrate the constructional features of a typical biogas plant

and describe its operation.
i.Principle:
Gasification is a process whereby organic matter decomposes through thermal reactions, in the
presence of stoichiometric amounts of oxidising agents. The process generates a combustible
gas mix, essentially composed of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, steam
and, though in smaller proportions, other heavier hydrocarbons and tars. The process is aimed
at converting the energy potential of a solid fuel into a gas product, whose energy content has
the form of chemical energy with the capacity to generate work. Gasification is carried out in
two steps. First, the biomass is heated to around 600 degrees. The volatile components, such
as hydrocarbon gases, hydrogen, CO, CO2, H2O and tar, vaporize by various reactions. The
remaining by-products are char and ash. For this first endothermic step, oxygen is not required.
In the second step, char is gasified by reactions with oxygen, steam and hydrogen in high
temperatures. The endothermic reactions require heat, which is applied by combusting some of
the unburned char. Main products of gasification are synthesis gas, char and tars. The content
depends on the feedstock, oxidizing agent and the conditions of the process. The gas mainly
consists of CO, CO4, H2O, CH4 and other hydrocarbons. The synthesis gas can be utilized for
heating or electricity production. It can also be used for the production of ethanol, diesel and
chemical feed stock.
ii.Chemical Composition:
Component Content [%]
Methane, CH4 50-75
Carbon dioxide, CO2 25-50
Nitrogen, N 2 0-10
Hydrogen, H2 0-1

The
Hydrogen sulphide, H2S 0-3
composition of biogas
varies depending
upon the Oxygen, O2 0-2 origin of the
anaerobic digestion
process. Landfill gas typically has methane concentrations around 50%. Advanced waste
treatment technologies can produce biogas with 55-75% CH4.
Like those of any pure gas, the characteristic properties of biogas are pressure and temperature-
dependent.
iii. Applications Of Gas:

• Heating and cooling. In the commercial and residential sectors, gas is mainly
used for space heating and cooling, water heating, and cooking. ...
• Power generation -Power plants can use gas to generate electricity.
• Transport Applications
• Oil ,Gas using in Pipeline Industry
• Natural Gas as a Vehicle Fuel
iv. Biogas Plant Construction: The biogas plant is a brick and cement structure. The feed
material is mixed with water in the influent collecting tank The fermentation slurry flows
through the inlet into the digester. The bacteria from the fermentation slurry are intended to
produce biogas in the digester. For this purpose, they need time. Time to multiply and to spread

throughout the slurry. The digester must be designed in a way that only fully digested slurry
can leave it. The bacteria are distributed in the slurry by stirring (with a stick or stirring
facilities). The fully digested slurry leaves the digester through the outlet into the slurry
storage.The biogas is collected and stored until the time of consumption in the gasholder. The
gas pipe carries the biogas to the place where it is consumed by gas appliances. Condensation
collecting in the gas pipe is removed by a water trap. Depending on the available building
material and type of plant under construction, different variants of the individual components
are possible. The following (optional) components of a biogas plant can also play an important
role and are described seperatly: Heating systems, pumps, weak ring.
Influent collecting tank :
Fresh substrate is usually gathered in an influent collecting tank prior to being fed into
the digester. Depending on the type of system, the tank should hold one to two days' substrate.
An influent collecting tank can also be used to homogenize the various substrates and to set up
the required consistency, e.g. by adding water to dilute the mixture of vegetable solids (straw,
grass, etc.), or by adding more solids in order to increase the bio-mass. The fibrous material is
raked off the surface, if necessary, and any stones or sand settling at the bottom are cleaned out
after the slurry is admitted to the digester. The desired degree of homogenization and solids
content can be achieved with the aid of an agitator, pump or chopper. A rock or wooden plug
can be used to close off the inlet pipe during the mixing process.
Inlet and Outlet
The inlet (feed) and outlet (discharge) pipes lead straight into the digester at a steep angle. For
liquid substrate, the pipe diameter should be 10-15 cm, while fibrous substrate requires a
diameter of 20-30 cm. The inlet and the outlet pipe mostly consist of plastic or concrete.
Digesters:
digesters consist of the digestion tank as such, which is thermally insulated, plus a heating
system, mixer systems and discharge systems for sediments and the spent substrate.Choosing
a right biogas digester is a very important while constructing a biogas plant. From the
standpoint of fluid dynamics and structural strength, an egg-shaped vessel is about the best
possible solution. This type of construction, however, is comparatively expensive, therefore,
its use is usually restricted to large-scale sewage treatment plants. The Chinese fixed-
dome designs are of similar shape, but less expensive. The hemispherical CAMARTEC design
is optimized in structural strength, but does not make optimal use of the excavation required.
Simplified versions of such digester designs include cylinders with conical covers and bottoms.
They are much easier to build and are sometimes available on the market as prefabricated units.

Their disadvantage lies in their less favorable surface-volume ratio. The cylinder should have
a height equal to its diameter. Prone cylinders have become quite popular on farms, since they
are frequently the more favorable solution for small-scale bio-methanation. Cuboid
digesters are often employed in batch-fed systems used primarily for fermenting solid material,
so that fluid dynamics are of little interest.
Bio gas piping:
At least 60% of all non-functional biogas units are attributable to defect gas piping. Utmost
care has to be taken, therefore, for proper installation. For the sake of standardization, it is
advisable to select a single size for all pipes, valves and accessories. The requirements
for biogas piping, valves and accessories are essentially the same as for other gas installations.
However, biogas is 100% saturated with water vapor and contains hydrogen-sulfide.
Consequently, no piping, valves or accessories that contain any amounts of ferrous metals may
be used for biogas piping, because they would be destroyed by corrosion within a short time.
The gas lines may consist of standard galvanized steel pipes. Also suitable (and inexpensive)
is plastic tubing made of rigid PVC or rigid PE. Flexible gas pipes laid in the open must be
UV-resistant.
Water traps:
Due to temperature changes, the moisture-saturated biogas will form inevitably condensation
water in the piping system. Ideally, the piping system should be laid out in a way that allows a
free flow of condensation water back into the digester. If depressions in the piping system can
not be avoided, one or several water traps have to be installed at the lowest point of the
depressions. Inclination should not be less than 1%.
One has to decide then, if an 'automatic' trap or a manually operated
trap is more suitable. Automatic traps have the advantage that emptying - which is easily
forgotten - is not necessary. But if they dry up or blow empty, they may cause heavy and
extended gas losses. In addition, they are not easily understood. Manual traps are simple and
easy to understand, but if they are not emptied regularly, the accumulated condensation water
will eventually block the piping system. Both kinds of traps have to be installed in a solid
chamber, covered by a lid to prevent an eventual filling up by soil
Valves:
To the extent possible, ball valves or cock valves suitable for gas installations should be used
as shutoff and isolating elements. The most reliable valves are chrome-plated ball valves. Gate
valves of the type normally used for water pipes are not suitable. Any water valves
exceptionally used must first be checked for gas-tightness. They have to be greased regularly.
A U-tube pressure gauge is quick and easy to make and can normally be expected to meet the
requirements of a biogas plant.

The main gas valve has to be installed close to the biogas digester. Sealed T-joints should be
connected before and after the main valve. With these T-joints it is possible to test the digester
and the piping system separately for their gas-tightness. Ball valves as shutoff devices should
be installed at all gas appliances. With shutoff valves, cleaning and maintenance work can be
carried out without closing the main gas valve.
Gas Analysis Equipment

Sensors:
Sensors in the gas space must satisfy explosion protection requirements and should be resistant
to corrosion and high levels of moisture.
▪ Infrared sensors
▪ Thermal conductivity sensors
The sensors used to measure the temperature should be installed at various heights so that
stratification and inadequate mixing can be detected. Care should also be taken that the sensors
are not installed in dead zones or too close to the temperature stabilisation equipment.
Resistance sensors (e.g. PT 1000 or PT 100) or thermocouples are suitable for measuring the
temperature.
▪ Electrochemical sensors
▪ Paramagnetic sensors
▪ Inductive and capacitive sensors
4. a) Compare the advantages and disadvantages of power generation from

industrial wastes, municipal waste and agricultural wastes.
1. Municipal Solid Waste: Municipal solid waste (MSW) is generated from households,
offices, hotels, shops, schools and other institutions. The major components are food waste,
paper, plastic, rags, metal and glass, although demolition and construction debris is often
included in collected waste, as are small quantities of hazardous waste, such as electric light
bulbs, batteries, automotive parts and discarded medicines and chemicals.
Generation rates for MSW vary from city to city and from season to season and
have a strong correlation with levels of economic development and activity. High-income
countries (such as Australia, Japan, Hong Kong, China, Republic of Korea, and Singapore)
produce between 1.1 and 5.0 kg/capita/ day; middle-income countries (such as Indonesia,
Malaysia and Thailand) generate between 0.52 and 1.0 kg/capita/day, whilst low-income

countries (such as Bangladesh, India, Viet Nam and Myanmar) have generation rates of
between 0.45 and 0.89 kg/capita/ day.
The composition of municipal solid waste varies significantly across the region with
some middle and low income countries generating waste containing over 70 per cent organic
content, with a corresponding moisture content in excess of 50 per cent. Differences in the
characterization and reporting of waste types also differ with some municipal authorities
including construction and demolition waste and industrial waste as part of the municipal waste
stream. Some inter-urban differences relate to climate and fuel use. The cities where heating is
needed in winter such as Beijing, Shanghai, Seoul and Tokyo and where coal is the main source
of energy, have much greater amount of ash in the waste in those cold months. The basic
infrastructure brings other variations in cities and towns (such as Calcutta, Dhaka, and Hanoi)
with unpaved or poorly paved streets that have large amounts of dust and dirt from street
sweeping. There are big differences in amounts of organic waste among cities according to the
number of trees and shrubs in public places. Large and bulky waste items such as abandoned
motorcars, furniture and packaging are found in the higherincome economies such as Brunei
Darussalam, Japan, Republic of Korea and Singapore, but not in low-income countries such as
Bangladesh, Cambodia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam.
2. Industrial Solid Waste: Industrial solid waste in the Asian and Pacific Region, as
elsewhere, encompasses a wide range of materials of varying environmental toxicity. Typically
this range would include paper, packaging materials, waste from food processing, oils,
solvents, resins, paints and sludges, glass, ceramics, stones, metals, plastics, rubber, leather,
wood, cloth, straw, abrasives, etc. As with municipal solid waste, the absence of a regularly
up-dated and systematic database on industrial solid waste ensures that the exact rates of
generation are largely unknown. Industrial solid waste generation varies, not only between
countries at different stages of development but also between developing country. In People’s
Republic of China, for example, the generation ratio of municipal to industrial solid waste is
one to three. In Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Pakistan, however, this ratio is much less. In high-
income, developed countries, such as Australia and Japan, the ratio is one to eight. However,
based on an average ratio for the region, the industrial solid waste generation in the region is
equivalent to 1 900 million tonnes per annum. This amount is expected to increase substantially
and at the current growth rates, it is estimated that it will double in less than 20 years. As the
existing industrial solid waste collection, processing and disposal systems of many countries
are grossly inadequate, such incremental growth will pose very serious challenges.
3. Agricultural Waste and Residues: Expanding agricultural production has naturally
resulted in increased quantities of livestock waste, agricultural crop residues and agro-
industrial by-products. Table 8.3 provides an estimate of annual production of agricultural

waste and residues in some selected countries in the region (ESCAP 1997); the implications of
liquid and slurry waste for receiving inland and coastal waters . Among the countries in the
Asian and Pacific Region, People’s Republic of China produces the largest quantities of
agriculture waste and crop residues followed by India. In People’s Republic of China, some
587 million tonnes of residues are generated annually from the production of rice, corn and
wheat alone. Figure illustrates the proportions of waste that Malaysia generates from the
production of rice, palm oil, rubber, coconut and forest products (ESCAP 1997). In Myanmar,
crop waste and residues amount to some 4 million tonnes per year (of which more than half
constitutes rice husk), whilst annual animal waste production is about 28 million tonnes with
more than 80 per cent of this coming from cattle husbandry.
b) How do we get energy from various types of wastes?
Waste to energy is the process of producing thermal energy from the organic waste.
Most wastes to energy processes produce electricity or heat energy directly through
combustion.
Types of Waste
Waste can be solid or liquid. Both types of waste can be hazardous. Liquide waste can come in
non-solid form. Examples of liquid waste include wash water, liquid used to clean in industries.
On the other hand, solid waste is any garbage and rubbish we make at our home or any places.
Examples of solid waste include car tyres, newspapers, broken glass, broken furniture and even
food waste. Hazardous or harmful waste is a threat to human health and environment. This type
of waste can easily catch fire, explode and be poisonous to human health. Example of these
types of waste are chemicals, mercury-containing equipment, fluorescent bulbs, battery etc.
Turning Waste into Energy
The wastes we are producing every day can be turned into something good. Such as electricity,
heat or fuel. The solid wastes can be converted into gas to produce energy. We can generate
electricity by burning solid waste found in the landfills. A community must have a waste to
energy facility that incinerates garbage and transforms chemical energy into thermal energy.
The following methods are used to turn waste into energy
The most common technology for waste to energy conversion is incineration. In this process,
the organics collected from the waste has burnt at a high temperature. This type of treatment is
called thermal treatment. The heat generated from this thermal treatment then used to create
energy.

Depolymerization
This technology uses thermal decomposition in the presence of water. In this process, organic
compounds from waste are heated at a high temperature to create thermal energy. In this
process, we can generate fossil fuels from the waste. The process of thermal decomposition is
also called Hydrous Pyrolysis.
Gasification
This a developing process to create energy from waste. In this process, carbonaceous
substances are converted into carbon dioxide, carbon mono oxide and a small amount of
hydrogen at a high temperature in the presence of oxygen. In this process, Synthesis gas is
generated which is a good means of alternate energy. Synthesis gas is then used to produce
electricity and heat.
Pyrolysis
This process is widely used in the industrial process to create energy from waste. This is like
Hydrous Pyrolysis. Unlike Hydrous Pyrolysis, Pyrolysis process uses organic or agricultural
waste from industries.
Plasma Arc Gasification
In this process, a plasma torch is used to ionize gas which is generated from compressing the
waste. Syngas or Synthesis gas then used to produce electricity.
The methods of turning waste into energy is an emerging and innovative development of
technologies aimed to create a better and sustainable environment. Waste to energy technology
is developing day by day and we can save our ecosystem by adopting this technology. It can
also solve the energy problem of the world. Though the scale of energy generation using waste
to energy method is still small right now, it can be a great energy solution in the near future.
5. What are the main problems in straw fermentation?
Straws are a poor livestock feed, and rice straw is no exception. It

contains about 80 percent of substances which are potentially digestible and are therefore
sources of energy, but actual digestibility by ruminants is only 45 to 50 percent. Furthermore,
the amount an animal can eat is limited to less than 2 percent of body weight because of the
slow rate at which it is fermented in the rumen. The net result is an energy intake which
provides little or no surplus energy for growth, work or production. The most important
consideration in obtaining more animal products from straw in the Asian setting is to improve
digestibility and intake so that more energy is available for productive purposes. Protein
supplements increase intake, while the alkali treatment of straws increases digestibility and

usually voluntary intake as well. The chemistry of straw and its digestion and the chemical
changes caused by alkali treatment are receiving increasing attention from animal nutritionists .
Straws contain only 3 to 5 percent crude protein. Animals on an unsupplemented straw diet
will usually not gain any weight and very often will actually lose weight. To obtain any
production the straw must be supplemented, preferably with both nitrogen/ protein and energy.
For good growth on straw diets, a level of 8 to 10 percent protein is needed for young stock;
this also improves consumption and thus increases energy intake.
The level of phosphorus in rice straw (0.02 to 0.16 percent) is less than the level of about 0.3
percent that animals need for growth and normal fertility. A level of about 0.4 percent of
calcium in the diet is usually considered adequate for livestock, and many samples of rice straw
have this amount, the range being from 0.25 to 0.55 percent. Nevertheless, many balance
experiments with cattle fed rice straw have shown negative balances of calcium even when the
calcium content of the straw was apparently adequate . While the significance of these negative
calcium balances has been questioned, the fact remains that in the same experiment higher
positive calcium balances have been observed on wheat straw and sorghum stover diets than
on rice straw diets, even though the calcium intake on the rice straw diets was higher. It would
therefore seem prudent to feed a calcium supplement with rice straw diets.
Sub-optimal cobalt contents in rice straws from Assam and Orissa have been reported (Dube,
1964), and areas of copper deficiency are widespread in India and occur in a number of rice-
growing areas. Thus the routine provision of supplements containing at least these two trace
minerals would seem to be warranted.
Rice straw differs from other straws in having a higher content of silica (12–16 vs. 3–5 percent)
and a lower content of lignin (6–7 vs. 10–12 percent). Whereas in all other straws lignin is the
chief cause of low digestibility, in rice straw it is silica. Rice straw stems are more digestible
than leaves because their silica content is lower; therefore the paddy crop should be cut as close
to the ground as possible if the straw is to be fed to livestock. Thirty percent of rice straw silica
is dissolved in the digestive tract, absorbed as silicic acid and excreted in the urine. The
concentration of silicic acid in urine far exceeds its solubility limit, and thus it polymerizes into
large insoluble molecular aggregates. With some species of grass containing 4–5 percent silica,
silicious Urinary calculi are commonly formed in sheep and cattle. Though rice straw contains
nearly three times more silica than any of these grasses, urinary calculi are not, in general, a
serious problem. When they occur in stock fed rice straw they are probably made up of
carbonates and bicarbonates

Rice straw also differs from other straws in having a high (1–2 percent) content of oxalates.
These are broken down in the rumen to carbonates and bicarbonates, absorbed, and then
excreted in the urine. The pH of water extracts of rice straw is about 8 and that of urine from
stock fed rice straw as high as 9. The high oxalate content has been implicated in the greater
need for calcium supplementation. Water washing removes 30–40 percent of the oxalates and
substantially reduces urine pH and titratable alkalinity; calcium balance is also improved.
Washing also removes adhering soil, which is considerable, but to be weighed against these
benefits is the loss of soluble nutrients, equal to about 10 percent of the original weight of
straw.
6. Sketch and describe any one type of bio-mass gas generation plant. Mention 4 uses
of the Biogas produced.
Biomass Cogeneration Systems:

1. Cogeneration: The cogeneration is a combined production of heat and electricity, suitable
for fossil fuel or biofuel (biomass) combustion systems. Cogeneration is the best solution
for energy saving and environmental preservation. Cogeneration is a well-advanced
technology that has existed for more than a century. At the end of the 19th century several
manufacturing plants adopted this technology. Cogeneration requires a heat exchanger to
absorb and recover exhaust heat . Biomass cogeneration is considered an effective
alternative to reduce greenhouse gas emissions due to their low CO2 emission. Many
researches have been conducted in recent years to improve the economic and environmental
efficiency and effectiveness of biomass cogeneration systems. Biomass cogeneration
systems are becoming increasingly popular. Several cogeneration technology and systems
have been developed in recent years, some of which are suitable for large power plants and
other for medium power and micro-cogeneration.
2. Steam Cycle: The operating principle is in line with the classic Clausius-Rankin process .
High temperature, high pressure steam generated in the boiler and then enters the steam
turbine. In the steam turbine, the thermal energy of the steam is converted into mechanical
work. The low-pressure steam leaving the turbine enters the condenser housing and
condenses on the condenser tubes. The condensate is transported by the water supply
system to the boiler, where it is reused in a new cycle .

The process of producing electricity and heat from steam includes the following
components: a biomass combustion system (combustion chamber), a steam system (boiler
plus distribution systems), a steam turbine, an electricity generator and the heat distribution
system for heating from the condenser. At present, electricity and heat generation in
biomass power plants with a steam cycle remains the most developed technology, adapted
to high temperatures and high power; however, this technology is not suitable for
cogeneration systems with a power of less than 100 kW compared to its low electrical
efficiency and high investment costs.
Biomass cogeneration plants generally use grid combustion systems
with a thermal combustion capacity of 20 to 30 MW. In the case where chemically untreated
wood biomass is used, the steam temperature reaches 540˚C. The achievable annual
electrical efficiency depends on the steam parameters (temperature and pressure) and the
temperature level required for the heating process. Annual electricity efficiencies generally
range from 18% to 30% for biomass cogeneration plants between 2 and 25 MW.
Advantages of the use of steam cycle:
• The use of water as a heat transfer fluid has great advantages, such as its high availability,
non-toxic, non-flammable, chemical stability, low viscosity (less friction losses);
• Thermal efficiency greater than 30%;
• Low pump consumption.
3. Organic Rankin Cycle (ORC):
Since the 1980s, the ORC market has grown exponentially. ORC applications
have generated a lot of economic and environmental interest, because of which much work
has been done on ORC systems and working fluids that can be found in the literature.

ORC technology has reached a very high degree of maturity for biomass
applications; it only requires a sufficient source of heat. The ORC system can be integrated
into any industrial facility equipped with a low temperature heating system to recover waste
energy in the form of heat and convert it into electricity. Electricity produced by biomass
ORC systems is considered carbon neutral, thus improving a company’s environmental
profile and promoting the transformation of the forest sector towards the use of more
environmentally friendly energy sources.
Instead of water, the Rankine organic cycle uses an organic fluid with favorable
thermodynamic properties as a heat transfer fluid. The evaporation temperature of organic
fluids is lower than the evaporation temperature of water, which results in higher efficiency
in cogeneration installations with an ORC cycle. The ORC has two circuits, one for thermal
oil and the other for organic fluid. The heat released by the combustion of biomass is
transmitted through an oil cycle by an exchanger to the organic fluid, which evaporates at
high temperature and high pressure. The ORC system consists of four main components,
namely a pump, an evaporator, a turbine and a condenser. The superheated organic steam
is expanded in a turbine and then condensed in a condenser and returned to the circulation
pump to start a new cycle. The condenser can act as a heat exchanger for sending heat
remotely at low temperatures. The condensed organic liquid is pumped through the
regenerator to the evaporator. ORC technology is suitable for medium power . Heat is
generally supplied at a temperature of about 300˚C and condensation occurs at about 90˚C.
There are more than 50 biomass cogeneration plants that have adopted CRO technology
with a capacity greater than 5 MWe and have approved the technical and economic
feasibility of this technology on a medium scale (200 - 2000 kW). The thermal efficiency
of ORCs at high temperatures does not exceed 24% . The organic fluids used in these
systems are dry and do not require overheating, they are not corrosive or erosive; they

evaporate at low and medium temperatures. When temperatures exceed 500˚C, the organic
liquid degrades and turns into small particles.
Advantages of ORC installations are:
• Long service life due to the characteristics of the working fluid;
• Less complex installation with a high efficiency cycle;
• More economical than a water steam turbine in terms of investment and maintenance
costs;
• The isentropic efficiency of a turbine varies with its power scale and design;
• No water treatment system is required;
• The system pressure is low, which makes the installation safer;
• No need for fluid control;
• Efficient solution for low temperature installations.
7. How are biogas plant classified? Explain continuous and batch type plants and
compare them with regard to operation and efficiency.
Biogas plants are built indifferent sizes & shapes depending on the process carried out.
These plants are mainly classified as.
• Continuous or batch type
• Dome & drum type.
Fixed Dome Plant
A fixed-dome plant consists of a digester with a fixed, non-movable gas holder, which sits
on top of the digester. When gas production starts, the slurry is displaced into the
compensation tank. Gas pressure increases with the volume of gas stored and the height
difference between the slurry level in the digester and the slurry level in the compensation
tank. The costs of a fixed-dome biogas plant are relatively low. It is simple as no moving
parts exist. There are also no rusting steel parts and hence a long life of the plant (20 years
or more) can be expected. The plant is constructed underground, protecting it from physical
damage and saving space. While the underground digester is protected from low
temperatures at night and during cold seasons, sunshine and warm seasons take longer to
heat up the digester. No day/night fluctuations of temperature in the digester positively
influence the bacteriological processes. The construction of fixed dome plants is labour-
intensive, thus creating local employment. Fixed-dome plants are not easy to build. They

should only be built where construction can be supervised by experienced biogas

technicians. Otherwise plants may not be gas-tight (porosity and cracks). A fixed-dome
plant comprises of a closed, dome-shaped digester with an immovable, rigid gas-holder and
a displacement pit, also named 'compensation tank'. The gas is stored in the upper part of
the digester. When gas production commences, the slurry is displaced into the
compensating tank. Gas pressure increases with the volume of gas stored, i.e. with the
height difference between the two slurry levels. If there is little gas in the gas-holder, the
gas pressure is low. The digesters of fixed-dome plants are usually masonry structures,
structures of cement and ferro-cement exist.
Fig. Fixed Dome Type
Advantages
It has no corrosion trouble
It requires less cost compared to a floating drum type
It does not need maintenance
Heat insulation is better and temperature will be constant.
Disadvantages
It produces variable gas pressure
It requires skilled masons
Gas production of the digester volume is also less.
Floating Gas Holder Type
In a floating gas holder type digester, the gas holder is separated from the digester. In this
type, gas collector is a cylindrical dome fabricated from mild steel plates. The floating gas

collector dome slides vertically up and down in the main digester in accordance with the
pressure and volume of biogas. Initially the gas holder is at the lower level. The biogas is
produced in the digester and it rises naturally into the floating dome collector. The gas
pressure in the dome increases and the dome rises to accommodate the gas volume. As the
floating dome rises, the volume of the gas in the floating dome increases. The gas outlet
pipe is connected to the upper most point of the floating dome. The axis of the fixed digester
and the floating dome collector are in one line. A central guide rod passing through the
dome gives a proper alignment. The seating arrangement and guide arrangement are
designed to provide leak proof and smooth operation.
Fig. Floating gas holder type
Advantages
It has less trouble because solids are constantly submerged.
It has no problem of gas leakage.
Danger of mixing oxygen with the gas is minimized.
No separate pressure device is needed when the fresh waste is added to the tank.
Constant gas pressure is obtained.
Disadvantages
It has higher cost.
It is not suitable for colder regions because of heat lost through the metal holder.
It requires maintenance in flexible pipe joining area and main gas pipe.

8. What is community biogas plant? What is the main problem encountered with
operation?
• Individual / Family type biogas plants cannot be installed by poor farmer since
they cannot beat the high cost through they are highly subsidized department of
non-conventional energy sources.
• The large quantities of cow drug & other organic wastes in rural areas can be
used to produce significant amount of biogas in an organised way. Such biogas
plant in rural areas are called community biogas plants or sometimes also
called as biogas farming.
• The development of these biogas plants is an answer to the rising prices of crude
Oil or in village where there is no availability of electricity.
• community biogas plants could also emerge as an alternative to fossil fuels

whose availability is depleting as years passby. It will also play an important role
in the rural economy.
• Another major point which favours the installation of community biogas plants
as compared to individual plants is its lower cost/m3 of gas generation, cost of
supervisory staff & other maintenance cost.
• The biogas so generated can be used for heating, generation of lower in an

engine/ generator to right up the village, pumping of waste, running of mills etc.
• Biogas can produce approximately 1.5kWh/m31.5kWh/m3 of gas. The gas has

C.V. of 20000kJ/m320000kJ/m3 approximately.
• Shortage of gas can be met by alternative routes which may be gasification using
biomass such word, waste of crops, vegetables using biomass etc which are
readily available in village.
• Another advantages of biogas production is to reduce emissions with reduction

in wastes.
• Material which can be used for biogas plants could be animal waste like cattle
dump, urine goat & poultry droppings, piggery wastes etc.

• It can also be human wastes, agricultural wastes & wastes of aquatic origin like
water hyacinth, Water weeds, algae etc.
Advantages of community biogas plants over individual biogas plants.
• a) Reduction in capital & maintenance cost .
• b) Reduction in land area. The land needed is inversely proportional to square of

the capital of gas produced.
• c) Reduces emission, smoke & flies etc.
• d) It produces compost as by- product.
• While designing community biogas plants, it must be ensured that it is reliable.

It requires proper planning & management of the system.
It needs the following for its reliable operation:-
• 1) Adequate supply of feed stock to keep the plant operative. Dung supply is
erratic due to climatic instability.
• 2) Use of two or more small plants instead of single big plant.
• 3) A back up source for fuel & power. We may have gasification plant for
production of gas by biomass, PV solar cells, wind power etc.
• 4) Size depends on availability / collection of feed material.
• 5) Too large plant lead to underfeeding & evefual failure of plant to produce gas.
• 6) Location of biogas plant. In winters the capacity of plant is reduced.
• 7) Limit community plant to about 50 families instead for the whole village for
better reliability.
9. List out the various points to be carried out for selection of site for a biogas plant.
Requirements towards the biogas plant site The characteristics of the plant site itself
strongly influence the technical and economic feasibility of the project. Thus, the site itself has
to be selected with upmost care along the following criteria.
Required Size Of The Site:

Biogas plants are space intensive. A 500 kWel biogas plant requires 4000 m². This
space is needed for the fermenters, the gas storage, electric generator and auxiliary facilities. If
the biogas plant is operated on agricultural products the dependency on harvesting seasons
requires a storage space of additional 5400 m². This figure is valid if energy intense biomass
like maize is used. If less energy intense biomass is used (e.g. manure), even larger storage is
required. Because of the high investment for such a storage shed, it has to be carefully evaluated
if the storage facilities of the producing farming units could be used. In this case the biomass
supply for the biogas plant would be stable over the year through a “just in time delivery”.
Moreover, the collection of the digestate requires on-site storage. In many countries the
digestate can only be brought on the fields during the summer season. In this case, a storage
facility for the winter has to be created. Such a storage facility for a 500 kWel plant requires
additional 4000 m2 .
Adequate road access
The biogas plant requires a steady supply and has an outflow of large quantities of
biomass. Thus, a good road access is compulsory, namely: - Direct access to a main roads -
Safe opening to the street which is suitable for heavy vehicles
Site characteristics
In the view of landscape protection it is recommended to prefer old industrial sites for
the biogas plant instead of green fields. In any case it has to be ensured that the soil quality is
suitable for the site construction. This means that - No soil contamination is to be expected
under the surface. - No instable underground conditions are predominant and require large
additional investment to stabilise the biogas constructions.
Possible neighbourhood conflicts
Emissions, particularly smell and noise emissions can not be avoided. Thus, the site has
to be selected in view to possible conflicts with neighbouring areas. For analysing these
potential conflicts a legal and a real level should be scrutinised: On the legal level it should be
analysed: - Is any legal planning instrument enforced which prohibits the installation of a
biogas plant? - Is any legal planning instrument enforced which defines using purposes in this
neighbourhood that might create conflicts (e.g. residential areas, areas of cultural heritage or
nature protected areas)? - Does any national legislation exists which creates certain
prerequisites for biogas plants? On the real level it should be analysed: - Are there residential
areas in the proximity (this should be analysed in view to the prominent wind direction).
Property rights of the selected site
The selected site has to be analysed for its ownership structure. Many biogas investors
and financing banks request that the site is transferred into the property of the biogas operating
company. Thus, it is necessary to choose a piece of land which has a clear ownership struc-

ture. The owner of the land should either be the future operator of the biogas plant or should
be willing to sell or lease the ground to the biogas plant operating company. Preference should
be given to public land. The municipality in most cases has an own interest that investment is
done locally and therefore is willing to offer the land at fair prices.
10. Draw schematic diagram of biogas power plant and explain its operation. State
and justify the potential of this in satisfying energy demand of our country.
This is a process in which organic material directly converted to a gas which is termed as
biogas. It is mixture of methane, carbon dioxide and other gases like hydrogen sulphide in
small quantities. Biomass is converted in anaerobic environment by bacteria, which
produces a gas having an energy of 20-40 % of lower heating value of the feedstock. This
process is suitable for organic wastes having high moisture about 80-90 %. This biogas can
be directly used in spark ignition gas engines and gas turbines and can be upgraded to
higher quality natural gas by removing carbon dioxide. The overall conversion efficiency
of this process is 21 %. Waste heat from engines and turbines can be recovered by using
combined heat and power system.
12. What is biomass gasification? Explain its classification with neat diagram.

Conversion Process
Biomass can be converted into different forms of energy by using various processes. Many
factors affect the choice of the process like quantity of biomass feedstock, desired energy
form, environmental standards, economic conditions, and project specific factors. Biomass
can be converted into three main products : power or heat generation, transportation fuels
and chemical feedstock.
Thermo-chemical Conversion
In thermo-chemical conversion, energy is produced by applying heat and chemical
processes. There are four thermo-chemical conversion processes, which are given below.
Combustion Process
Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction, in which biomass is burned in the presence
of air. In this process chemical energy which is stored in the biomass is converted into the
mechanical and electrical energies. This process is suitable for dry biomass containing
moisture less than 50 %. Biomass is burned at the temperature of 800-1000 °C. This process
is used for domestic applications as well as commercially in biomass power plants in order
to produce electricity. The typical efficiencies for standalone biomass combustion power
plants (using wood and forest residue as a fuel) range between 20-50 MW, with the related
electrical efficiencies in the range of 25-30 %. These power plants are suitable where fuels
are available at low costs. In recent years advanced combustion technology is being used.
The application of fluid bed system and advanced gas cleaning allows for production of
electricity from biomass, on scale of 50-80 MW, with 30-40 % electrical efficiencies.

Pyrolysis Process
It is the process of conversion of biomass to liquid (bio-oil), solid (charcoal) and gaseous
(fuel gases) products by heating in the absence of air at 500 °C. There are three types of
pyrolysis : Fast pyrolysis, conventional (Carbonization) pyrolysis and slow pyrolysis. Fast
pyrolysis process has high heating value and heat transfer rate and completes within
seconds. Fast pyrolysis yields 60 % bio-oil, 20 % bio-char and 20 % biogas. Conventional
pyrolysis process is the process in which mostly carbon (35 %) is left as residue. Slow
pyrolysis takes more time than fast pyrolysis, it also has low temperature and heating
values. Flash pyrolysis is the type of fast pyrolysis, in which 80 % bio-oil is obtained at
keeping temperature low. If flash pyrolysis is used for converting biomass to bio-crude, it
has up to 80 % efficiency.

Gasification Process
In biomass gasification, charcoal, wood chips, energy crops, forestry residues, agricultural
waste and other wastes are transformed into flammable gases at high temperature (800-
1000 °C). In this process fuel (biomass) reacts with a gasifying medium such as oxygen
enriched air, pure oxygen, steam or a combination of both. The product gas composition
and energy content depends upon the gasifying media’s nature and amount of it. Low
Calorific Value (CV) gas obtained by gasification about 4-6 MJ/N m³. The product gas can
be used as a feedstock (syngas) in the production of chemicals like methanol. One
promising concept is the biomass integrated gasification/ combined cycle (BIG/CC), in
which gas turbines convert the gaseous fuel to electricity with a high overall conversion
efficiency. The integration of gasification and combustion/ heat recovery ensures 40-50 %
conversion efficiency for a 30-60 MW. The syngas can be converted into hydrogen gas,
and it may have a future as fuel for transportation.

Liquification Process
It is the process in which biomass is converted into liquid phase at low temperatures (250-
350 °C) and high pressures (100-200 bar), usually with a high hydrogen partial pressure
and catalysts to increase the rate of reaction. This process is used to get maximum liquid
yields with higher quality than from the pyrolysis process. The product has higher heating
value and lower oxygen content which makes the fuel chemically stable. The main purpose
of the liquefaction is to obtain high H/C ratio of the product oil.

Bio-chemical Conversion
Biochemical conversion makes use of the enzymes of bacteria and other living organisms
to break down biomass and convert it into fuels. This conversion process includes anaerobic
digestion and fermentation.
Anaerobic Digestion Process
This is a process in which organic material directly converted to a gas which is termed as
biogas. It is mixture of methane, carbon dioxide and other gases like hydrogen sulphide in
small quantities. Biomass is converted in anaerobic environment by bacteria, which
produces a gas having an energy of 20-40 % of lower heating value of the feedstock. This
process is suitable for organic wastes having high moisture about 80-90 %. This biogas can
be directly used in spark ignition gas engines and gas turbines and can be upgraded to
higher quality natural gas by removing carbon dioxide. The overall conversion efficiency
of this process is 21 %. Waste heat from engines and turbines can be recovered by using
combined heat and power system.

Fermentation Process
Fermentation is an anaerobic process that breaks down the glucose within organic
materials. It is a series of chemical reactions that convert sugars to ethanol. The basic
fermentation process involves the conversion of a plant’s glucose (or carbohydrate) into an
alcohol or acid. Yeast or bacteria are added to the biomass material, which feed on the
sugars to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide. The ethanol is distilled and dehydrated to
obtain a higher concentration of alcohol to achieve the required purity for the use as
automotive fuel. The solid residue from the fermentation process can be used as cattle feed
and in the case of sugar cane; the bagasse (the dry pulpy residue left after the extraction of
juice from sugar cane) can be used as a fuel for boilers or for subsequent gasification.

14. i) Explain briefly the components of a biogas plant.

Components of biogas plants
• Mixing tank - The feed material (dung) is collected in the mixing tank. Sufficient
water is added and the material is thoroughly mixed till a homogeneous slurry is
formed.
• Inlet pipe - The substrate is discharged into the digester through the inlet
pipe/tank.
• Digester - The slurry is fermented inside the digester and biogas is produced
through bacterial action.
• Gas holder or gas storage dome - The biogas gets collected in the gas holder,
which holds the gas until the time of consumption.
• Outlet pipe - The digested slurry is discharged into the outlet tank either through
the outlet pipe or the opening provided in the digester.
• Gas pipeline - The gas pipeline carries the gas to the point of utilization, such as
a stove or lamp.
ii) Explain with neat diagram the working of a cogeneration plant. (Nov
2020)
Cogeneration technologies that have been widely commercialized include

extraction/back pressure steam turbines, gas turbine with heat recovery boiler (with or

without bottoming steam turbine) and reciprocating engines with heat recovery boiler.
Steam Turbine Cogeneration Systems
The two types of steam turbines most widely used are the backpressure and the
extraction another variation of the steam turbine topping cycle cogeneration system is
the extraction-back pressure turbine that can be employed where the end-user needs
thermal energy at two different temperature levels. The full-condensing steam turbines
are usually incorporated at sites where heat rejected from the process is used to generate
power. The specific advantage of using steam turbines in comparison with the other
prime movers is the option for using a wide variety of conventional as well as
alternative fuels such as coal, natural gas, fuel oil and biomass. The power generation
efficiency of the demand for electricity is greater than one MW up to a few hundreds
of MW. Due to the system inertia, their operation is not suitable for sites with
intermittent energy demand.
Gasturbine Cogeneration Systems
Gas turbine cogeneration systems can produce all or a part of the energy requirement
of the site, and the energy released at high temperature in the exhaust stack can be
recovered for various heating and cooling applications though natural gas is most
commonly used, other fuels such as light fuel oil or diesel can also be employed. The
typical range of gas turbines varies from a fraction of a MW to around 100 MW. Gas
turbine cogeneration has probably experienced the most rapid development in the
recent years due to the greater availability of natural gas, rapid progress in the

technology, significant reduction in installation costs, and better environmental

performance.
Furthermore, the gestation period for developing a project is shorter and the equipment
can be delivered in a modular manner. Gas turbine has a short start-up time and
provides the flexibility of intermittent operation. Though it has a low heat to power
conversion efficiency, more heat can be recovered at higher temperatures. If the heat
output is less than that required by the user, it is possible to have supplementary natural
gas firing by mixing additional fuel to the oxygen-rich exhaust gas to boost the thermal
output more efficiently.
On the other hand, if more power is required at the site, it is possible to adopt a
combined cycle that is a combination of gas turbine and steam turbine cogeneration.
Steam generated from the exhaust gas of the gas turbine is passed through a
backpressure or extraction-condensing steam turbine to generate additional power. The
exhaust or the extracted steam from the steam turbine provides the required thermal
energy.
Reciprocating Engine Cogeneration Systems
Reciprocating Engine Cogeneration Systems also known as Internal Combustion (I.C.)

engines, these cogeneration systems have high power generation efficiencies in
comparison with other prime movers. There are two sources of heat for recovery:
exhaust gas at high temperature and engine jacket cooling water system at low
temperature. As heat recovery can be quite efficient for smaller systems, these systems

are more popular with smaller energy consuming facilities, particularly those having a
greater need for electricity than thermal energy and where the quality of heat required
is not high, e.g. low pressure steam or hot water.
15. i) Explain with neat diagram the working of a geothermal power plant.
Power Generation from Geothermal Energy
Dry Steam Geothermal Power Plant
The Geysers dry steam power plant in Northern California, depend on high
temperature steam formations to directly provide the energy to drive power generator
turbines. This type of formation is called a "dry steam" power plant because the steam
is released from the pressure of a deep reservoir, through a rock catcher, and then past the
power generator turbines.

Dry steam reservoirs use the water in the earth's crust, which is heated by the mantle
and released through vents in the form of steam. The dry steam power plant is suitable
where the geothermal steam is not mixed with water. Production wells are drilled down
to the aquifer and the superheated, pressurised steam (180°- 350 °C) is brought to the
surface at high speeds, and passed through a steam turbine to generate electricity. In
simple power plants, the low pressure steam output from the turbine is vented to the
atmosphere, but more commonly, the steam is passed through a condenser to convert it to
water. This improves the efficiency of the turbine and avoids the environmental problems
caused from the direct release of steam into the atmosphere. The waste water is then
reinjected into the ground with reinjection wells. The underground water reservoirs that
feed such a system are refilled when rain falls on the land. The rainwater eventually soaks
back into the crust of the earth. Because this occurs on a continuous basis, geothermal
energy is considered a renewable resource. This is the oldest type of geothermal power
plant. It was first used at Lardarello in Italy where it has powered electric railroads since
1904. About 6 percent of the energy used in northern California is produced at 28 dry
steam reservoir plants found at The Geysers dry steam fields in northern California. At
peak production, these dry steam geothermal power plants are the world's largest single
source of geothermal power producing up to 2,000 megawatts of electricity an hour. That
is about twice the amount of electricity a large nuclear power plant can produce. These
dry steam power plants emit only excess steam and very minor amounts of gases.
Liquid-Dominated Geothermal Power Plant
In the liquid dominated reservoir, the water temperature is above the normal boiling point
100 ºC. However, it does not boil but it remains in liquid state because the water in the
reservoir is under pressure. When the water comes to the surface, the pressure is reduced,
then rapid boiling occurs and the liquid water flashes into a mixture of hot water steam.
The steam can be separated and used to generate electric power or to provide space and
process heat or it may be distilled to yield the purified water. There are two important
methods of liquid-dominated systems as follows,
Flash- steam system
Binary- cycle system.
Flash-steam System
Flash steam power plants force water down into an injection well by a groundwater pump.
The well must be sunk deep enough to reach subterranean rocks at a temperature higher
than the boiling point of water. The water filters through the rocks where it becomes
heated and rises back up through the nearby production well. The hot water from the
production well enters a flash tank where the reduced pressure causes the water to boil
rapidly or "flash" into vapour. Water that remains liquid in the flash tank is returned to the
groundwater pump to be forced down into the earth again.

The vapour from the flash tank drives a steam turbine, which turns the shaft of an electric
generator. After passing through the turbine, the steam is cooled in a condenser. This
returns the water vapour to the liquid state, and this liquid is forced by the groundwater
pump back down into the earth along with the diverted water from the flash tank. Some
of the condensed vapour can be used for drinking and irrigation because it is, in effect,
distilled. The flash tank must be periodically flushed and cleaned to get rid of mineral
build up. If the water from the production well has high mineral content, the flushing must
be done more freqently. Flash steam stations pull deep, high-pressure hot water into lower-
pressure tanks and use the resulting flashed steam to drive turbines. They require fluid
temperatures of atleast 180 °C, usually more. This is the most common type of station in
operation today. Flash steam plants use geothermal reservoirs of water with temperatures
greater than 360 °F (182 °C). The hot water flows up through wells in the ground under
its own pressure. As it flows upward, the pressure decreases and some of the hot water
boils into steam. The steam is then separated from the water and used to power a
turbine/generator. Any leftover water and condensed steam may be injected back into the
reservoir, making this a potentially sustainable resource.
Binary Cycle System
Binary cycle power plants use a two-step process to extract power from geothermal water
that is not hot enough produce steam to spin a turbine by itself. The water from the
geothermal reservoir never comes into direct contact with the blades of the turbine
generator and it uses water-based geothermal resources of approximately 200 to 360 °F.
In the binary cycle system, warm geothermal water is pumped to the surface and passed
through a heat exchanger that contains a fluid such as a butane or pentane hydrocarbon
with a much lower boiling point than water. The heat from the geothermal water causes
this secondary or 'binary' fluid to flash into vapour. The vapour created by heating the
pentane spins the turbine powering the generator, while the cooled steam from the
geothermal source is injected back into the formation where it heats up again and is

available to eventually re-circulate through the heat exchanger. That is why geothermal is
considered a renewable resource, as a properly managed formation can potentially
produce power indefinitely.
The vapour created by heating the pentane drives the turbine on the power generator, while
the cooled steam from the geothermal source is injected back into the formation where it
heats up again and is available to eventually re-circulate through the heat exchanger. That
is why geothermal is considered a renewable resource, as a properly managed formation
can potentially produce power indefinitely. Moderate-temperature geothermal water is
much more common than high temperature water and many areas have been identified as
having geothermal reservoirs with water that is below 400 °F (204 °C). The US
department of energy predicts that most geothermal power plants built in the future will
be binary cycle power plants that can take advantage of this slightly cooler water.
ii) With neat layout explain the working of hydroelectric power plant. (Nov
2020)
The various components of HPP are as follows:

1. Catchment area
2. Reservoir
3. Dam
4. Spillways
5. Conduits
6. Surge tanks
7. Draft tubes

8. Power house
9. Switchyard for power evacuation
Dam
• Develops a reservoir to store water
• Builds up head for power generation
Spillway
• To safeguard the dam when water level in the reservoir rises
Intake
• Contains trash racks to filter out debris which may damage the turbine
Forebay
• Enlarged body of water just above the intake
Conduits
• Headrace is a channel which lead the water to the turbine
• Tailrace is a channel which carries water from the turbine
• A canal is an open waterway excavated in natural ground following its contour.
• A flume is an open channel erected on a surface above ground.
• A tunnel is a closed channel excavated through an obstruction.
• A pipeline is a closed conduit supported on the ground.

• Penstocks are closed conduits for supplying water “under pressure” from head
pond to the turbines
Surge Tank
• A surge tank is a small reservoir in which the water level rises or falls to reduce
the pressure swings so that they are not transmitted to the penstock.
Water Hammer
• Load on the turbine is suddenly reduced
• Governor closes turbine gates
• Sudden increase of pressure in the penstock
Negative Pressure
• Load on the generator is suddenly increased
• Governor opens the turbine gates
• Tends to cause a vacuum in the penstock
When the gates are closed, water level rises in the surge tank and when the gates
are suddenly opened, surge tank provides the initial water supply.
Draft Tubes
The function of the draft tube is to
• To reduce the velocity head losses of the water
• To allow the turbine to be set above the tailrace to facilitate inspection and
maintenance
Scroll Casing:
Takes the water from penstock to turbine blades
Tailrace:
• A tailrace is required to discharge the water leaving the turbine into the river.
• The design of the tail race should be such that water has a free exit
Power House
1. Hydraulic turbines
2. Electric generators

3. Governors
4. Gate valves
5. Relief valves
6. Water circulation pumps
7. Air ducts
8. Switch board and instruments
9. Storage batteries
10. Cranes
Switchyard
1. Step up transformers
2. Instrument transformers
3. Transmission lines
16. The hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell operates at 25°C. Calculate the voltage output
of the cell, the efficiency and the electric work output per mole of H2 consumed
and per mole of H2O produced. Also compute the heat transferred to the
surroundings.
Given ΔH˚298°K = – 285838 kJ/kg mole

ΔG˚298°K = – 237191 kJ/kg mole (Nov 2020)
Solution
Efficiency of Fuel Cell η = (ΔG/ΔH) = (-237191 / -285838) = 82.98%
Heat transferred to the surroundings
ΔH=ΔG+T*ΔS
ΔS=(ΔH- ΔG)/T = (-285838+237191)/25= 1946 KJ/mole
Voltage of Fuel Cell
ΔG=-nFEcell = -2*96485*Ecell
Ecell = (-237191 / (-2*96485)) = 1.23V
UNIT – V OTHER ENERGY SOURCES
PART-A

1. How tidal energy is generated?

Tidal power or tidal energy is the form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained
from tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity. Although not yet widely used,
tidal energy has the potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable
than the wind and the sun.
2. Mention the four generating methods of tidal power.
Tidal stream generator, Tidal barrage, Dynamic tidal power and Tidal lagoon.
3. What is tidal stream generator?
Tidal stream generators make use of the kinetic energy of moving water to power
turbines, in a similar way to wind turbines that use the wind to power turbines. Some
tidal generators can be built into the structures of existing bridges or are entirely
submersed, thus avoiding concerns over the impact on the natural landscape. Land
constrictions such as straits or inlets can create high velocities at specific sites, which
can be captured with the use of turbines. These turbines can be horizontal, vertical, open,
or ducted.
Stream energy can be used at a much higher rate than wind turbines due to water being
denser than air. Using similar technology to wind turbines converting the energy in tidal
energy is much more efficient. Close to 10 mph (about 8.6 knots in nautical terms) ocean
tidal current would have an energy output equal or greater than a 90 mph wind speed for
the same size of the turbine system.
4. What is tidal barrage?
Tidal barrages make use of the potential energy in the difference in height (or hydraulic
head) between high and low tides. When using tidal barrages to generate power, the
potential energy from a tide is seized through strategic placement of specialized dams.
When the sea level rises and the tide begins to come in, the temporary increase in tidal
power is channeled into a large basin behind the dam, holding a large amount of potential
energy. With the receding tide, this energy is then converted into mechanical energy as
the water is released through large turbines that create electrical power through the use
of generators. Barrages are essentially dams across the full width of a tidal estuary.
5. What is dynamic tidal power?
The Dynamic tidal power (or DTP) is a theoretical technology that would exploit an
interaction between potential and kinetic energies in tidal flows. It proposes that very
long dams (for example: 30–50 km length) be built from coasts straight out into the sea

or ocean, without enclosing an area. Tidal phase differences are introduced across the
dam, leading to a significant water-level differential in shallow coastal seas – featuring
strong coast-parallel oscillating tidal currents such as found in the UK, China, and
Korea. Induced tides (TDP) could extend the geographic viability of a new hydro-
atmospheric concept 'LPD' (lunar pulse drum) discovered by a Devon innovator in
which a tidal 'water piston' pushes or pulls a metered jet of air to a rotary air-actuator &
generator.
6. What is Tidal lagoon?
A new tidal energy design option is to construct circular retaining walls embedded with
turbines that can capture the potential energy of tides. The created reservoirs are similar
to those of tidal barrages, except that the location is artificial and does not contain a pre-
existing ecosystem. The lagoons can also be in double (or triple) format without
pumping or with pumping that will flatten out the power output. The pumping power
could be provided by excess to grid demand renewable energy from for example wind
turbines or solar photovoltaic arrays. Excess renewable energy rather than being
curtailed could be used and stored for a later period of time. Geographically dispersed
tidal lagoons with a time delay between peak productions would also flatten out peak
production providing near base load production though at a higher cost than some other
alternatives such as district heating renewable energy storage.
7. What are the disadvantages of tidal power?
The various disadvantages of tidal power are High initial capital investment, Effect on
marine life, Difficulty in transmission of tidal electricity and Long gestation time.
8. Brief on tidal barrage flood generation.
A Tidal Barrage Flood Generation uses the energy of an incoming rising tide as it moves
towards the land. The tidal basin is emptied through sluice gates or lock gates located
along the section of the barrage and at low tide the basin is affectively empty. As the
tide turns and starts to come in, the sluice gates are closed and the barrage holds back
the rising sea level, creating a difference in height between the levels of water on either
side of the barrage dam.

Tidal barrage flood generation.

9. Brief on tidal barrage Ebb Generation.
A Tidal Barrage Ebb Generation uses the energy of an outgoing or falling tide, referred
to as the “ebb tide”, as it returns back to the sea making it the opposite of the previous
flood tidal barrage scheme. At low tide, all the sluice and lock gates along the barrage
are fully opened allowing the tidal basin to fill up slowly at a rate determined by the
incoming flood tide.
Tidal Barrage Ebb Generation

10. Give the diagram of power generation during ebb tide.
11. What is Two-way Tidal Barrage Generation Scheme?

A Two-way Tidal Barrage Scheme uses the energy over parts of both the rising tide and
the falling tide to generate electricity.
12. What is wave energy?
Wave energy (or wave power) is the transport and capture of energy by ocean surface
waves. The energy captured is then used for all different kinds of useful work, including
electricity generation, water desalination, and pumping of water. Wave energy is also a
type of renewable energy and is the largest estimated global resource form of ocean
energy.
13. What are the advantages and disadvantages of wave energy?

Wave energy has a lot of potential. Oceans cover 71% of the Earth, so it's very
accessible. Wave energy also has many different positive aspects. First, the energy is
green. Harnessing wave energy doesn't emit any harmful gases, and it can easily replace
energies that do, such as using fossil fuels. Second, the energy is renewable. Ultimately,
the energy is caused by heat which is emitted from the Sun, and this energy will not be
disappearing any time soon. Third, there is an incredible potential in wave energy.
However, as with any energy resource available, there are negatives as well. Wave
energy effects the environment. As with wind farms being an eye-sore, wave energy
could cause conflicts with appearance of oceans, which in turn could conflict with
tourism and local acceptance. It is also currently unclear on how harvesting wave energy
affects marine life. Because of these, installations on the coast and land facilities are
held to higher restriction on size and location for wave energy farms. Wave energy also
has issues in terms of cost. It still is in the early stages of development, so costs of wave
power are still fairly high compared to other forms of technology. Wave energy devices
also require regular maintenance which isn't cheap
14. What is Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) cycle?
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a process that can produce electricity by
using the temperature difference between deep cold ocean water and warm tropical
surface waters. OTEC plants pump large quantities of deep cold seawater and surface
seawater to run a power cycle and produce electricity. OTEC is firm power (24/7), a
clean energy source, environmentally sustainable and capable of providing massive
levels of energy.
15. What is thermodynamic efficiency?
A heat engine gives greater efficiency when run with a large temperature difference. In
the oceans the temperature difference between surface and deep water is greatest in the
tropics, although still a modest 20 to 25 °C. It is therefore in the tropics that OTEC offers
the greatest possibilities. OTEC has the potential to offer global amounts of energy that
are 10 to 100 times greater than other ocean energy options such as wave power. OTEC
plants can operate continuously providing a base load supply for an electrical power
generation system.
16. What are the two different types of OTEC power plants?
The two different types of OTEC power plants are closed cycle systems and open cycle
systems.
17. What is closed type OTEC system?

Closed-cycle systems use fluid with a low boiling point, such as ammonia (having a
boiling point around -33 °C at atmospheric pressure), to power a turbine to generate
electricity. Warm surface seawater is pumped through a heat exchanger to vaporize the
fluid. The expanding vapor turns the turbo-generator. Cold water, pumped through a
second heat exchanger, condenses the vapor into a liquid, which is then recycled through
the system.
18. What is open type OTEC system?
Open-cycle OTEC uses warm surface water directly to make electricity. The warm
seawater is first pumped into a low-pressure container, which causes it to boil. In some
schemes, the expanding vapor drives a low-pressure turbine attached to an electrical
generator. The vapor, which has left its salt and other contaminants in the low-pressure
container, is pure fresh water. It is condensed into a liquid by exposure to cold
temperatures from deep-ocean water. This method produces desalinized fresh water,
suitable for drinking water, irrigation or aquaculture.
19. Explain the principle of fuel cell.
A fuel cell is a device that converts chemical potential energy (energy stored in
molecular bonds) into electrical energy. A PEM (Proton Exchange Membrane) cell uses
hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2) as fuel. The products of the reaction in the cell
are water, electricity, and heat.
20. What is PEM fuel cell?
Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells, also known as polymer electrolyte membrane
(PEM) fuel cells (PEMFC), are a type of fuel cell being developed mainly for transport
applications, as well as for stationary fuel-cell applications and portable fuel-cell
applications. Their distinguishing features include lower temperature/pressure ranges
(50 to 100 °C) and a special proton-conducting polymer electrolyte membrane. A proton
exchange membrane fuel cell transforms the chemical energy liberated during the
electrochemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to electrical energy, as opposed to the
direct combustion of hydrogen and oxygen gases to produce thermal energy.
21. What are the chemical reactions of fuel cell?

22. What is the efficiency of PEM fuel cell?

The maximal theoretical efficiency applying the Gibbs free energy equation ΔG =
−237.13 kJ/mol and using the heating value of Hydrogen (ΔH = −285.84 kJ/mol) is 83%
at 298 K
The practical efficiency of a PEMs is in the range of 50–60%

23. What are the main factors to create losses in fuel cell?
The Activation losses, Ohmic losses and Mass transport losses.
24. Mention few applications of fuel cell.
Some portable fuel cell applications include laptops, cellular phones, power tools,
military equipment, battery chargers, unattended sensors, and unmanned aerial and
underwater vehicles
25. What do you mean by energy storage system?
Energy storage is the capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time. A
device that stores energy is generally called an accumulator or battery. Energy comes in
multiple forms including radiation, chemical, gravitational potential, electrical potential,
electricity, elevated temperature, latent heat and kinetic. Energy storage involves
converting energy from forms that are difficult to store to more conveniently or
economically storable forms.
26. Brief some types of energy storage.
Mechanical: Spring, Compressed air energy storage (CAES), Fireless locomotive
Flywheel energy storage, Solid mass gravitational, Hydraulic accumulator
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (pumped hydroelectric storage, PHS, or pumped
storage hydropower, PSH), Electrical, electromagnetic: Capacitor, Super capacitor,
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES, also superconducting storage coil)
27. What is hybrid energy system?
A hybrid energy system, or hybrid power, usually consists of two or more renewable
energy sources used together to provide increased system efficiency as well as greater
balance in energy supply.

28. Give examples of hybrid energy systems.

A hybrid energy system, or hybrid power, usually consists of two or more renewable
energy sources used together to provide increased system efficiency as well as greater
balance in energy supply. The basic types of hybrid energy systems are
Biomass-wind-fuel cell, Photovoltaic and wind, and Completely Renewable
Hybrid Power Plant (solar, wind, biomass, hydrogen)
29. What are the drawbacks of standalone systems?
Solar panels, are expensive to set up, and are peak output is not obtained during the night
or cloudy days. Similarly, Wind turbines can’t operate safely in high wind speeds, and
low wind speeds produce little power. Biomass plants collapse at low temperatures.
30. What is solar hybrid systems?
Solar hybrid power systems are hybrid power systems that combine solar power from a
photovoltaic system with another power generating energy source. A common type is a
photovoltaic diesel hybrid system, combining photovoltaics (PV) and diesel generators,
or diesel gensets, as PV has hardly any marginal cost and is treated with priority on the
grid. The diesel gensets are used to constantly fill in the gap between the present load
and the actual generated power by the PV system.
31. List the peculiarities of ocean thermal energy conversion system. (Nov
2020)
Ocean thermal energy conversion system (OTEC) is a process that can produce
electricity by using the temperature difference between deep cold sea water and warm
tropical surface waters. OTEC plants pumps large quantities of deep cold sea water and
surface water to run a power cycle and produce electricity.
• OTEC is a firm power (24/7) system
• It is a clean energy sources
• It is environmentally sustainable
• It is capable of providing massive levels of energy.
These are the peculiarities of OTEC Systems.
32. Mention various types of fuel cells with their electrochemical reactions.
(Nov 2020)
Fuel cell Charge carrier Anode reaction Cathode reaction
through
electrolyte
Direct carbon
(DCFC –SOFC- O2− C + O2− → CO2 + 2e− ½O2 + 2e− → O2−
based)

Polymer electrolyte
H+ H2 → 2H+ + 2e− ½O2 + 2H+ + 2e− → H2O
(PEFC or PEM)
Phosphoric acid
H+ H2 → 2H+ + 2e− ½O2 + 2H+ + 2e− → H2O
(PAFC)
H2 + 2OH− → 2H2O + ½O2 + H2O + 2e− →
Alkaline (AFC) OH−
2e– 2OH−
H2 + CO32− → H2O +
Molten carbonate CO2 + 2e− ½O2 + CO2 + 2e– →
CO32−
(MCFC) CO + CO32− → 2CO2 + CO32−
2e−
H2 + O2− → H2O + 2e−
Solid oxide CO + O2− → CO2 + 2e−
O2− ½O2 + 2e− → O2–
(SOFC) CH4 + 4O2− → 2H2O +
CO2 + 8e−
PART - B
1. How tidal power is generated. Explain in detail (or) Explain the working of tidal
power plant with neat layout and specify the site requirements. (Nov 2020)
Tidal power or tidal energy converts energy obtained from tides into useful forms of
power, mainly electricity.
Principle:
Tidal power is taken from the Earth's oceanic tides. Tidal forces are periodic
variations in gravitational attraction exerted by celestial bodies. These forces create
corresponding motions or currents in the world's oceans. Due to the strong attraction to
the oceans, a bulge in the water level is created, causing a temporary increase in sea
level. As the Earth rotates, this bulge of ocean water meets the shallow water adjacent
to the shoreline and creates a tide. This occurrence takes place in an unfailing manner,
due to the consistent pattern of the moon's orbit around the earth. The magnitude and
character of this motion reflects the changing positions of the Moon and Sun relative to
the Earth, the effects of Earth's rotation, and local geography of the seafloor and
coastlines.
Tidal power is the only technology that draws on energy inherent in the orbital
characteristics of the Earth–Moon system, and to a lesser extent in the Earth–
Sun system. Other natural energies exploited by human technology originate directly or
indirectly with the Sun, including fossil fuel, conventional
hydroelectric, wind, biofuel, wave and solar energy. Nuclear energy makes use of
Earth's mineral deposits of fissionable elements, while geothermal power utilizes the

Earth's internal heat, which comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary
accretion (about 20%) and heat produced through radioactive decay (80%).
A tidal generator converts the energy of tidal flows into electricity. Greater tidal
variation and higher tidal current velocities can dramatically increase the potential of a
site for tidal electricity generation.
Because the Earth's tides are ultimately due to gravitational interaction with the Moon
and Sun and the Earth's rotation, tidal power is practically inexhaustible and classified
as a renewable energy resource. Movement of tides causes a loss of mechanical
energy in the Earth-Moon system: this is a result of pumping of water through natural
restrictions around coastlines and consequent viscous dissipation at the seabed and
in turbulence. This loss of energy has caused the rotation of the Earth to slow in the
4.5 billion years since its formation. During the last 620 million years the period of
rotation of the earth (length of a day) has increased from 21.9 hours to 24 hours; in this
period the Earth has lost 17% of its rotational energy. While tidal power will take
additional energy from the system, the effect is negligible and would only be noticed
over millions of years.
Methods:
There are currently three different ways to get tidal energy: tidal streams, barrages,
and tidal lagoons.
Tidal Stream:
For most tidal energy generators, turbines are placed in tidal streams. A tidal stream is
a fast-flowing body of water created by tides. A turbine is a machine that takes energy
from a flow of fluid. That fluid can be air (wind) or liquid (water). Because water is
much more dense than air, tidal energy is more powerful than wind energy. Unlike
wind, tides are predictable and stable. Where tidal generators are used, they produce a
steady, reliable stream of electricity.
Placing turbines in tidal streams is complex, because the machines are large
and disrupt the tide they are trying to harness. The environmental impact could
be severe, depending on the size of the turbine and the site of the tidal stream. Turbines
are most effective in shallow water. This produces more energy and allows ships
to navigate around the turbines. A tidal generator's turbine blades also turn slowly,

which helps marine life avoid getting caught in the system.
The world's first tidal power station was constructed in 2007 at Strangford Lough in
Northern Ireland. The turbines are placed in a narrow strait between the Strangford
Lough inlet and the Irish Sea. The tide can move at 4 meters (13 feet) per second across
the strait.
Barrage:
Another type of tidal energy generator uses a large dam called a barrage. With a barrage,
water can spill over the top or through turbines in the dam because the dam is low.
Barrages can be constructed across tidal rivers, bays, and estuaries.
Turbines inside the barrage harness the power of tides the same way a river dam
harnesses the power of a river. The barrage gates are open as the tide rises. At high tide,
the barrage gates close, creating a pool, or tidal lagoon. The water is then released
through the barrage's turbines, creating energy at a rate that can be controlled by
engineers.
The environmental impact of a barrage system can be quite significant. The land in the
tidal range is completely disrupted. The change in water level in the tidal lagoon might
harm plant and animal life. The salinity inside the tidal lagoon lowers, which changes
the organisms that are able to live there. As with dams across rivers, fish are blocked
into or out of the tidal lagoon. Turbines move quickly in barrages, and marine animals
can be caught in the blades. With their food source limited, birds might find different
places to migrate.
A barrage is a much more expensive tidal energy generator than a single turbine.
Although there are no fuel costs, barrages involve more construction and more
machines. Unlike single turbines, barrages also require constant supervision to adjust
power output.
The tidal power plant at the Rance River estuary in Brittany, France, uses a barrage. It
was built in 1966 and is still functioning. The plant uses two sources of energy: tidal
energy from the English Channel and river current energy from the Rance River. The

barrage has led to an increased level of silt in the habitat. Native aquatic plants
suffocate in silt, and a flatfish called plaice is now extinct in the area. Other organisms,
such as cuttlefish, a relative of squids, now thrive in the Rance estuary. Cuttlefish prefer
cloudy, silty ecosystems.
Tidal Lagoon:
The final type of tidal energy generator involves the construction of tidal lagoons. A
tidal lagoon is a body of ocean water that is partly enclosed by a natural or manmade
barrier. Tidal lagoons might also be estuaries and have freshwater emptying into them.
A tidal energy generator using tidal lagoons would function much like a barrage. Unlike
barrages, however, tidal lagoons can be constructed along the natural coastline. A tidal
lagoon power plant could also generate continuous power. The turbines work as the
lagoon is filling and emptying.
The environmental impact of tidal lagoons is minimal. The lagoons can be constructed
with natural materials like rock. They would appear as a low breakwater (sea wall) at
low tide, and be submerged at high tide. Animals could swim around the structure, and
smaller organisms could swim inside it. Large predators like sharks would not be able
to penetrate the lagoon, so smaller fish would probably thrive. Birds would likely flock
to the area.
But the energy output from generators using tidal lagoons is likely to be low. There are
no functioning examples yet. China is constructing a tidal lagoon power plant at the
Yalu River, near its border with North Korea. A private company is also planning a
small tidal lagoon power plant in Swansea Bay, Wales.
2. Explain in detail about barrage and non-barrage systems in tidal power

generation.
The Tidal Barrage or Tidal Power Plant as it is also known, is a form
of “marine renewable energy” generation system that uses long walls, dams, sluice gates
or tidal locks to capture and store the potential energy of the ocean. A Tidal Barrage is
a type of tidal power generation scheme that involves the construction of a fairly low

walled dam, known as a “tidal barrage” and hence its name, spanning across the
entrance of a tidal inlet, basin or estuary creating a single enclosed tidal reservoir,
similar in many respects to a hydroelectric impoundment reservoir.
The bottom of this barrage dam is located on the sea floor with the top of the tidal
barrage being just above the highest level that the water can get too at the highest annual
tide. The barrage has a number of underwater tunnels cut into its width allowing the sea
water to flow through them in a controlled way by using “sluice gates” on their entrance
and exit points. Fixed within these tunnels are huge tidal turbine generators that spin as
the sea water rushes past them either to fill or empty the tidal reservoir thereby
generating electricity.
The water which flows into and out of these underwater tunnels carries enormous
amounts of kinetic energy and the job of the tidal barrage is to extract as much of this
energy as possible which it uses to produce electricity. Tidal barrage generation using
the tides is very similar to hydroelectric generation, except the water flows in two
directions rather than just one. On incoming high tides, the water flows in one direction
and fills up the tidal reservoir with sea water. On outgoing ebbing tides, the sea water
flows in the opposite direct emptying it. As a tide is the vertical movement of water, the
tidal barrage generator exploits this natural rise and fall of tidal waters caused by the
gravitational pull of the sun and the moon.
Effects of Tidal Estuary Flow

The gravitational effects of the sun or the moon on the worlds oceans causes huge
amounts of sea water to be directed towards the nearest coastline. The result of this
movement of water is a rise in the sea level. In the open ocean, this rise is very small as
there is a large surface area with deeper depths for it to flow into.
However, as the oceans water moves nearer towards the coastline, the sea level rises
steeply especially around inlets and estuaries because of the upward sloping gradient of
the sea bed. The effect of this sloping gradient is to funnelling the water into the
estuaries, lagoons, river inlets and other such tidal “bottlenecks” along the coastline.
The result of funnelling all of this water is that the height of the sea level once inside
these inlets can increase vertically many metres every day as it is being pushed forward
by the incoming sea water behind it as shown in the image. This increase in the sea level

can create a tidal range of over ten metres in height in some estuaries and locations
which can be exploited to generate electricity.
The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide sea level and the low tide
sea level. The tidal energy extracted from these tides is potential energy as the tide
moves in a vertical up-down direction between a low and a high tide and back to a low
creating a height or head differential. A tidal barrage generation scheme exploits this
head differential to generate electricity by creating a difference in the water levels either
side of a dam and then passing this water difference through the turbines. The three
main tidal energy barrage schemes that use this water differential to their advantage are:
• • Flood Generation: – The tidal power is generated as the water enters a tidal
reservoir on the incoming Flood tide
• • Ebb Generation: – The tidal power is generated as the water leaves a tidal
reservoir on the Ebb flow tide
• • Two-way Generation: – The tidal power is generated as the water flows in both
directions in and out of the reservoir during both the Flood and the Ebb tides
3. Give the difference between wave energy and tidal energy. Explain wave energy
production in detail.
Tidal energy uses the gravitational pull of the Earth and moon to generate energy.
Thetides at shorelines of oceans will rise and fall about twice a day. Wave energy uses
the kinetic force of waves to produce energy. A object inside buoys, booms, or other
floating objects will shake as each wave passes.
Tidal energy; the rise of seawater due to gravitational pull of moon is
called high tide whereas the fall of seawater is called a low tide during the high tide
when the level of water in the sea is high, sea water flow into the reservoir of the barrage
and turns the turbine and generate electricity and again water is back and rotates the
turbine.it is done twice in a Day.
wave energy: the huge waves come on the surface of sea and sea wave have
a lot of kinetic energy to which runs the turbine and produce electricity.
WAVE POWER:

Wave power is the capture of energy of wind waves to do useful work – for
example, electricity generation, water desalination, or pumping water. A machine that
exploits wave power is a wave energy converter (WEC).
Wave power is distinct from tidal power, which captures the energy of the current
caused by the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon. Waves and tides are also distinct
from ocean currents which are caused by other forces including breaking waves, wind,
the Coriolis effect, cabbeling, and differences in temperature and salinity.
Wave-power generation is not a widely employed commercial technology compared to

other established renewable energy sources such as wind power, hydropower and solar
power. However, there have been attempts to use this source of energy since at least
1890 mainly due to its high power density. As a comparison, the power density of the
photovoltaic panels is 1 kW/m2 at peak solar insolation, and the power density of the
wind is 1 kW/m2 at 12 m/s. Whereas, the average annual power density of the waves at
e.g. San Francisco coast is 25 kW/m2.
Waves are generated by wind passing over the surface of the sea. As long
as the waves propagate slower than the wind speed just above the waves, there is an
energy transfer from the wind to the waves. Both air pressure differences between the
upwind and the lee side of a wave crest, as well as friction on the water surface by the
wind, making the water to go into the shear stress causes the growth of the waves.
Wave height is determined by wind speed, the duration of time the wind has been
blowing, fetch (the distance over which the wind excites the waves) and by the depth
and topography of the seafloor (which can focus or disperse the energy of the waves).
A given wind speed has a matching practical limit over which time or distance will not
produce larger waves. When this limit has been reached the sea is said to be "fully
developed".
In general, larger waves are more powerful but wave power is also determined by wave
speed, wavelength, and water density.
Oscillatory motion is highest at the surface and diminishes exponentially with depth.
However, for standing waves (clapotis) near a reflecting coast, wave energy is also
present as pressure oscillations at great depth, producing microseisms. These pressure

fluctuations at greater depth are too small to be interesting from the point of view of
wave power.
The waves propagate on the ocean surface, and the wave energy is also transported
horizontally with the group velocity. The mean transport rate of the wave energy
through a vertical plane of unit width, parallel to a wave crest, is called the wave
energy flux (or wave power, which must not be confused with the actual power
generated by a wave power device).
Wave power formula
In deep water where the water depth is larger than half the wavelength, the wave energy
flux is
with P the wave energy flux per unit of wave-crest length, Hm0 the significant wave
height, Te the wave energy period, ρ the water density and g the acceleration by
gravity. The above formula states that wave power is proportional to the wave
energy period and to the square of the wave height. When the significant wave
height is given in metres, and the wave period in seconds, the result is the wave
power in kilowatts (kW) per metre of wavefront length.
Example: Consider moderate ocean swells, in deep water, a few km off a coastline,
with a wave height of 3 m and a wave energy period of 8 s. Using the formula to
solve for power, we get
meaning there are 36 kilowatts of power potential per meter of wave crest.
In major storms, the largest waves offshore are about 15 meters high and have a period of
about 15 seconds. According to the above formula, such waves carry about 1.7 MW of power
across each metre of wavefront.

An effective wave power device captures as much as possible of the wave energy flux. As a
result, the waves will be of lower height in the region behind the wave power device.
Wave energy and wave-energy flux
In a sea state, the average(mean) energy density per unit area of gravity waves on the water
surface is proportional to the wave height squared, according to linear wave theory:
where E is the mean wave energy density per unit horizontal area (J/m2), the sum
of kinetic and potential energy density per unit horizontal area. The potential energy density
is equal to the kinetic energy,[6] both contributing half to the wave energy density E, as can
be expected from the equipartition theorem. In ocean waves, surface tension effects are
negligible for wavelengths above a few decimetres.
As the waves propagate, their energy is transported. The energy transport velocity is
the group velocity. As a result, the wave energy flux, through a vertical plane of unit width
perpendicular to the wave propagation direction, is equal to
with cg the group velocity (m/s). Due to the dispersion relation for water waves under the
action of gravity, the group velocity depends on the wavelength λ, or equivalently, on the
wave period T. Further, the dispersion relation is a function of the water depth h. As a result,
the group velocity behaves differently in the limits of deep and shallow water, and at
intermediate depths.
4. Explain OTEC cycle and its types in detail. (or) Explain the principle of
operation of open cycle OTEC system. (Nov 2020)
Ocean Thermal Energy also called Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
(OTEC) refers to a method of using the temperature difference between the deep parts
of the sea which are cold and the shallow parts of the sea which are cold to run a heat
engine and produce useful work. Basically, Ocean thermal energy conversion is an
electricity generation system. The deeper parts of the ocean are cooler due to the fact
that the heat of sunlight cannot penetrate very deep into the water. Here the efficiency

of the system depends on the temperature difference. Greater the temperature

difference, the greater the efficiency. The temperature difference in the oceans between
the deep and shallow parts is maximum in the tropics, 20 to 25o C. Tropics receive a
lot of sunlight which warms the surface of the oceans, increasing the temperature
gradient.
The energy source of OTEC is abundantly available, free, and will be so for as long as
the sun shines and ocean currents exist. Estimates suggest that ocean thermal energy
could contain more than twice the world’s electricity demand.
Types of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Systems

• Closed Cycle: Closed cycle Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion systems use a
working fluid with a low boiling point, Ammonia for example, and use it to
power a turbine to generate electricity. Warm seawater is taken in from the
surface of the oceans and cold water from the deep at 5o. The warm seawater
vaporizes the fluid in the heat exchanger which then turns the turbines of the
generator. The fluid now in the vapor state is brought in contact with cold water
which turns it back into a liquid. The fluid is recycled in the system which is why
it is called a closed system.

Closed cycle
Open Cycle: Open cycle OTEC directly uses the warm water from the surface to make
electricity. The warm seawater is first pumped in a low-pressure chamber where due to
the drop in pressure, it undergoes a drop in boiling point as well. This causes the water
to boil. This steam drives a low-pressure turbine which is attached to an electrical
generator. The advantage this system has over a closed system is that, in the open cycle,
desalinated water in the form of steam is obtained. Since it is steam, it is free from all
impurities. This water can be used for domestic, industrial, or agricultural purposes.
Ocean Thermal Energy (OTEC) is a real candidate as one of the future sources of
energy. Its environmental impact is negligible, in fact, the mixing of deep and shallow
seawater brings up nutrients from the seafloor. The deepwater is rich in nitrates and this
can also be used in agriculture.
5. What is hydrogen fuel cell? Explain the principle of working.

A fuel cell can be defined as an electrochemical cell that generates

electrical energy from fuel via an electrochemical reaction. These cells require a
continuous input of fuel and an oxidizing agent (generally oxygen) in order to sustain
the reactions that generate the electricity. Therefore, these cells can constantly generate
electricity until the supply of fuel and oxygen is cut off.
Despite being invented in the year 1838, fuel cells began commercial use only a century
later when they were used by NASA to power space capsules and satellites. Today,
these devices are used as the primary or secondary source of power for many facilities
including industries, commercial buildings, and residential buildings.
A fuel cell is similar to electrochemical cells, which consists of a cathode, an anode,

and an electrolyte. In these cells, the electrolyte enables the movement of the protons.
Working of Fuel Cell
The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen can be used to generate electricity via a fuel
cell. Such a cell was used in the Apollo space programme and it served two different
purposes – It was used as a fuel source as well as a source of drinking water (the water
vapour produced from the cell, when condensed, was fit for human consumption).
The working of this fuel cell involved the passing of hydrogen and oxygen into a
concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide via carbon electrodes. The cell reaction can
be written as follows:
Cathode Reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH–
Anode Reaction: 2H2 + 4OH– → 4H2O + 4e–
Net Cell Reaction: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
However, the reaction rate of this electrochemical reaction is quite low. This issue is
overcome with the help of a catalyst such as platinum or palladium. In order to increase
the effective surface area, the catalyst is finely divided before being incorporated into
the electrodes.
A block diagram of this fuel cell is provided below.

The efficiency of the fuel cell described above in the generation of electricity generally
approximates to 70% whereas thermal power plants have an efficiency of 40%. This
substantial difference in efficiency is because the generation of electric current in a
thermal power plant involves the conversion of water into steam, and the usage of this
steam to rotate a turbine. Fuel cells, however, offer a platform for the direct conversion
of chemical energy into electrical energy.
Types of Fuel Cells
Despite working similarly, there exist many varieties of fuel cells. Some of these types
of fuel cells are discussed in this subsection.
The Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell
• These cells are also known as proton exchange membrane fuel cells (or
PEMFCs).
• The temperature range that these cells operate in is between 50oC to 100o
• The electrolyte used in PEMFCs is a polymer which has the ability to conduct
protons.
• A typical PEM fuel cell consists of bipolar plates, a catalyst, electrodes, and the
polymer membrane.
• Despite having eco-friendly applications in transportation, PEMFCs can also be

used for the stationary and portable generation of power.

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
• These fuel cells involve the use of phosphoric acid as an electrolyte in order to
channel the H+
• The working temperatures of these cells lie in the range of 150oC – 200o
• Electrons are forced to travel to the cathode via an external circuit because of the
non-conductive nature of phosphoric acid.
• Due to the acidic nature of the electrolyte, the components of these cells tend to
corrode or oxidize over time.
Solid Acid Fuel Cell
• A solid acid material is used as the electrolyte in these fuel cells.
• The molecular structures of these solid acids are ordered at low temperatures.
• At higher temperatures, a phase transition can occur which leads to a huge

increase in conductivity.
• Examples of solid acids include CsHSO4 and CsH2PO4 (cesium hydrogen

sulfate and cesium dihydrogen phosphate respectively)
Alkaline Fuel Cell
• This was the fuel cell which was used as the primary source of electricity in the
Apollo space program.
• In these cells, an aqueous alkaline solution is used to saturate a porous matrix,

which is in turn used to separate the electrodes.
• The operating temperatures of these cells are quite low (approximately 90oC).
• These cells are highly efficient. They also produce heat and water along with
electricity.
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
• These cells involve the use of a solid oxide or a ceramic electrolyte (such as
yttria-stabilized zirconia).

• These fuel cells are highly efficient and have a relatively low cost (theoretical
efficiency can even approach 85%).
• The operating temperatures of these cells are very high (lower limit of 600oC,
standard operating temperatures lie between 800 and 1000oC).
• Solid oxide fuel cells are limited to stationary applications due to their high
operating temperatures.
• Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
• The electrolyte used in these cells is lithium potassium carbonate salt. This salt
becomes liquid at high temperatures, enabling the movement of carbonate ions.
• Similar to SOFCs, these fuel cells also have a relatively high operating
temperature of 650o
• The anode and the cathode of this cell are vulnerable to corrosion due to the high
operating temperature and the presence of the carbonate electrolyte.
• These cells can be powered by carbon-based fuels such as natural gas and biogas.
6. Give the types of fuel cell and what is PEM fuel cell? Explain its working.
Types of Fuel Cells

• The Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell
• Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
• Solid Acid Fuel Cell
• Alkaline Fuel Cell
• Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
• Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
The Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell:

A fuel cell is a device that converts chemical potential energy (energy stored in
molecular bonds) into electrical energy. A PEM (Proton Exchange Membrane) cell uses
hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2) as fuel. The products of the reaction in the cell
are water, electricity, and heat. This is a big improvement over internal combustion
engines, coal burning power plants, and nuclear power plants, all of which produce
harmful by-products.
Since O2 is readily available in the atmosphere, we only need to supply the fuel cell
with H2 which can come from an electrolysis process (see Alkaline electrolysis or PEM
electrolysis).
There
are four basic elements of a PEM Fuel Cell:
The anode, the negative post of the fuel cell, has several jobs. It conducts the electrons
that are freed from the hydrogen molecules so that they can be used in an external
circuit. It has channels etched into it that disperse the hydrogen gas equally over the
surface of the catalyst.
The cathode, the positive post of the fuel cell, has channels etched into it that distribute
the oxygen to the surface of the catalyst. It also conducts the electrons back from the
external circuit to the catalyst, where they can recombine with the hydrogen ions and
oxygen to form water.

The electrolyte is the proton exchange membrane. This specially treated material, which
looks something like ordinary kitchen plastic wrap, only conducts positively charged
ions. The membrane blocks electrons. For a PEMFC, the membrane must be hydrated
in order to function and remain stable.
The catalyst is a special material that facilitates the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen. It
is usually made of platinum nanoparticles very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth.
The catalyst is rough and porous so that the maximum surface area of the platinum can
be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces
the PEM.
As the name implies, the heart of the cell is the proton exchange membrane. It allows
protons to pass through it virtually unimpeded, while electrons are blocked. So, when
the H2 hits the catalyst and splits into protons and electrons (remember, a proton is the
same as an H+ ion) the protons go directly through to the cathode side, while the
electrons are forced to travel through an external circuit. Along the way they perform
useful work, like lighting a bulb or driving a motor, before combining with the protons
and O2 on the other side to produce water.
How does it work? Pressurized hydrogen gas (H2) entering the fuel cell on the anode
side. This gas is forced through the catalyst by the pressure. When an H2 molecule
comes in contact with the platinum on the catalyst, it splits into two H+ ions and two
electrons (e-). The electrons are conducted through the anode, where they make their
way through the external circuit (doing useful work such as turning a motor) and return
to the cathode side of the fuel cell.
Meanwhile, on the cathode side of the fuel cell, oxygen gas (O2) is being forced through
the catalyst, where it forms two oxygen atoms. Each of these atoms has a strong negative
charge. This negative charge attracts the two H+ ions through the membrane, where
they combine with an oxygen atom and two of the electrons from the external circuit to
form a water molecule (H2O).
All these reaction occurs in a so called cell stack. The expertise then also involves the
setup of a complete system around core component that is the cell stack.

The stack will be embedded in a module including fuel, water and air management,
coolant control hardware and software. This module will then be integrated in a
complete system to be used in different applications.
Due to the high energetic content of hydrogen and high efficiency of fuel cells (55%),
this great technology can be used in many applications like transport (cars, buses,
forklifts, etc) and backup power to produce electricity during a failure of the electricity
grid.
Advantages of the technology:
• By converting chemical potential energy directly into electrical energy, fuel cells
avoid the “thermal bottleneck” (a consequence of the 2nd law of
thermodynamics) and are thus inherently more efficient than combustion
engines, which must first convert chemical potential energy into heat, and then
mechanical work.
• Direct emissions from a fuel cell vehicle are just water and a little heat. This is a
huge improvement over the internal combustion engine’s litany of greenhouse
gases.
• Fuel cells have no moving parts. They are thus much more reliable than
traditional engines.
7. Explain one application of fuel cell in detail.

Buses
Buses for city and regional transport are considered the most likely type of vehicles for
an early market introduction of fuel cell technology. Most of the issues discussed in the
previous section on automobiles also apply to fuel cell applications in buses. The major
differences are in hydrogen storage and refueling sites.
Buses require more power than passenger automobiles, typically about 150 kW or more.
They operate in a more demanding operating regimen with frequent starts and stops.
Nevertheless, the average fuel economy of a bus fuel cell system is roughly 15% better
than that of a diesel engine . Buses are almost always operated in a fleet and refueled in

a central facility. This makes refueling with hydrogen much easier. In addition, storing
larger quantities of hydrogen (typically above 20 kg) onboard is less of a problem. Fuel
cell buses typically store hydrogen in composite compressed gas cylinders at 350 bar,
located on the roof. Since availability of space on the bus is not an issue, there is no
need to use 700 bar storage tanks, so almost all the buses built today use 350
bar compressed hydrogen tanks. Because hydrogen is much lighter than air, the roof
location is considered very safe.
The hydrogen fuel cell buses have a major advantage
over their competition (diesel buses) because they produce zero emissions. This is
particularly important in already heavily polluted, densely populated cities. Under the
Clean Urban Transport for Europe (CUTE) program, hydrogen fuel cell buses have been
employed in major European cities such as Amsterdam, Barcelona, Hamburg, London,
Luxembourg, Madrid, Porto, Reykjavik, Stockholm, and Stuttgart [24]. Sunline Transit
Authority in Palm Springs, California
, has been operating fuel cell buses in regular service for several years. The United
Nations Development Program (UNDP) and Global Environment Facility (GEF) are
funding and coordinating an international program that aims to introduce fuel cell buses
in major cities around the world, such as Sao Paolo, Mexico City, New Delhi, Cairo,
Shanghai, and Beijing; some of these have already been developed and demonstrated.
When hydrogen is produced from clean, renewable energy sources, the fuel cell buses
could make a significant contribution toward cleaner air in these cities.
The main obstacles for commercialization of fuel cell buses are fuel cell cost and
durability. Because of the smaller manufacturing series, the cost of the bus engines per
kilowatt is somewhat higher than the cost of the automobile engines. The expected
lifetime is also higher because a typical city bus may be in operation more than 6,000
hours per year. This, combined with highly intermittent operation with many starts and
stops, poses a challenge to fuel cell durability with current technology.
Fuel cells in portable applications
Another rapidly developing FC application market is portable power supply, as the
limited energy capacity of batteries is unlikely to meet the fast-growing demand for
portable electric devices. Two broad definitions of portable FCs exist in the literature.
The first definition includes FCs that are built into – or charge – products that are
designed to be moved, excluding vehicles. This definition includes military applications

(such as portable soldier power and slide mounted FC generators), APUs (both for
leisure and transport industries), portable products (such as torches), personal
electronics (from mp3 players, to cameras, laptops and so on), educational kits and toys.
The second, extended, definition also includes forklift trucks, wheel chairs, bikes, small
vehicles and light traction. ‘FCs Today’ uses the first definition, while International
Energy Agency (IEA) prefers the second. We take into account the second definition to
distinguish vehicles for transportation from other vehicles.
To power this range of products, portable FCs are being developed in a wide range of
outputs, ranging from less than 5 W up to 500 kW. This range has necessitated further
sub-classification; ‘FC Today’, for example, classify units with power up to 5 W as
‘micro FC’, and units up to few hundred watts as ‘mini FC’. This distinction is useful
because smaller personal devices – such as cameras and mobile phones – tend to draw
about 3 W, while laptops and other large electronics devices can use up to 50 W. Other
criteria are also available in the literature.
In addition to the usual drivers for the FC application – off-grid operation, longer run-
times compared with batteries, and quick recharging – there are additional reasons to
use FCs rather than batteries in portable application; potentially significant weight
reduction (very important in military applications), convenience, reliability and lower
operating costs. Consequently, global production of portable FCs has continuously
grown. More than 90% of these units are based on hydrogen- or methanol-fuelled
PEFCs, the latter increasingly important, especially for micro-units 2,3,47.
PEFCs are preferred because they work at low temperatures, are the easiest to manage
and can be fabricated in small sizes without efficiency loss. In this case, methanol is the
preferred fuel for micro- (< 5 W) and mini- (5–100 W) power units, as it is liquid and
allows the storage of large energy quantities in small volumes; however, the power
density and efficiency of methanol-fuelled PEFCs are lower than hydrogen-fuelled
ones. Moreover, methanol is toxic and its use in portable telephony creates safety
problems. Hydrogen may be stored in both solid state form and in borohydride salts,
but increases in weight and/or system complexity in doing so. In fact, the main issue for
the utilization of hydrogen in portable application, especially at low output capacity, is
related to the development of hydrogen storage systems; this accounts for the failure of
its expected large-scale commercialization. For higher output capacity in powering
forklifts and other working vehicles, both methanol and compressed hydrogen fuels

have been used. In this niche market, the number of delivered systems is increasing,
although the target price for commercialization has not yet been achieved. For military
applications, another advantage of PEFC-based power systems is that they could be
easily masked against thermal sensors, while other generation systems operate at higher
temperatures and emit much waste heat. Here, cost is not a problem; fuel storage and
supply logistics are the main limiting factors.
However, both for military and civil application, the electronic market is expected to be
the first opportunity. For large-scale production of micro- and mini-FCs, the main issue
is the miniaturization of the cell while maintaining efficiency approaches typical of both
standard FC production and of the electronic industry have been proposed.48–55 Due
to the necessity of working at close to room temperature, power densities are
significantly lower, usually ranging between 30 and 50 mW/cm2, although power
densities up to 100 mW/cm2 have been reported.50,55–59 For this reason, many
electronics companies are involved in FC research. Major electronics companies, such
as Toshiba, Sony, Motorola, LG and Samsung, have in-house R&D units dedicated to
portable FCs. Japanese and Korean companies are the most involved in portable power
units for electronic devices, and have recently launched a series of products that are
mainly based on direct methanol-fuelled PEFC; large-scale commercialization of these
devices is planned in the coming years. North American and European companies have
taken a less aggressive approach. Today, we can consider this market ready for large-
scale diffusion, despite being at an early stage of development; in the last few years, a
series of norms and standards for the design, testing and utilization of FCs have been
published by the major standardization bodies, such as IEC, EN, ASME, ISO (for fuel
storage), ANSI and UL, so demonstrating industrial interest in developing and
commercializing these devices.
A wider number of devices are offered for power outputs of over 100 W. Here,
miniaturization is less of a necessity, and there are fewer issues caused by the volume
and weight of hydrogen storage systems, although hydrogen costs and availability
remain issues to be addressed. A simple internet search found units of 100–500 W
offered at prices between 10 and 20 €/W (June 2013, PEFC systems), hydrogen storage
system not included. These prices remain higher than the DOE target for large-scale
commercialization, which is about 2 €/W.60

8. What do you mean by energy storage system? Explain its significance.

Energy storage is the capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later
time. A device that stores energy is generally called an accumulator or battery. Energy
comes in multiple forms including radiation, chemical, gravitational
potential, electrical potential, electricity, elevated temperature, latent heat and kinetic.
Energy storage involves converting energy from forms that are difficult to store to more
conveniently or economically storable forms.
Some technologies provide short-term energy storage, while others can endure for much
longer. Bulk energy storage is currently dominated by hydroelectric dams, both
conventional as well as pumped.
Common examples of energy storage are the rechargeable battery, which stores
chemical energy readily convertible to electricity to operate a mobile phone,
the hydroelectric dam, which stores energy in a reservoir as gravitational potential
energy, and ice storage tanks, which store ice frozen by cheaper energy at night to meet
peak daytime demand for cooling. Fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline store ancient
energy derived from sunlight by organisms that later died, became buried and over time
were then converted into these fuels. Food (which is made by the same process as fossil
fuels) is a form of energy stored in chemical form.
The economics of energy storage strictly depends on the reserve service
requested, and several uncertainty factors affect the profitability of energy storage.
Therefore, not every storage method is technically and economically suitable for the
storage of several MWh, and the optimal size of the energy storage is market and
location dependent.
Moreover, ESS are affected by several risks, e.g.:
1) Techno-economic risks, which are related to the specific technology;
2) Market risks, which are the factors that affect the electricity supply system;
3) Regulation and policy risks.
Therefore, traditional techniques based on deterministic Discounted Cash Flow (DCF)
for the investment appraisal are not fully adequate to evaluate these risks and
uncertainties and the investor's flexibility to deal with them. Hence, the literature

recommends to assess the value of risks and uncertainties through the Real Option
Analysis (ROA), which is a valuable method in uncertain contexts.
The economic valuation of large-scale applications (including pumped hydro storage
and compressed air) considers benefits including: curtailment avoidance, grid
congestion avoidance, price arbitrage and carbon-free energy delivery. In one technical
assessment by the Carnegie Mellon Electricity Industry Centre, economic goals could
be met using batteries if their capital cost was $30 to $50 per kilowatt-hour.
A metric of energy efficiency of storage is energy storage on energy invested (ESOI),
which is the amount of energy that can be stored by a technology, divided by the amount
of energy required to build that technology. The higher the ESOI, the better the storage
technology is energetically. For lithium-ion batteries this is around 10, and for lead acid
batteries it is about 2. Other forms of storage such as pumped hydroelectric storage
generally have higher ESOI, such as 210.
9. What do you mean by hybrid energy system? Give one example of hybrid system
and explain.
Hybrid energy system is the combination of two energy sources for giving power to the
load. In other word it can defined as “Energy system which is fabricated or designed to
extract power by using two energy sources is called as the hybrid energy system.”
Hybrid energy system has good reliability, efficiency, less emission, and lower cost.
In this proposed system solar and wind power is used for generating power. Solar and
wind has good advantages than other than any other non-conventional energy sources.
Both the energy sources have greater availability in all areas. It needs lower cost. There
is no need to find special location to install this system.
A. Solar Energy
Solar energy is that energy which is gets by the radiation of the sun. Solar energy is
present on the earth continuously and in abundant manner. Solar energy is freely
available. It doesn’t produce any gases that mean it is pollution free. It is affordable in
cost. It has low maintenance cost. Only problem with solar system it cannot produce

energy in bad weather condition. But it has greater efficiency than other energy sources.
It only need initial investment. It has long life span and has lower emission.
B. Wind Energy
Wind energy is the energy which is extracted from wind. For extraction we use wind
mill. Ii is renewable energy sources. The wind energy needs less cost for generation of
electricity. Maintenance cost is also less for wind energy system. Wind energy is present
almost 24 hours of the day. It has less emission. Initial cost is also less of the system.
Generation of electricity from wind is depend upon the speed of wind flowing.
The major disadvantages of using independent renewable energy resources are that
unavailability of power for all time. For overcoming this we use solar and wind energy
together. So that any one source of power fails other will take care of the generation. In
this proposed system we can use both sources combine. Another way is that we can use
any one source and keep another source as a stand by unit. This will leads to continuity
of generation. This will make system reliable. The main disadvantages of this system

are that it needs high initial cost. Except that it is reliable, it has less emission. Maintance
cost is less. Life span of this system is more. Efficiency is more.
A main advantage of this system is that it gives continuous power supply.
III. DESIGN OF HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM
For desing of the hybrid energy system we need to find the data as follows
A. Data required for Solar System:
1. Annual mean daily duration of Sunshine hours
2. Daily Solar Radiation horizontal (KWH/m2/day)
B. Data required for Wind System:
1. Mean Annual Hourly Wind Speed (m/sec)
2. Wind Power that can be generated from the wind turbine
Fig. Block diagram of Hybrid energy generation system

Above figure shows the block diagram of the hybrid power generation system using
wind and solar power. This block diagram includes following blocks.
i. Solar panel
ii. Wind turbine
iii. Charge controller
iv. Battery bank
v. Inverter
i. Solar panel
Solar panel is use to convert solar radiation to the electrical energy. The physical of PV
cell is very similar to that of the classical diode with a PN junction formed by
semiconductor material. When the junction absorbs light, the energy of absorbed photon
is transferred to the electron-proton system of the material, creating charge carriers that

are separated at the junction. The charge carriers in the junction region create a potential
gradient, get accelerated under the electric field, and circulate as current through an
external circuit. Solar array or panel is a group of a several modules electrically
connected in series parallel combination to generate the required current and voltage.
Solar panels are the medium to convert solar power into the electrical power.
ii. Wind turbine
Wind turbine is that system which extracts energy from wind by rotation of the blades
of the wind turbine. Basically wind turbine has two types one is vertical and another is
horizontal. As the wind speed increases power generation is also increases. The power
generated from wind is not continuous its fluctuating. For obtain the non-fluctuating
power we have to store in battery and then provide it to the load.
iii. Charge controller
Charge controller has basic function is that it control the source which is to be active or
inactive. It simultaneously charge battery and also gives power to the load. The
controller has over-charge protection, short-circuit protection, pole confusion protection
and automatic dump-load function. It also the function is that it should vary the power
as per the load demand. It add the both the power so that the load demand can fulfill.
And when power is not generating it should extract power from battery and give it to
the load.
iv. Battery Bank
We have to choose battery bank size per the load requirement so that it should fulfill
the requirement of load for calculating the battery bank size we need to find following
data
1. Find total daily use in watt-hour (Wh).
2. Find total back up time of the battery
For increase in battery bank size we need to connect cell in series so that we can get the
larger battery bank size.
v. Inverter
We have to choose greater rating inverter than the desired rating .The pure sign wave
inverter is recommended in other to prolong the lifespan of the inverter. Inverter is need
to convert DC power into AC power. As our load working on the AC supply so we need
to convert DC power. The input voltage Output voltage and frequency, and overall

power handling depends on the design of the specific device or the circuitry. The
inverter does not produce any power. The power is provided by the DC source.
The total power generated by this system may be given as the addition of the power
generated by the solar PV panel and power generated by the wind turbine.
Mathematically it can be represented as,
PT = NW * Pw +Ns * PS
Where,
PT is the total power generated
PW is the power generated by wind turbines
PS is the power generated by solar panels
NW is the no of wind turbine
Ns is the no of solar panels used
A. Calculations for wind energy
The power generated by wind energy is given by,

Power = (density of air * swept area * velocity cubed)/2
PW = ½. ρ (AW) (V) 3
Where,
P is power in watts (W)
ρ is the air density in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³)
AW is the swept area by air in square meters (m²)
V is the wind speed in meters per second (m/s).
B. Calculations for solar energy
To determine the size of PV modules, the required energy consumption must be
estimated. Therefore, the power is calculated as
PS = Ins (t) * AS*Eff(pv)
Where,
Ins (t) = isolation at time t (kw/ m2)
AS = area of single PV panel (m2)
Effpv = overall efficiency of the PV panels and dc/dc converters.
Overall efficiency is given by,
Eff(pv)= H * PR
Where,

H = Annual average solar radiation on tilted panels. PR = Performance ratio, coefficient

for losses.
C. Cost
The total cost of the solar-wind hybrid energy system is depend upon the total no of
wind turbines used and total no of solar panels used. Therefore the total cost is given as
follows
Total cost=(No. of Wind Turbine * Cost of single Wind Turbine)
+ (No. of Solar Panels * Cost of single Solar Panel)
+ (No. of Batteries used in Battery Bank * Cost of single Battery)
CT = (NW * CWT) + (NS * CSP) + (NB * CB)
Where,
CT is the total cost in Rs
CWT is the cost of single wind turbine in Rs
CSP is the cost of single solar panel in Rs
CB is the Cost of single Battery in Rs
NW is the number of wind turbine used
NS is the number of solar panels used
NB is the number of Batteries used in Battery Bank.
Solar-wind hybrid energy systems needs only initial investment. It will compete well in
generation with the conventional energy sources. When accounted for a lifetime of
reduced or avoided utility costs. The cost of the system depends on the system chosen,
wind resource on the site, electric costs in the area, and the battery bank required. Cost
of the Wind-Solar Hybrid system is to be minimized. For minimize the cost of the
system we need to increase the use of non conventional energy sources. So that
production of solar and wind power generator will be increase. That will reduce cost of
the whole system.
10. Explain a case study of an hybrid system.

In this case study design of optimal sizing of different combinations of PV/wind

hybrid energy-based power system for rural electrification in the key area by using
HOMER software tool is presented.
Renewable energy resources
A Jamny Ven village Barwani (latitude 22.71 and longitude 75.85) Madhya Pradesh,
India site renewable energy resource is an important factor for developing hybrid
systems. According to IMD wind and solar energy are available in many parts of India
in large quantities (http://homepage.mac.com/unarte/solar_radiation.html). These
energy sources are discontinuous and naturally obtainable; because of these issues our
primary preference to power the village base power station is renewable energy sources
like wind and solar. Climate data for particular site renewable hybrid energy systems
are important factors to study the possibility of the former the confidential information,
wind and solar energy resources data for the village are taken from NASA (Lilienthal
& Flowers, 1995).
Solar energy resource
Hourly solar emission information was collected from the environment Barwani Jamny
village. Long-term average annual resource scaling (5.531). Solar power is higher in
summer season when compared to the winter season.
Wind energy resource
Confidential information may be an occurrence that is associated with the connection
of air, plenty caused mainly by the degree of difference star heating of the Earth’s
surface. Seasonal and position variations within the energy arriving from the Sun have
an effect on the strength and manner of the wind. Power from the wind depends upon
the swept space of the rotary engine blades and, therefore, the cube of the wind speed,
wind energy has been considered as potential toward meeting the continually increasing
demand for energy. The wind sources of energy the alteration processes are pollution-
free, and it is freely available. Periodical regular wind information for Jamny Ven
village was together beginning environmental of Barwani climate. The scaled annual
average wind speed is 4.5 the highest value of monthly average wind speed is observed
during the month of December with a maximum of 7.195 m/s and the lowest value is

observed during June with 2.664 m/s monthly average wind speed. Resource data are
shown in Table 4 (Lilienthal & Flowers, 1995).
Electrical load data
The average estimation of daily energy consumption is 110.6 (kWh/day), peak load is
found to be13.23 KW, and average is 4.61 KW. The information was computed for the
entire hour basis daily electrical load condition of a demand for a village of Barwani
district.
Result and discussion
The study is to design of optimal sizing of different combinations of PV/wind hybrid
energy-based power system for rural electrification in the key area (Jamny Ven
Barwani) Madhya Pradesh, India where utility supply cost is really high due to limited
consumer higher transmission and higher transportation cost. The chosen case study
presents a power demand 110.6 kWh/d. The system is designed and optimized as hybrid
energy base power system in parliamentary procedure to meet the existing user’s power
require at a minimum price of energy. The simulation-based optimization generates the
best-optimized sizing of different combinations of wind and PV array with diesel
generators for a rural hybrid base power system. Optimal sizing of various combinations
such as DG (diesel generator), PV–Battery–DG, Wind–Battery–DG and PV–Wind–
DG, PV–Wind–Battery and PV–Wind–Battery–DG. Simulation and optimization result
calculated by using HOMER software and analysis on the base of sensitive parameters
of PV, wind resources data, and variation in diesel price. Among all six hybrid
combinations only two hybrid system Wind-DG and PV–Wind–Battery–DG are more
cost-effective, reliable and environmentally friendly solution. Emission and levelized
COE of the both hybrid systems are nearly equal, but the total NPC and operating cost
of the PV–Wind–Battery–DG is less as compared to Wind-DG hybrid system. As the
penetration of solar, wind system will increase; the surplus energy is multiplied. It can
be saved and used by foreseeable future objective by making use of battery bank.

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EE8703 – RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS Department of EEE 2021-2022

UNIT – I: RENEWABLE ENERGY (RE) SOURCES

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therefore does not run a risk of depleting (on a human timescale).

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element it can be used for both fuel and electricity.

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Peat – Stage One:

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Figure 1: Formation of oil and natural gas

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tides, biomass and geothermal energy.

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Figure 2: solar cell

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connected to the grid).

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Figure 3: wind energy generation system

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particular project’s financing.

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Electricity from Geo-thermal energy :

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over conventional energy usage.

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Figure 4:Hydro-electric power generation

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The environmental consequences of hydropower are related to interventions in

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Figure 5: Direct combustion /steam turbine system

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have contributed to swift renewable energy development at rapidly decreasing

India is particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts and is exposed to growing

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Figure 6: diagram of a PEM fuel cell

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steam and then, the electricity.

12. (i)Discuss the present status of world energy scenario. Nov.2020

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Table: shows a comparison of renewable and conventional energy

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