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Chapter I: Introduction: Energy Sources

There are many different ways in which the abundance of energy around us can

be stored, converted, and amplified for our use. To help understand the key energy

sources that will play an important role in the world‟s future, it is required to familiarize with

some of the history, theory, economics, and problems of the various types of energy.

The energy sources have been split into three categories: fossil fuels, renewable

sources, and nuclear sources. The fossil fuels here are coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

The renewable energy sources are solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, and geothermal

power. The nuclear-powered sources are fission and fusion.

1.1 Types of Fuels

There are different types of fuels used for generation. The following are:

1.1.1 Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels have been a widely used source of energy ever since the Industrial

Revolution just before the dawn of the 20th century. Fossil fuels are relatively easy to use

to generate energy because they only require a simple direct combustion. However, a

problem with fossil fuels is their environmental impact. Not only does their excavation from

the ground significantly alter the environment, but their combustion leads to a great deal of

air pollution.

The theory behind fossil fuels is actually quite simple. Burning coal, natural gas,

and petroleum releases energy stored in the fuel as heat. The energy contained by the

fuels is derived from the energy of the sun.

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The heat that is recovered upon combustion of the fuel can be used by us in

several ways. Industrial processes that require extremely high temperatures may burn a

great deal of very pure coal known as “coke” and use the energy released to directly heat

a system. Some people make use of clean burning natural gas to heat their homes.

Combustion of fossil fuels can also be used to generate electricity; the fuel is burned to

heat water, and the steam from the boiling water spins turbines that power a generator,

thereby manufacturing electricity:

Figure 1. Steam Power Generator.

1.1.2 Coal

About 300 million years ago, enormous ferns and other prehistoric plants were

common on the swamp-like earth. When those plants died and fell to the ground, they

were covered with water and they slowly decomposed. As decomposition took place in the

absence of oxygen, much of the hydrogen content of the matter was eroded away, leaving

a material rich in carbon. The material was compressed over the years by sand and dirt,

leaving the form of carbon known as coal.

The nature of coal is such that the higher the carbon content, the more cleanly and

brilliantly the coal burns. Thus “peat”, which is the state of the decomposing plants before

being compressed, is a weak, impure substance. The other states of coal from lowest
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carbon content to highest are lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite coal. If the coal is

heated and compressed even more, the result is graphite, almost completely pure carbon.

Nearly all the different forms of coal are used in some way or another. For

instance, peat has been used for burning in furnaces, whereas bituminous coal is used

extensively for the generation of electricity. “Coke”, a very pure form of coal with high heat

content is used primarily in the steel industry, where high temperatures are required.

1.1.3. Pollution brought by the fuels used in generation of electricity.

Scientists believe that global warming is caused by the Greenhouse effect. The

greenhouse effect describes the accumulation of carbon dioxide in our earth‟s atmosphere.

A layer of gas forms that traps heat inside the atmosphere, thereby acting as the glass

ceiling of a greenhouse. Because heat is trapped by the carbon dioxide, it is believed that

the earth is slowly warming. A potential danger of global warming is the melting of the so-

called polar ice caps at the north and south poles. This occurrence would cause the ocean

level to rise and perhaps flood many coastal cities.

Before humans were around on the earth, there was a relatively even recycling of

carbon dioxide and oxygen. Plants require carbon dioxide to live, and they emit oxygen in

return. Animals, on the other hand, need oxygen, but exhale carbon dioxide. But as

humans began to burn fossil fuels to create energy (especially beginning just before the

20th century during the Industrial Revolution), more and more carbon dioxide was emitted

into the air until the balance was slowly destroyed.

All fossil fuels and biomasses consist of carbon and hydrogen atoms. When these

fuels are burned, or combusted, carbon atoms unite with oxygen in the air to form carbon

dioxide:
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Figure 2 : Structure of a Fossil Fuel.

Carbon dioxide is not the only byproduct of direct combustion of fuel. Small

particulates that can become imbedded in the human respiratory system are also emitted.

Particulates can cause coughing and damage to the lungs. Further, they can lead to

cancer and lung disease.

Carbon monoxide is produced when less oxygen is available in the immediate

area. Carbon monoxide is more directly harmful to humans because it is odorless,

colorless, and reduces the body‟s ability to transport oxygen. This leads to fatigue, nausea,

and headaches.

Materials on the low end of the energy scale such as wood and charcoal create

the most pollution. Sources on the high end of the energy scale, such as natural gas burn

very cleanly resulting in less air pollution.

1.2 Hydroelectric Power Generation System

Man has utilized the power of water for years. Much of the growth of early colonial

industry can be attributed to hydropower. Because fuel such as coal and wood were not
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readily available to inland cities, settlers were forced to turn to other alternatives. Falling

water was ideal for powering sawmills and grist mills.

As coal became a better-developed source of fuel, however, the importance of

hydropower decreased.

1.2.1 Theory

Hydroelectric systems make use of the energy in running water to create

electricity. In coal and natural gas systems, a fossil fuel is burned to heat water. The steam

pressure from the boiling water turns propellers called turbines. These turbines spin coils

of wire between magnets to produce electricity. Hydro powered systems also make use of

turbines to generate electrical power; however, they do so by using the energy in moving

water to spin the turbines.

Water has kinetic energy when it flows from higher elevations to lower elevations.

The energy spins turbines like as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Spinning Process of Turbine.

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In larger scale hydroelectric plants, large volumes of water are contained by dams

near the generator and turbines. The “forebay” is a storage area for water that must be

deep enough that the penstock is completely submerged. The water is allowed to flow into

the electricity-generating system through a passage called the penstock. The controlled

high-pressure water spins the turbines, allowing the generator to produce an electric

current. The powerhouse contains and protects the equipment for generating electricity.

The high-pressure water exits the system through a draft tube. The fish ladder attempts to

minimize the environmental impact of hydroelectric systems by providing a path for

migrating fish to take.

1.2.2 Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants

The different types of hydro-electric power plants are the following:

1.2.2.1 Micro-Scale

As their name implies, micro-hydroelectric plants are the smallest type of

hydroelectric energy systems. They generate between one kilowatt and one megawatt of

power. The main application for these hydro systems is in small, isolated villages in

developing countries. They are ideal for powering smaller services such as the operation

of processing machines.

1.2.2.2 Small-Scale

Small hydropower systems can supply up to 20 megawatts of energy. These

systems are relatively inexpensive and reliable. They have the potential to provide

electricity to rural areas in developing countries throughout the world. Small systems are
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especially important to countries that may not be able to afford the costs of importing fossil

fuels such as petroleum from other countries.

1.2.2.3 Run-of-the-River

In some areas of the world, the flow rate and elevation drops of the water are

consistent enough that hydroelectric plants can be built directly in the river. The water

passes through the plant without greatly changing the flow rate of the river. In many

instances a dam is not required, and therefore the hydroelectric plant causes minimal

environmental impact on its surroundings. However, one problem with run-of-the-river

plants is the obstruction of fish and other aquatic animals. This and other problems are

discussed in the next section.

1.2.2.4 Problems with Hydroelectric Power

Although hydroelectric power is admittedly one of the cleanest and most

environmentally-friendly sources of energy, it too has the capability to alter or damage its

surroundings. Among the main problems that have been demonstrated by hydroelectric

power is significant change in water quality. Because of the nature of hydroelectric

systems, the water often takes on a higher temperature, loses oxygen content,

experiences siltation, and gains in phosphorus and nitrogen content.

Another major problem is the obstruction of the river for aquatic life. Salmon, which

migrate upstream to spawn every year, are especially impacted by hydroelectric dams.

Fortunately, this problem has been dealt with by the production of fish ladders. These

structures provide a pathway for fish to navigate past the hydroelectric dam construction.
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1.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of the hydro-electric power plant

`Advantages of the hydro-electric power plant:

--relatively useful levels of energy production

n be used throughout the world

Disadvantages of the hydro-electric power plant:

-of-the-River plants can impact the mobility of fish and other river life.

Note : Building a fish ladder can lessen this negative aspect of hydroelectric power.

1.3 Solar Power Generation System

The name solar power is actually a little misleading. In fact, most of the energy

known to man is derived in some way from the sun. When we burn wood or other fuels, it

releases the stored energy of the sun. In fact, there would be no life on earth without the

sun, which provides energy needed for the growth of plants, and indirectly, the existence of

all animal life. The solar energy scientists are interested in energy obtained through the

use of solar panels. Although the field of research dealing with this type of solar power is

relatively new, one should bear in mind that man has known about the energy of the sun

for thousands of years.

1.3.1 Theory
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The energy of the sun can be used in many ways. When plants grow, they store

the energy of the sun. Then, when we burn those plants, the energy is released in the form

of heat. This is an example of indirect use of solar energy.

The form we are interested in is directly converting the sun‟s rays into a usable

energy source : electricity. This is accomplished through the use of “solar collectors”, or, as

they are more commonly known as, “solar panels”.

There are two ways in which solar power can be converted to energy. The first,

known as “solar thermal applications”, involve using the energy of the sun to directly heat

air or a liquid.

The second, known as “photoelectric applications”, involve the use of photovoltaic

cells to convert solar energy directly to electricity.

There are two types of solar thermal collectors. The first, known as flat plate

collectors, contain absorber plates that use solar radiation to heat a carrier fluid, either a

liquid like oil or water, or air. Because these collectors can heat carrier fluids to around

80oC, they are suited for residential applications. The second type of solar collectors is

known as concentrating collectors. These panels are intended for larger-scale applications

such as air conditioning, where more heating potential is required. The rays of the sun

from a relatively wide area are focused into a small area by means of reflective mirrors,

and thus the heat energy is concentrated. This method has the potential to heat liquids to a

much higher temperature than flat plate collectors can alone. The heat from the

concentrating collectors can be used to boil water. The steam can then be used to power

turbines attached to generators and produce electricity, as in wind and hydroelectric power

systems.
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Photovoltaic cells depend on semiconductors such as silicon to directly convert

solar energy to electricity. Because these types of cells are low-maintenance, they are best

suited for remote applications.

Solar power has an exciting future ahead of it. Because solar power utilizes the

sun's light, a ubiquitous resource (a resource that is everywhere), solar panels can be

attached to moving objects, such as automobiles, and can even be used to power those

objects. Solar powered cars are being experimented with more and more frequently now.

1.3.2 Problems with Solar Power

Solar power is actually one of the cleanest methods of energy production known.

Because solar panels simply convert the energy of the sun into energy that mankind can

use, there are no harmful byproducts or threats to the environment.

One major concern is the cost of solar power. Solar panels (accumulators) are not

cheap; and because they are constructed from fragile materials (semiconductors, glass,

etc.), they must constantly be maintained and often replaced.

Further, since each photovoltaic panel has only about 40% efficiency, single solar

panels are not sufficient power producers. However, this problem has been offset by the

gathering together of many large panels acting in accord to produce energy. Although this

setup takes up much more space, it does generate much more power.

1.3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Power Plant

Advantages of the solar power plant:

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as solar cars and satellites.

Disadvantages of solar power plant:

energy production – large numbers of solar panels (and

thus large land areas) are required to produce useful amounts of heat or electricity.

1.4 Wind Power Generation System

Mankind has made use of wind power since ancient times. Wind has powered

boats and other sea craft for years. Further, the use of windmills to provide power for the

accomplishment of agricultural tasks has contributed to the growth of civilization. This

important renewable energy source is starting to be looked at again as a possible source

of clean, cheap energy for years to come.

1.4.1 Theory

Differences in atmospheric pressure due to differences in temperature are the

main cause of wind. Because warm air rises, when air fronts of different temperatures

come in contact, the warmer air rises over the colder air, causing the wind to blow.

Wind generators take advantage of the power of wind. Long blades, or rotors,

catch the wind and spin. Like in hydroelectric systems, the spinning movement is

transformed into electrical energy by a generator.

The placement of wind systems is extremely important. In order for a wind-

powered system to be effective, a relatively consistent wind-flow is required. Obstructions

such as trees or hills can interfere with the rotors. Because of this, the rotors are usually
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placed atop towers to take advantage of the stronger winds available higher up.

Furthermore, wind speed varies with temperature, season, and time of day. All these

factors must be considered when choosing a site for a wind-powered generator.

Another important part of wind systems is the battery. Since wind does not always

blow consistently, it is important that there be a backup system to provide energy. When

the wind is especially strong, the generator can store extra energy in a battery.

There are certain minimal speeds at which the wind needs to blow. For small

turbines it is 8 miles an hour. Large plants require speeds of 13 miles an hour.

1.4.2 Remote

Remote systems are small, relatively cheap sources of energy. They are best

suited for rural environments because they can be left unattended for long periods of time.

Further, they can operate under harsh conditions, and thus have potential for powering

extremely remote regions

1.4.3 Hybrid

The very nature of wind-powered generators makes them ideal to use in

conjunction with other sources of energy. Wind and solar generators have been extremely

successful as supplements to one another. The presence of the wind generator means

that the other energy source does not have to be producing as much of the time.

1.4.4 Grid Connected

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Grid Connected systems are already in wide use in areas that are already hooked

up to a utility grid. Their main use is as a supplement to other forms of energy. This is

important because average wind turbines only generate electricity about 25% of the time

1.4.5 Utilities

Because individual wind-powered systems by themselves do not produce a great

deal of energy, so-called wind farms have been developed. These collections of many

wind generators gathered in one place provide a source of relatively high energy output.

1.4.6 Problems

One of the main problems with wind power is the space that is used up by the so-

called wind farms. In some cases, the space taken up can seriously alter the environment.

The good news is that although wind farms require a great deal of square mileage,

there is quite a bit of space between the actual wind machines. This space can be used for

agricultural purposes.

Another problem with wind power is that relatively speaking, it does not generate

very much energy for the price. Perhaps this setback is made up for in friendliness to the

environment.

1.4.7 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of wind power plant:

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nt to other renewable sources.

Disadvantages of wind power plant:

– large numbers of wind generators

(and thus large land areas) are required to produce useful amounts of heat or electricity.

1.5 Geothermal Power Generation System

The center of the earth can reach 12000 degrees Fahrenheit. Just imagine if we

could tap that heat for our own use. Well, geothermal systems do just that. Convection

(heat) currents travel quite near the surface in some parts of the world.

1.5.1 Theory

The earth‟s crust is heated by the decay of radioactive elements. The heat is

carried by magma or water beneath the earth's surface. Some of the heat reaches the

surface and manifests itself in geysers and hot springs throughout the world.

Geothermal power can be used to directly heat buildings. Further, the pressurized

steam from superheated water beneath the earth‟s surface can be used to power turbines

and thus generate electricity.

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Figure 4. Geothermal Energy Process.

Although geothermal power seems ideal in that it is naturally occurring and does

not require structures to trap or collect the energy (as in solar panels or windmills), it does

have limitations. The greatest drawback is that naturally occurring geothermal vents are

not widely available. Artificial vents have been successfully drilled in the ground to reach

the hot rocks below and then injected with water for the production of steam. However,

oftentimes the source of heat is far too deep for this method to work well. Nor can

geothermal power realistically generate enough electricity for the entire country or any

large industrialized nation. A good-sized hot spring can power at most a moderate sized

city of around 50,000 people. And there just isn‟t enough viable hot springs to power all the

cities in any large country.

1.5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of geothermal power plant:

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es such as solar panels or windmills to collect the energy – can

be directly used to heat or produce electricity (thus very cheap).

Disadvantages of geothermal power plant:

1.6 Ocean Energy Power Generation System

Types of ocean energy power generation system are the following:

1.6.1 Tidal Energy

Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun, and the rotation of

the earth. Near shore, water levels can vary up to 40 feet. Only a few locations have good

inlets and a large enough tidal range- about 10 feet- to produce energy economically. The

simplest generation system for tidal plants involves a dam, known as a barrage, across an

inlet. Sluice gates on the barrage allow the tidal basin to fill on the incoming high tides and

to empty through the turbine system on the outgoing tide, also known as the ebb tide.

There are two-way systems that generate electricity on both the incoming and outgoing

tides.
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Figure 5. Tidal Energy.

Tidal barrages can change the tidal level in the basin and increase turbidity in the

water. It can also affect navigation and recreation. Potentially the largest disadvantage of

tidal power is the effect a tidal station can have on plants and animals in the estuaries.

Tidal fences can also harness the energy of tides. A tidal fence has vertical axis

turbines mounted in a fence. All the water that passes is forced through the turbines. They

can be used in areas such as channels between two landmasses. Tidal fences have less

impact on the environment than tidal barrages although they can disrupt the movement of

large marine animals. They are cheaper to install than tidal barrages too.

Tidal turbines are a new technology that can be used in many tidal areas. They

are basically wind turbines that can be located anywhere there is strong tidal flow.

Because water is about 800 times denser than air, tidal turbines will have to be much
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sturdier than wind turbines. They will be heavier and more expensive to build but will be

able to capture more energy.

1.6.2 Wave Energy

Waves are caused by the wind blowing over the surface of the ocean. There is

tremendous energy in the ocean waves. The total power of waves breaking around the

world‟s coastlines is estimated at 2-3 million megawatts. The west coasts of the US and

Europe and the coasts of Japan and New Zealand are good sites for harnessing wave

energy.

One way to harness wave energy is to bend or focus the waves into a narrow

channel, increasing their power and size. The waves can then be channeled into a catch

basin or used directly to spin turbines. There are no big commercial wave energy plants,

but there are a few small ones. Small, on-shore sites have the best potential for the

immediate future; they could produce enough energy to power local communities. Japan,

which imports almost all of its fuel, has an active wave-energy program.

Figure 6: Wave Energy

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1.7 Nuclear Energy Power Generation System

In a universe, energy and matter have a common origin. None the energy nor the

matter can be created or destroyed; instead they just change their state. As well, they are

convertible to each other.

Albert Einstein was the first man who explained this relation by the well known

formula :

E  mC 2

This equation defines :

E (Energy) equals to m (mass) times C2 (C stands for speed of light).

By looking in close, we may find the enormous energy exist in a small piece of

material.

The name of atom comes from Greek language, referring to smallest part of nature.

Nowadays we have a better knowledge on atom structure, and we know a

nucleus, surrounded by electrons, form the atoms. This structure is somehow similar to our

solar system.

1.7.1 Nuclear Fission

Any try for splitting apart a nucleus will cause a tremendous energy be released.

This energy would be released in both forms of heat and light.

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In a harnessed, controlled way of doing this, a useful energy for producing

electricity is possible. Doing this at once would result to a big explosion, as seen in an

automatic bomb.

In a nuclear power plant, uranium is the element used as fuel. Uranium is found in

many parts of the world but in a low quantity. It is loaded in to the reactor in a tiny pallet

form inside long rods.

Fission meaning splitting a part is what happens in a reactor. Here uranium atoms

are split in a paced controlled chain of reactions.

Inside a reactor the intensity of crashes are harnessed by inserting-taking of

control roads.

In an atomic bomb a different process occurs, by using almost pure pieces of elements-

uranium 235 or plutonium, in a precise mass and shape, burning them together in a great

force. As we see there is no requisite like this in a reactor.

Byproducts of such reactions are radioactive materials. If released, they would be

gravely harmful. Knowing this, strong structures must keep the materials in the case of any

accident.

The released heat energy would be used for boiling water in the core of reactor. So instead

of burning fuel, we may use the heat of reactor core.

By sending the hot water around the nuclear to the heat exchanger section, water

filled pipes produce steam needed for steam turbine.

1.7.2 Nuclear Fusion

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In another form of nuclear reaction, joining of smaller nuclei makes a larger

nucleus. Such a process in sun changes the hydrogen atoms to helium. The result heat

and light we receive in earth.

In a more detailed explanation, two different types of atoms, deuterium and tritium,

combine to make a helium plus and extra particle called neutron.

There has been a fierce competition among scientists, but to their frustration, they

have yet trouble in controlling reaction in a closed space.

The advantage of fusion is its abundance of supply (hydrogen) as well as its less

radioactive material than fission.

1.8 Classification of Power Plants

Power plants are classified by the type of fuel and the type of prime mover

installed.

1.8.1 By Fuel

transforms thermal energy, often from combustion of a fuel, into rotational energy

Natural gas fired plants may use a combustion turbine.

ed from hot underground rocks.

waste, landfill methane, or other forms of biomass.

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egrated steel mills, blast furnace exhaust gas is a low-cost, although low-energy-

density, fuel.

power generation, usually in a steam boiler and turbine.

1.8.2 By Prime Mover

of a turbine.

-gas

fuelled turbine plants can start rapidly and so are used to supply peak energy during

periods of high demand, though at higher cost than base-loaded plants.

and steam turbine which use the exhaust gas from the gas turbine to produce electricity.

This greatly increases the overall efficiency of the plant, and most new base load power

plants are combined cycle plants fired by natural gas.

communities and are frequently used for small cogeneration plants. Hospitals, office

buildings, industrial plants, and other critical facilities also use them to provide backup

power in case of a power outage. These are usually fuelled by diesel oil, heavy oil, natural

gas and landfill gas.

solutions for using opportunity fuels, such as landfill gas, digester gas from water treatment

plants and waste gas from oil production.

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1.8.2.1 Steam Turbine Power Station

The conversion from coal to electricity takes place in three stages :

Stage 1

The first conversion of energy takes place in the boiler. Coal is burnt in the boiler

furnace to produce heat. Carbon in the coal and Oxygen in the air combine to produce

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and heat.

Figure 7. Steam Turbine Power Station

Stage 2

The second stage is the thermodynamic process:

(a) The heat from combustion of the coal boils water in the boiler to produce steam. In

modern power plant, boilers produce steam at a high pressure and temperature.

(b) The steam is then piped to a turbine.

(c) The high pressure steam impinges and expands across a number of sets of blades in

the turbine.
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(d) The impulse and the thrust created rotate the turbine.

(e) The steam is then condensed and pumped back into the boiler to repeat the cycle.

Stage 3

In the third stage, rotation of the turbine rotates the generator rotor to produce

electricity based of Faraday‟s Principle on electromagnetic induction.

1.8.2.2 Gas Turbine Power Station

The schematic arrangement of a gas turbine power plant is shown in Figure 8. The

main components of plants are:

arting motor
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Figure 8: Gas Turbine Power Station.

Compressor

The compressor used in the plant is generally of rotatory type. The air at

atmospheric pressure is drawn by the compressor via the filter which removes the dust

from the air. The rotatory blades of the compressor push the air between stationary blades

to raise its pressure. Thus air at high pressure is available at the output of the compressor.

Regenerator

A regenerator is a device which recovers heat from the exhaust gases of the

turbine. The exhaust is passed through the regenerator before wasting to atmosphere. A

regenerator consists of a nest of tubes contained in a shell. The compressed air from the
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compressor passes through the tubes on its way to the combustion chamber. In this way

compressor is heated by the hot exhaust gases.

Combustion Chamber

The air at high pressure from the compressor is led to the combustion chamber via

the regenerator. In the combustion chamber, heat is added to the air by burning oil. The oil

is injected through the burner into the chamber at high pressure ensure atomization of oil

and its thorough mixing with air. The result is that the chamber attains a very high

temperature. The combustion gases are suitably cooled and then delivered to gas turbine.

Gas Turbine

The products of combustion consisting of a mixture of gases at high temperature

and pressure are passed to the gas turbine. These gases in passing over the turbine

blades expand and thus do the mechanical work. The temperature of the exhaust gases

from the turbine is about 900oF.

Alternator

The gas turbine is coupled into the alternator. The alternator converts the

mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical energy. The output of the alternator is

given to the bus-bars through transformers, isolators and circuit breakers.

Starting Motor

Before starting the turbine, compressor has to be started. For this purpose, an

electric motor is mounted on the same shaft as that of the turbine. The motor is energized

by the batteries. Once the unit starts, a part of the mechanical power of the turbine drives

the compressor and there is no need of the motor now.

Internal Combustion Engines Plant

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It is a plant in which the prime mover is an internal combustion engine. An internal

combustion engine has one or more cylinders in which the process of combustion takes

place, converting energy released from the rapid burning of a fuel-air mixture into

mechanical energy. Diesel or gas-fired engines are the principal types used in electric

plants. The plant is usually operated during periods of high demand for electricity.
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Exercises:

Student: ___________________ Score: ____________________

Course: ___________________ Date: ___________________

Answer the following question.

(a) What are the various sources of energy?

(b) Describe the different types of power plants.

(c) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of different power plants.

(d) Explain the various components of gas turbine power plant.

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Chapter II: Load Determination and Load Graphs

Energy is the basic necessity for the economic development of a country. Many

functions necessary to present-day living comes to halt when supply of electrical energy

stops. Modern country is so much dependent upon the use of electrical energy that it has

become a part and parcel of our life. The survival of industrial undertakings and our social

structure depends upon low cost and uninterrupted supply of electric energy.

The most common method of generating energy is by means of electric machine

generally called generator or alternator. These machines converts mechanical energy to

electrical energy when coupled to a prime mover.

The total power requirement of a generating station is estimated through a

knowledge of the variation of the load with time.

The load curve is the curve plotted by placing the ordinates (kW) in their proper

time sequences. The load curves are plotted for each 24-Hr day by taking the average

load on hourly bases.

From the load curve the following information can be determined

a. Maximum load of the station

b. Size of generating units to be installed

c. Operating schedule of the station

The area under the load curve measures the total energy consumed by the load

during the day.

The load duration curve represents the load vs time with the ordinates arranged in

the magnitude sequence, with the greatest load on the left, lesser loads towards the right,

and least load at the extreme right.

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Load energy curve represents the total amount of energy in kW-hrs generated for

a particular load on the station.

The most commonly used terms in system operation are defined below

Firm power – ii is the power intended to be always available

Cold reserve – it is that reserve generating capacity which is available for service but is not

in operation

Hot reserve – it is that reserve generating capacity which is in operation but is not in

service

Spinning reserve – it is that generating capacity which is connected to bus and is ready to

take load

Connected load – it is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipment connected to the

supply system

Maximum demand – it is the greatest demand of load on power station during a given

period

Demand factor – it is the ratio of maximum demand on the power station to its connected

load, i.e.

maximum demand
Demand Factor =
connected load

Average load – the average loads occurring on the power station in a given period is

known as average demand

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energy(kWh) generated in a day

Daily average load =
24 hours

Energy generated in a month

Monthly average load =
No. of hours in a month

energy generated in a year

Yearly average load =
8760 hours

Load factor – the ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period is

known as load factor

Average load
Load factor =
maximum demand

Diversity factor – the ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum

demand on the power station is known as diversity factor

Sum of individual maximum demands

Diversity factor =
Maximum demand on power station

Actual energy produced

Capacity factor =
Maximum energy that could have been produced

Average demand
=
Plant capacity

Reserve capacity = plant capacity – maximum demand

 32

Utilization Factor(Plant Use Factor) – it is the ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant

capacity and the number of hours for which the plant was in operation.

Station output in kWh

Plant use factor =
Plant capacity  hours of use

Base load – the unvarying load which occurs almost the whole day on the station is known

as base load

Peak load – the various peak demands of load over and above the base load of the station

is known as peak load

Energy exists in various forms like mechanical energy, electrical energy, thermal

energy and so on. On form of energy can be converted into another form by suitable

arrangements. Out of these forms, electrical energy is preferred due to the following

reasons:

a. It can be easily transported form one form to another.

b. Losses in energy transportation are minimum.

c. It can be easily controlled and regulated to suit requirements.

d. It can be easily converted into other forms of energy particularly mechanical and

thermal .

e. It can be easily subdivided.

Examples:

1. A power station has annul factors as follows:

 33

Load factor = 50%, capacity factor = 40%, use factor = 45%. The power station has a

maximum demand of 18 MW. Determine plants annual energy production.

Solution:

total kW  hr generated in a year

Load factor 
Max demand in kW  8760

kW  hr generated in a year
0.50 
18000  8760

Annual energy production = 0.50  18000  8760

= 78.84  106 kW-hr.

2. A steam power station has a coal consumption of 0.54 kg/kW-hr and a load factor of

50%. If the heating value of coal is 6400 kcal/kg, determine the thermal efficiency, the

energy generated per annum and the coal consumption per annum. Max demand is

20000 kW.

Solution:

860  100
Thermal eff. =
kg kcal
coal comsumption in  heating value in
kW  hr kg

860  100
=  24.8%
0.54  6400

Total energy generated = load factor  max demand  8760

= 0.50  20000 8760  87.6 106 kW  hr

 34

kg
Coal consumption per annum = 87.6  106 kW  hr  0.54
kW  hr

= 47.3  106 kg

3. A power plant consumes 4000 tons of coal per day ( 1 ton = 2000lb). If coal has an

average energy content of 11500 BTU per lb, what is the plant‟s output if the plants

overall efficiency is 15%.

Solution:

 lb  BTU
 4000  2000    11500
Coal power in BTU per hr =  day  lb
hrs
24
day

BTU
= 3.83  109
hr

BTU
3.83  109
In kW, coal power = hr  1.1225  106 kW
BTU
3412
hr  kW

Coal power in MW = 1122.5 MW

At 15% efficiency

Output = 1121.5 0.15  168.4MW

 35

Exercises:

Student: ___________________ Score: ____________________

Course: ___________________ Date: ___________________

Solve the following problems.

1. A power station has annul factors as follows:

Load factor = 50%, capacity factor = 40%, use factor = 45%. The power station has a

maximum demand of 18 MW. Determine the difference between reserve capacity and

the peak load.

2. A power station has annul factors as follows:

Load factor = 50%, capacity factor = 40%, use factor = 45%. The power station has a

maximum demand of 18 MW. Determine the number of hours per year the plant is not

in service.

3. The monthly readings of a consumer meter are as follows:

Maximum demand = 60kW

Energy consumed = 24000 kW-hr

Reactive energy = 15600 kVAR-hr

Determine the load power factor and load factor.

4. A power plant has a maximum demand of 20 MW. If the load factor of the plant is 55%

and its capacity factor 50%, what is its reserve capacity?

 36

Chapter III: Steam Power Stations

This type of station is most suitable where coal is available in abundance and a large

amount of power is to be generated. In a steam power station the coal is fired in the boiler

where water gets converted into steam at a high pressure and temperature which is used

to run steam engines or turbines. The turbine acts as a prime mover of the alternator which

generates electrical power. The turbine may be coupled directly or through gear. The

estimation of overall thermal efficiency of the station is necessary in order to know whether

the station is working efficiently or not.

3.1 Overall Thermal Efficiency

The heat of combustion of coal fired in the boiler is not wholly converted into

electrical energy as there are heat losses in the boiler and turbine and also mechanical

and electrical losses in the alternator. The overall thermal efficiency of the station depends

upon the efficiencies of boiler, turbine and alternator. It is given by the expression

Overall thermal efficiency =

Heat equivalent per kWh

Amount of coal consumed per kWh Caloric value of coal

Heat equivalent per kWh is derived below in various units:

1. Heat equivalent per kWh(MKS units)

1kWh = 3600  1000 watts-secs

= 3.6  106 joules

1 calorie = 4.18 joules

3.6  106
1 kWh =  8.6  105 calories
4.18
 37

= 860 kilo-calories

2. Heat equivalent per kWh(BTU)

1 BTU = 252 calories = 252 103 kilo-calories

103
Kilo-calorie = BTU
252

103
1 kWh =  860 BTU
252

= 3,412 BTU

Heat or caloric value of coal is the amount of heat produced by complete

combustion of a unit weight of coal and is expressed in BTU per lb of coal.

In metric units the caloric value is expressed in kilo-calories per kgm. The caloric

value in various units is related as:

1 kilo-calorie/kgm = 1 calorie/gm

A larger unit of energy is the quad, which means quadrillion British Thermal Unit.

1quad = 1015 BTU = 1.005  1015 joules

A good quality of coal has a heat value ranging from 11500 to 12000 BTU/lb (or

about 6400 to 6700 kcal/kgm). Depending upon the units in which caloric value of coal is

given, the overall thermal efficiency of the station may be written as:

% Overall Thermal Efficiency

3,412  100
=
Coal consumed in lbs per kWh  Caloric value of coal in BTU / lb
 38

Alternatively (in MKS units)

% Overall Thermal Efficiency

860  100
=
Coal consumed in kgm per kWh  Caloric value of coal in kcal / kgm

In modern steam power station the overall thermal efficiency is about 30%.

Another term used in connection with steam power station is the “STATION HEAT

RATE” which is defined as the heat energy in fuel used divided by the station output in

kWh and is expressed in BTU/kWh or kcal/kWh. The station heat rate gives us an idea of

the performance of the power station and is related to the overall thermal efficiency by the

following formula:

3412  100
Station heat rate (BTU/kWh) =
% overall thermal efficiency

Alternatively (in MKS units)

860  100
Station heat rate (kcal/kWh) = 860 
% overall thermal efficiency

3.1.1 Steam Power Plant

Layout

The layout of a modern steam power plant comprises of the following four circuits:

1. Coal and as circuit

2. Feed water and steam flow circuit

3. Ash and gas circuit

 39

4. Cooling water circuit

3.1.1.1 Coal and Ash Circuit

Coal arrives at the storage yard and after necessary landing, passes on to the

furnaces through the fuel feeding device. Ash resulting from combustion of coal collects at

the back of the boiler and is removed to the ash storage yard through ash handling

equipment.

3.1.1.2 Ash and Gas Circuit

Ash is taken in from atmosphere through the action of a forced or induced draught

and passes on to the furnace through the air preheater, where it has been heated by the

heat of flue gases which pass to the chimney via the preheater. The flue gases after

passing around boiler tubes and superheater tubes in the furnace pass, through a dust

catching device or precipitator, the through the economizer, and finally the air preheater

before being exhausted to the atmosphere.

3.1.1.3 Feed Water and Steam flow Circuit

In the water and steam circuit condensate leaving the condenser is first heated in

a closed feed water heater through extracted steam from the lowest pressure extraction

point of the turbine. It then passes through the deaerator and a few more water heaters

before going into the boiler through economizer.

In the boiler drum and tubes, water circulates due to the difference between the

density of water in the lower temperature and the higher temperature sections of the boiler.

Wet steam from the drum is further heated up in the superheater for being supplied to the
 40

prime mover. After expanding in high pressure turbine steam in taken to the reheat boiler

(not shown) and brought to its original dryness or superheated before being passed on to

the low pressure turbine. From there ii is exhausted through the condenser into the hot

well. The condensate is heated in the feed heaters using the steam trapped from different

points of turbine.

A part of steam and water is lost while passing through different components and

this is compensated in it. The water may be taken from a natural source such as river, lake

or sea or the same water may be cooled and circulated once again. In the latter case the

cooling arrangement is made through spray pond or cooling lower.

3.1.3 Components of a Modern Steam Power Plant

A modern steam power plant comprises of the following components:

1. Bioler

(a) Superheater

(b) Reheater

(c) Economizer

(d) Air-heater

2. Steam turbine

3. Generators

4. Condenser

5. Cooling towers

6. Circulating water pump

7. Boiler feed pump

8. Wagon tippler
 41

9. Crusher house

10. Coal mill

11. Induced draught fans

12. Ash precipitators

13. Boiler chimney

14. Forced draught

15. Water treatment plant

16. Control room

17. Switch yard

Functions of some important parts of a steam power plant:

1. Boiler – water is converted into wet steam

2. Superheater – it converts wet steam into superheated steam

3. Turbine – steam at high pressure expands in the turbine and drives the generator

4. Condenser – it condenses steam used by the steam turbine. The condensed steam

(known as condensate) is used as feed water.

5. Cooling tower – it cools the condenser circulating water. Condenser cooling water

absorbs heat from steam. This heat is discharged to atmosphere in cooling water.

6. Condenser circulating water pump – it circulates water through the condenser and the

cooling tower.

7. Feed water pump – it pumps water in the water tubes of boiling against boiler steam

pressure.

8. Economizer – in economizer heat in flue gases is partially used to heat incoming feed

water.
 42

9. Air preheater – in air preheater heat in flue gases (the products of combustion) is

partially used to heat incoming air.

Examples:

1. A 20 MW steam power station has a coal consumption of 0.52 kg/kW-hr. The heating

value of coal is 6400 kcal/kg. What is the thermal efficiency of the plant?

Solution:

860  100
Thermal eff. =  25.84%
0.52  6400 

2. A steam power station has a coal consumption of 0.54 kg/kW-hr and a load factor of

50%. If the heating value of coal is 6400 kcal/kg, determine the thermal efficiency, the

energy generated per annum and the coal consumption per annum. Maximum

demand is 20000 kW.

Solution:

860  100
Thermal eff. =
kg kcal
coal consumption in  heating value in
kW  hr kg

860  100
=  24.8%
0.54  6400

Total energy generated = load factor  max demand  8760

= 0.50  20000  8760  87.6  106 kW  hr

kg
Coal consumption per annum = 87.6  106 kW  hr  0.54
kW  hr

= 47.3  106 kg
 43

Exercises:

Student: ___________________ Score: ____________________

Course: ___________________ Date: ___________________

Solve the following problems.

1. A power plant consumes 4000 tons of coal per day ( 1 ton = 2000 lb). If coal has an

average energy content of 11500 BTU per lb, what is the plant‟s output if the plants

overall efficiency is 15%.

2. A thermal plant has a capacity of 800 kW and has a coal consumption of 1900 lbs per

hour. If the heating value of coal is 9500 BTU/lb, what percent of coal power generated

is converted to useful energy?

3. A power plant consumes 4200 tons of coal a day. If the coal has an average energy

content of 12000 BTU per lb, determine the plant‟s output if its overall efficiency is

18%. (1 ton = 2000 lb)

4. The daily coal consumption of power plant is 4800 tons. If the overall efficiency of the

plant is 20%, what is the plant‟s output in MW if the heating value of coal is 12000 BTU

per lb?
 44

Chapter IV: Hydro-electric Power Stations

In a hydro-electric power station the potential energy of water at a high level is utilized

for generation of electrical energy. The water drives a water turbine to which the generator

is coupled. The various types of hydro-electric plants used are:

1. Run of river plant

In this type of plant the whole water of stream is allowed to pass through the turbine

for development of power. They utilized the water as and when available; so there is more

power available in rainy season that in dry season. Such type of plants are not much in

use.

2. Storage plant

In such plants we have poundage or storage behind the dam and always a regulated

supply of water is allowed to pass through the turbine so that power output is constant

throughout the year.

3. Pumped storage plant

In these plants water is pumped at a high reservoir at off-peak periods and is utilized

to drive turbines and generate power when the peak of the system occurs.

4.1 Types of turbines

The hydraulic prime mover called „turbine‟ may be classified as (a) Impulse turbine

or Pelton wheel and (b) reaction turbine (Francis and Kaplan turbine). In case of Impulse

turbine a jet of water is made to fall on the blades or buckets and due to impulse of water

the turbine starts moving. In case of reaction turbine the blades move due to pressure

difference on the two sides, i.e., between incoming water and exhaust. The water may flow

radially or axially.
 45

Important characteristics of turbine is its “specific speed” which is defined as the

speed of a geometrically similar turbine working under unit head delivering unit power. The

specific speed (Ns) in British unit is given according to the formula

Ns  N Hp / H5/4

Where

N = rotational speed in RPM

H = head of water in feet

Hp = horse power of the wheel

In metric unit the specific speed is obtained by expressing H in meters (1 ft =

0.3048 m) and HP in metric units ( 1 metric Hp = 0.986 British Hp)

Therefore, specific speed (metric units)

Ns  
 N Hp / 0.986 /  0.3048H
5/4

 4.4  N Hp / Hp5/4

Ns  4.4  specific speed(British unit)

Thus specific speed in metric units is 4.4 times the specific speed in British unit.

For geometrically similar turbines the following equations together with specific speed

equations are used to compare the turbine performance.

Q1 / N1D13 = Q2 / N2D23 = constant

And

H1 / N12D12 = H2 / N22D22 = constant

 46

Where D1 and D2 are diameters of runners, H1 and H2 are head of water at

turbine inlet and Q1 and Q 2 are discharges of two similar turbines 1 and 2 respectively.

The value of constant depends upon the units taken, i.e., British or metric units.

4.2 Choice of Turbines

The choice of water turbine for a hydro-electric power station is decided by the head of

water to be used and the specific speed. The types of turbines used and their suitable

head of water and specific speed ranges are given below:

Types of Turbines Head of water for which Range of specific speed

used (British unit)

a) Propeller or Kaplan Up to 150 ft or 45 m 200 to 120

turbine

b) Reaction or Francis type Up to 500 ft or 150 m 120 to 20

c) Impulse or Pelton wheel 500 to 1,000 ft or about 150 20 to 10

m to 300 m

4.2.1 Calculation of HP(British) and kW Power

Let

Q= discharge in cu. ft.

H= net head of water in ft.

 overall efficiency of hydro-station expressed as a fraction

 47

Since 1 cu. ft. of water weighs = 62.4 lbs.

62.3Q.H. Q.H.
Work done per sec = 
550 8.8

Q.H.
kW power =  0.746
8.8

Q.H.
=
11.8

4.2.2 Calculation of HP(metric) and kW power

Let

Q= discharge in cu. m/sec.

H= het head of water in meters

 overall efficiency of hydro-station expressed as a fraction

Since 1 cu. m of water weights = 1,000 kg.

Work done per sec = 1,000 Q.H. kgm/sec

Now 1 metric HP = 75.9 kgm/sec

1,000Q.H.
HP developed =
75.9

1,000Q.H. 0.746
kW developed =
75.9  1,000

= 9.8Q.H.

4.2.3 Classification

Hydro-electric power stations may be classified as follows:

A. According to availability of head

The following figures give a rough idea of the heads under which the various types of

plants work:
 48

1. High head power plants 100 m and above

These types of plants work under heads ranging from 25 to 2000 meters. Water is

usually stored up in lakes on high mountains during the rainy season or during the season

when the snow melts. The rate of flow should be such that water can last throughout the

year.

2. Medium head power plants 30 to 100 m

When the operating head water lies between 30 to 100 meters, the power plant is

known as medium head power plants. This type of plant commonly uses Francis turbines.

The forebay provided at the beginning of the penstock serve as water reservoir. In such

plants, the water is generally carried in open canals from main reservoir to the forebay and

then to the powerhouse through the penstock. The forebay itself works as a surge tank in

this plant.

3. Low head power plants 25 to 80 m

These plants usually consist of a dam across a river. A sideway stream diverges from

the river at the dam. Over this stream the power house is constructed. Later this channel

joins the river further down the stream. This type of plants uses vertical shaft Francis

turbine or Kaplan turbine.

Note: it may be noted that figures above overlap each other. Therefore, it is difficult to

classify the plants directly on the basis of head alone. The basis, therefore, technically

adopted is the specific speed of the turbine used for a particular plant.

B. According to the nature of load

1. Base load plants

The plants which cater for the base load of the system is called base load plants.

These plants are required to supply a constant power when connected to the grid. Thus
 49

they run without stop and are often remote-controlled with which least staff is required for

such plants. Run-of-river plants without pondage may sometimes work as a base load

plant, but the firm capacity in such cases will be very much less.

2. Peak load plants

The plants which can supply the power during average load but also supply peak load

as and when it is there, whereas other peak load plants are required to work during peak

load hours only. The run-of-river plants may be made for the peak load by providing

pondage.

C. According to the quantity of water available

1. Run-of-river plant without pondage

A run-of-river plant without pondage, as the name indicates, does not store water and

uses the water as it comes. There is no control on flow of water so that during high floods

or low loads water is wasted while during low run-off the plant capacity is considerably

reduced. Due to non-uniformity of supply and lack of assistance from a firm capacity the

utility of these plants is much than those of other types. The head on which these plants

work varies considerably. Such a plant can be made a great deal more useful by providing

sufficient storage at the plant to take care of the hourly fluctuations in load. This lends

some firm capacity to the plant. During good flow conditions these plants may cater to

base load of the system, when flow reduces they may supply the peak demands. Head

water elevation for plants fluctuates with flow conditions. These plants without storage may

sometimes be made to supply the base load, but the firm capacity depends on the

minimum flow of river. The run-of-river plant may be made for load service with pondage,

though storage is usually seasonal.

 50

2. Run-of-river plant with pondage

Pondage usually refers to the collection of water behind a dam and the plant increases

the stream capacity for a short period, say a week. Storage mean a collection of water in

upstream reservoirs and this increases the capacity of the stream over an extended period

of several months. Storage plants may work satisfactorily as base load and peak load

plants. This type of plant, as compared to that without pondage, is more reliable and its

generating capacity is less dependent on the flow rates of water available.

3. Storage type plants

A storage type plant is one with reservoir of sufficiently large size to permit carry-over

storage from the wet season to the dry season, and thus to supply firm flow substantially

more than the minimum natural flow. This plant can be used as base load plant as well as

peak load plant as water is available with control as required. The majority of hydro-electric

plants are of this type.

4. Pump storage plants

` Pumped storage plants are employed at the places where the quantity of water is

available for power generation is inadequate. Here the water passing through the turbines

is stored in “tall race pond”. During low load periods thus water is pumped back to the

head reservoir using the extra available. This water can be again used for generating

power during peak load periods. Pumping of water may be done seasonally or daily

depending upon the conditions of the site and the nature of load on the plant.

Such plants are usually interconnected with steam or diesel engine plants so that off

peak capacity of interconnecting stations is used in pumping water and the same is used

during peak load periods. Of course, the energy available from the quantity of water
 51

pumped by the plant is less the energy input during pumping operation. Again while using

pumped water the power available is reduced on account of losses in prime movers.

5. Mini and micro-hydel plants

Examples:

1. One million cubic meters of water is stored into a reservoir feeding a water turbine. If

the center of mass of water is 50 m above the turbine and losses are negligible, how

much energy(in megawatts-hours) will that volume of water produce? The density of

water is 993 kg/m3.

Solution:

PE = mgh

m = V

PE = Vgh

The potential energy equals

PE = 993  106  9.81 50 Joules(or watt-sec)

Energy in MW-hr =
 993  10  9.81 50 watt  sec  135.3 MW-Hr
6

sec watt
3600  106
hr MW

2. A hydro-power station has a reservoir area of 28.5  105 sq m and a capacity of

5  106 cu m. The net head of water at the turbine is 60 m. If the efficiency of the

turbine is to be 0.85 and of the generator 0.95, what total energy in MW-hr can be

generated from this power station?

Solution:

Energy developed in kW-sec = 9.8(reservoir capacity in cu m)  H  effT  effg

 52

` = 9.8(5  106 )(60)(0.85)(0.95)

= 2.374  109 kW  sec

2.374  109
Energy in MW-Hr =  659.4MW  hr
3600  1000

3. A hydropower station has a reservoir area of 28.5  105 sq. meters and a capacity of

5  106 cu. meters. The net head of water at the turbine is 60 meters. If the efficiency of

the turbine is 0.85 and of the generator 0.90, determine the total energy in megawatt-

hr can be generated from this power station.

Solution:

Energy in kW-sec = 9.8(reservoir volume in cu m)(H)(R)

= 9.8(5  106 )(60)(0.85)(0.90)

= 2.249  109 kW  sec

2.249  109
=  624750 kW  hr  624.75 MW  hr
3600

4. A hydroelectric generating station has a reservoir capacity of 5 million cubic meters

with a head of 100. Determine the electric energy in MW-hr which can be generated

from the power station if the hydraulic and electrical efficiencies are 80% and 90%

respectively.

Solution:

Energy in kW-sec = 9.8(100)(5 106 )(0.80)(0.90)  35.28 108 kW  sec

35.28  108
Energy in MW-hr =  980
3600  103
 53

Exercises:

Student: ___________________ Score: ____________________

Course: ___________________ Date: ___________________

Solve the following problems.

1. A hydroelectric generating station is supplied from a reservoir of capacity 2  108 ft 3 at

a head of 500 ft. What is the total available energy in megawatts-hrs if the hydraulic

efficiency is 0.80 and the electrical efficiency is 0.90?

2. A deep well pumps water into an open reservoir at the rate of 100 gpm. The water

table is 200 ft below the output pipe. The overall efficiency of the system is 70%.

Determine the minimum horsepower of the pump.

3. A power plant gets water from a dam from a height of 122.45 m at the rate of 1000

cubic meters per minute. If the plant‟s output is 15000 kW, what is the plant‟s

efficiency?

4. A natural waterfall, 50 m high, consistently discharges 1.3 m3 per sec. A hydroelectric

plant is to be constructed at the bottom of the waterfalls. If the turbine and generator

efficiencies are respectively 70% and 90%, what is the annual energy in megawatt-

hours that can be generated by the plant?

5. A 100 MW hydrostation is supplying full load for 10 hrs in a particular day. Determine

the volume of water which has been used for an effective head of 200 m and an

overall efficiency of 80%.

 54

Chapter V: A Simple Gas Turbine Plant

A gas turbine plant may be defined as “a plant in which the principal prime-mover is of

the turbine type and the working medium is permanent gas”. A simple gas turbine plant

consist of the following:

1. Turbine.

2. A compressor mounted on the same shaft or coupled to the turbine.

3. The combustor.

4. Auxiliaries such as starting device, auxiliary lubrication pump, fuel system, oil

system and the duct system etc.

The working fluid is compressed in a compressor which is generally rotary, multistage

type. Heat energy is added to the compressed fluid in the combustion chamber. This high

energy fluid, at high temperature and pressure, then expands in the turbine unit thereby

generating slower. Part of the power generated is consumed in driving the generating

compressor and accessories and the rest is utilized in electrical energy. The gas turbines

work on open cycle, semi-close, cycle or closed cycle. In order to improve efficiency,

compression and expansion of working fluid is carried out in multistage.

Examples:

1. A power plant has a fuel consumption of 1 pound per kW-hr generated. Determine the

heating value of the fuel used in BTU per pound. The overall efficiency of the plant is

36%.

Solution:

Note: Assume an output of 1 kW-hr per 1 pound of fuel.

Wout 1 kW  hr
Win    2.778 kW  hr
eff. 0.36
 55

2.778 kW  hr 3.6  106 J 1 cal 1 BTU

Heating value =   
lb kW  hr 4.186 J 252 cal

= 9480.58 BTU/lb
 56

Exercises:

Student: ___________________ Score: ____________________

Course: ___________________ Date: ___________________

Encircle the letters of the correct answer to the following questions.

1. A gas turbine power plant usually suits for

a. Peak load operation
b. Base loan operation
c. Permanent operation
d. None of these
2. Air will not be the working substance in a
a. Diesel engine
b. Petrol engine
c. Open cycle gas turbine
d. Closed cycle gas turbine
3. Which of the following plants will take least time in starting from cold conditions to full
load operation?
a. Nuclear power plants
b. Steam power plants
c. Hydro-electric power plants
d. Gas turbine plants
 57

Chapter VI: Diesel Engine Power Plant

Diesel engine power plants are installed where supply of coal and water is not

available in sufficient quantity of where power is to be generated in small quantity or where

standby sets are required for continuity of supply such as in hospitals, telephone

exchanges, radio stations and cinemas. These plants in the range of 2 to 50 MW capacity

are used as central stations for supply authorities and works and they are universally

adapted to supplement hydro-electric or thermal stations where stand-by generating plants

are essential for starting from cold and under emergency conditions.

In several countries, the demand for diesel power plants is increased for electric power

generation because of difficulties experienced in construction of new hydraulic plants and

enlargement of old hydro-plants. A long term planning is required for the development of

thermo and hydro-plants which cannot keep the pace many times with the increased

demand by the people and industries.

The diesel units used for electric generation are more reliable and long-lived piece of

equipment compared with other types of plants.

Essential components of a diesel power plant are listed and discussed below:

1. Engine

2. Air intake system

3. Exhaust system

4. Fuel system

5. Cooling system

6. Lubrication system

7. Engine starting system

8. Governing system
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Examples:

1. A diesel generating set has an output of 25 kW. The heating value of fuel used is

12500 kcal/kg. If the overall efficiency of the units is 35%, what is the mass of oil

required per hour?

Solution:

25
Output = 25kW, eff. = 0.35, input = = 71.4 kW
0.35

Input per hr = 71.4 kW-hr

= 71.4  860 (1 kW-hr = 860 kcal)

= 61400 kcal

Since 1 kg of fuel produces 12500 kcal

61400 kcal
Mass of coil required =  4.91 kg
kcal
12500
kg

2. A diesel generator set burns diesel with a heating value of 18000 BTU per pound. The

diesel engine has an efficiency of 30% and the alternator has an efficiency of 95%.

Determine the fuel cost component of producing one kW-hr if diesel costs ₱2.80 per

pound.

Solution:

Wout 1
Win    3.51 kW  hr
eff.engine eff.alternator (0.3)(0.95)

1 lb 1 BTU 1 cal 3.6  106 J

Lbs. of coal =     3.51 kW  hr
18000 BTU 252 cal 4.186 J kW  hr

Lbs. of coal = 0.66548 lbs.

Cost = 0.66548(₱2.80) =₱ 1.86

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Exercises:

Student: ___________________ Score: ____________________

Course: ___________________ Date: ___________________

1. A diesel electric generating unit supplies a load at 70 kW. The heating value of the oil

used is 12000 kcal per kg. if the overall efficiency of the unit is 40%, determine the

mass of oil required per hour.

2. A diesel generating set has an output of 20 kW. The heating value of fuel used is

11500 kcal/kg. Determine the mass in kg of oil required per hour if the overall

efficiency is 37%.
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Chapter VII: Nuclear Power plants

These plants use heavy elements like Uranium (U 235) or Thorium (Th232) which are

subjected to the process of fission (breaking up of nuclei of heavy atoms into components

of a nuclear power plants are:

a. Nuclear reactor

b. Steam turbine

c. Electric generator

d. Heat exchanger(steam generator)

e. Condenser

In a nuclear power plant the reactor performs the same function as that of the

furnace of steam power plant (i.e., produces heat). The heat liberated in the reactor as a

result of the nuclear fission of the fuel is taken up by the coolant circulating through the

reactor core. Hot coolant leaves the reactor at the top and then flows through the tubes of

steam generator and passes on its heat to feed water. The steam so produced expands in

the steam turbine, producing work, and thereafter is condensed in the condenser. The

steam turbine in turn runs an electric generator thereby producing energy.

Uranium (U235) is a naturally occurring fuel(less than 1% in the uranium ore). U 235

and Pu239 are produced in the nuclear reactor as a result of fission process. Fuel is placed

in a nuclear reactor in specific shapes taking into account the heat transfer, corrosion,

structural strength, etc. as the heat produced from fuels is transferred to coolant which

surrounds the fuel from the coolant stream.

Fuel element cladding must satisfy the following conditions:

a. It should have high thermal conductivity.

b. It must not be affected by the radiation to which it is subjected.

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c. It should not have enough strength to withstand a high temperature within the reactor.

d. It should be able to resist corrosion effectively.

The neutrons emitted as a result of fission emerge at a very high speed and have

kinetic energy. These neutrons are called fast neutrons. The function of a moderator is to

slow down these neutrons. However, a moderator should not absorb these neutrons.

A moderator should have low parasitic capture, non-corrosiveness, high melting

point(if used as solid), high thermal conductivity and chemical and radiation stability. H 2O,

D2O, He(gas), Be and C(graphite) are used as moderators.

The function of coolant is to transfer heat produced inside the reactor to a heat

exchanger for utilization in the generation of power. A coolant should have low parasitic

capture, non-corrosiveness, low melting point, high boiling point, high specific heat, high

specific gravity. Low viscosity and non-toxicity. H2O, D2O, Na, Bi, He, CO2, Hg are some of

the coolants used in nuclear reactors.

In order to keep the size of the reactor small and hence the amount of the

fissionable material, it is necessary to conserve the neutrons. For this purpose the reactor

core is surrounded by a material which reflects the escaping electrons back to the core.

Sometimes the same material is used as a moderator as well as reflector.

The nuclear radiations from a nuclear reactor are in the form of:

1. Charged particles

a. Fission fragments

b. Alpha particles

c. Beta particles

d. Protons, deuterons etc.

2. Waves or neutral particles

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a. Gamma rays

b. Neutrons

c. Neutrinos

The intensity of gamma and neutron radiations from a reactor core is far greater

than the human body can tolerate. For this purpose, shielding is provided on nuclear

reactors to reduce the radiation intensity to acceptable limits.

7.1 Classification of Nuclear Reactors

Nuclear reactors may be classified on the basis of neutron energies as:

1. Fast reactors

In these reactors fission occurs with high energy neutrons, in the absence of a moderator.

2. Intermediate reactors

With the use of some moderator the reactors are known as intermediate reactors.

3. Thermal reactors

When the energy of neutrons is reduced to low electron voltage i.e., thermal

range, the reactors are known as thermal reactors.

On the basis of fuel reproduction characteristics, the nuclear reactors may be

classified as

1. Non-regeneration type

Theses reactors do not create an appreciate amount of replacement fuel as the

fuel is burned. Reactors using highly enriched containing 90% or more or U 235 in the fuel

are of non-regeneration type.

2. Regeneration type
 63

In these reactors the fuel is slightly enriched. These reactors do not replace the

used fuel fully.

3. Breeder type

In this type of reactor, the fissionable type of fuel produced is more than the fuel

consumed.

On this basis of fuel-moderator arrangement used the reactors may be classified

as

1. Homogeneous reactors

In these reactors the fuel id finely divided and homogeneously mixed with

moderator.

2. Heterogeneous reactor

In these reactors fuel is in the form of rods, plates or any other shape and is

placed in the matrix of moderator.

On the basis of their functions, the reactors may be classified as

1. Research reactors

a. Isotope production

b. Material testing

c. As neutron source

2. Plutonium production

3. Power reactors

a) For stationary power plants

i. Central station

ii. Package reactors

b) Mobile reactors
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i. Naval reactors

ii. Aircraft reactors

iii. Merchant ship reactors

Nuclear reactors can also be classified on the basi8s of moderator, coolant and

fuel used.
 65

Exercises:

Student: ___________________ Score: ____________________

Course: ___________________ Date: ___________________

Encircle the letters of the correct answer to the following questions.

1. Reflectors of a nuclear reactor are made up of

a. Boron

b. Cost iron

c. Beryllium

d. Steel

2. The function of a moderator in a nuclear reactor is

a. To slow down the fast moving electrons

b. To speed up the slow moving electrons

c. To start the chain reaction

d. To transfer heat produced inside the reactor to heat exchanger

3. ____________________ is the most commonly used moderator.

a. Graphite

b. Sodium

c. Deuterium

d. Heavy water

4. Which of the following plant has the highest coat per MW installed?

a. Steam power plant

b. Hydro-electric power plant

c. Diesel power plant

d. Nuclear power plant

 66

5. A moderator is used to
a. Slow down electrons
b. Slow down neutrons
c. Accelerate neutrons
d. Direct flow of electrons
6. A moderator should have
a. Low parasitic capture
b. High thermal conductivity
c. Radiation stability
d. All of the above
7. Which of the following material can be used as a moderator in a nuclear power plant?
a. Graphite
b. Helium
c. Heavy water
d. Any of the above
8. The reactor in which fissionable fuel produced is more that the fuel consumed, is
known as
a. Fast reactor
b. Breeder reactor
c. Thermal reactor
d. None of the above
9. Which of the following material is not used as moderator?
a. Graphite
b. Beryllium
c. Aluminum
d. Light water
10. Plastics on thin layers of metals are used in nuclear plants
a. To stop electrons
b. To slow down neutrons
c. To stop alpha and beta particles
d. To arrest stray neutrons
 67

Chapter VIII: Wind Generators

Wind generator of turbine t6ype transforms the kinetic energy of the wind to

electrical energy. The theoretical power in the wind is given by

P = 2.46  103 D2u3 watts

D = blade diameter in feet

u = the wind velocity in miles per hour

in SI units,

P = 0.131 D2u3 watts

D = blade diameter in meters

u = wind velocity in km per hour

or the other formula

1
P  AV 3
2

 = air density

A = area of the blade

V = wind velocity

Examples:

1. A small wind generator is designed to generate 50 kW of power at a wind velocity of

25 mi/hr. what is the blades approximate diameter?

Solution:

P = 50  103

u =25
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50000 = 2.46  103 (25)3 D2

D = 36 ft.

2. Calculate the power in the wind if the wind speed is 15 m/s and blade length is 60 m.

Solution:

Wind speed v = 15 m/s, blade length (l) = 60 m, air density    = 1.23 kg/m3.

The area is given by, A  l2

A  (60)2

A = 11309.7 m2

The wind power formula is given by,

1
P  AV 3
2

1
P  (1.23)(11309.7)(15)3
2

P = 23.47 MW
 69

Exercises:

Student: ___________________ Score: ____________________

Course: ___________________ Date: ___________________

1. Suppose you have a micro turbine with blade diameter 1 m (about 3 ft) and efficiency

20%. Let's calculate how much electricity it can generate for your home at the air

speed 6 m/sec (which is about 13.4 mph).

2. A wind turbine travels with the speed is 20 m/s and has a blade length of 30 m.

Calculate the wind power.

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Chapter IX: Tidal Energy

An effective method of utilizing the tides is allow the incoming tide to flow into a

basin, thus operating the turbine, and then at low to release the stored water, again

operating a set of turbines. This gives continuous, if varying, head operation. If the tidal

range from high to low water is H(m) and the area of water enclosed in the basin is A(m 2),

then the power in the full basin is

Pars = 0.219H2 A MW

H = maximum tidal head in meters

A = area of water basin m2

Examples:

1. The maximum tidal head available for a proposal tidal-power station is 6 m. what must

be the area of the tidal bay generate an average of 1000 MW of power?

Solution:

P = 0.219H2

1000 = 0.219(6)2

A = 126.8 sq. km
 71

Final Evaluation:

Student: ___________________ Score: ____________________

Course: ___________________ Date: ___________________

Instruction: Encircle the letters of the correct answer to the following questions.

1. Thermal efficiency of a gas turbine plant as compared to diesel engine plant is

a. Higher

b. Lower

c. Same

d. May be higher or lower

2. Reflectors of a nuclear reactor are made up of

a. Boron

b. Cost iron

c. Beryllium

d. Steel

3. The function of a moderator in a nuclear reactor is

a. To slow down the fast moving electrons

b. To speed up the slow moving electrons

4. ____________________ is the most commonly used moderator.

a. Graphite

b. Sodium

c. Deuterium

d. Heavy water
 72

5. In a pressurized water reactor(PWR)

a. The coolant water is pressurized to work as moderator

b. The coolant water boils in the core of the reactor

c. The coolant water is pressurized to prevent boiling of water in the core

d. No moderator is used

6. Which cycle would you consider for a thermal power plant?

a. Otto cycle

b. Carnot cycle

c. Dual cycle

d. Rankine cycle

7. Which of the following property of coal has major influence on the design and

operation of a steam power plant?

a. Density of coal

b. Carbon content of coal

c. Ash content of coal

d. Shape and size of coal

8. Which of the following plant has the highest coat per MW installed?

a. Steam power plant

b. Hydro-electric power plant

c. Diesel power plant

d. Nuclear power plant

9. The cost of transmission and distribution will be least for which type of plant?

a. Diesel engine power plant

b. Steam power plant

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c. Diesel power plant

d. Nuclear power plant

10. Which of the following power plant has least expenditure on transportation of fuel?

a. Steam power plant

b. Diesel power plant

c. Hydro-electric power plant

d. Nuclear power plant

11. Which of the following power plant has least overall efficiency?

a. Steam power plant

b. Diesel power plant

c. Nuclear power plant

d. Hydro-electric power plant

12. Which of the following is the major consideration while selecting the site for a

nuclear power plant?

a. Safety

b. Load center

c. Disposal of waste

d. Availability of water

13. A moderator is used to

e. Slow down electrons

f. Slow down neutrons

g. Accelerate neutrons

h. Direct flow of electrons

14. A moderator should have

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e. Low parasitic capture

f. High thermal conductivity

g. Radiation stability

h. All of the above

15. Which of the following material can be used as a moderator in a nuclear power

plant?

e. Graphite

f. Helium

g. Heavy water

h. Any of the above

16. The reactor in which fissionable fuel produced is more that the fuel consumed, is

known as

e. Fast reactor

f. Breeder reactor

g. Thermal reactor

h. None of the above

17. Which of the following material is not used as moderator?

e. Graphite

f. Beryllium

g. Aluminum

h. Light water

18. Plastics on thin layers of metals are used in nuclear plants

e. To stop electrons

f. To slow down neutrons

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g. To stop alpha and beta particles

h. To arrest stray neutrons

19. In a nuclear power plant which of the following is used to slow down the fast

neutrons?

a. Reflector

b. Shield

c. Control rod

d. Moderator

20. Control rods for nuclear reactors are made of

a. Graphite

b. Concrete

c. Cadmium

d. Lead

21. Which of the following plants will have the highest capital cost?

a. Nuclear power plant

b. Diesel power plant

c. Thermal power plant

d. None of these

22. The suitable turbine used for harnessing tidal power is

a. Francis turbine

b. Peltron turbine

c. Kaplan turbine

d. None of these
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23. Which of the following power stations is mainly used to cover peak loads on the

system?

a. Brown coal power station

b. Pit coal power station

c. Nuclear power station

d. Pump storage water power station

24. The combined operation of Thermal power plant and MHD plant results in

efficiency in the range of

a. 40 percent to 50 percent

b. 50 percent to 60 percent

c. 60 percent to 70 percent

d. 70 percent to 80 percent

25. Kaplan turbine is

a. Inward flow, impulse turbine

b. Outward flow, reaction turbine

c. A high mixed flow turbine

d. Low head axial flow turbine

26. Which of the following generating stations has minimum running cost while in

operation?

a. Thermal power station

b. Nuclear power station

c. Hydro-power station

d. None of these
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27. Which of the following methods of generating electric power from sea water is

more advantageous?

a. Wave power

b. Ocean currents

c. Tidal power

d. None of these

28. Nuclear reactor generally employs

a. Fusion

b. Fission

c. Both fusion and fission

d. None of these

29. A gas turbine power plant usually suits for

e. Peak load operation

f. Base loan operation

g. Permanent operation

h. None of these

30. Which power plant cannot have single unit of 100NW?

a. Steam power plant

b. Nuclear power plant

c. Hydro-electric power plant

d. Diesel power plant

31. Which of the following plant is expected to have the longest expected life?

a. Hydro-electric plant

b. Steam plant
 78

c. Diesel plant

d. None of these

32. Air will not be the working substance in a

e. Diesel engine

f. Petrol engine

g. Open cycle gas turbine

h. Closed cycle gas turbine

33. A thermal power station was designed to burn coal containing 12% ash. When the

plant actually started operating, coal having 22% ash made available. Which unit

of the plant will need major modifications?

a. Water treatment plant

b. Pulverizing unit

c. Ash handling unit

d. Cooling towers

34. Which of the following plants will take least time in starting from cold conditions to

full load operation?

e. Nuclear power plants

f. Steam power plants

g. Hydro-electric power plants

h. Gas turbine plants

35. During load shedding

a. System voltage is reduced

b. System frequency is reduced

c. Some loads are switched off

 79

d. System power factor is changed

36. For the same plant size, initial cost of which plant is highest?

a. Steam power plant

b. Diesel power plant

c. Nuclear power plant

d. Gas turbine plant

37. In a steam power plant, which components needs maximum maintenance?

a. Condenser

b. Boiler

c. Turbine

d. Water treatment plant

38. For under water movement, submarines are given supply by

a. Diesel engines

b. Air motors

c. Batteries

d. Steam engine

39. Ships are generally run by

a. Diesel engine

b. Hydraulic turbines

c. Nuclear power plant

d. Steam engines

40. Direct conversion of heat into electrical energy is possible through

a. Magneto-hydrodynamic generators

b. Solar cells
 80

c. Fuel cells

d. None of these

41. Which of the following is not a source of power?

a. Solar cell

b. Photovoltaic cell

c. Photoelectric cell

d. Thermocouple

42. In a fuel cell, electricity is produced by

a. Combustion of fuel in absence of oxygen

b. Oxidation of fuel

c. Thermionic

d. None of these

43. Which type of plant has the minimum running cost per kWh of energy generated?

a. Hydro-electric plant

b. Thermal power plant

c. Nuclear power plant

d. Diesel power plant

44. In a power plant, a reserve generating capacity which is not in service but is in

operation is known as

a. Hot reserve

b. Cold reserve

c. firm power

d. Spinning reserve

45. An interconnected system has the following plants:

 81

I. Run off the river plant

II. Nuclear power plant

III. Steam power plant

IV. Diesel engine plant

Which two plants can be exclusively used for base load?

a. I and II

b. II and III

c. II and IV

d. II only

46. Which of the following in unconventional source of electrical power?

a. Coal

b. Diesel oil

c. Geothermal energy

d. Nuclear power

47. Site for which of the following plant is decided on the basis of the contours of the

land only?

a. Steam power plant

b. Diesel power plant

c. Nuclear power plant

d. Hydro-electric power plant

48. The portion of the power canal that extends from the intake works to the power

plant, is known as

a. Head race

b. Main storage
 82

c. Tail race

d. Diversion canal

49. A portion of the power canal which extends from the power house to the recipient

water course, is known as

a. Tailrace

b. Exhaust

c. Discharge channel

d. Tail surge channel

50. Thermionic converters are based on the principle of

a. Seebeck effect

b. Microwave theory

c. Transfer of electrons

d. Faraday‟s law
83
 84

References

Morse, Frederick T., Power Plant Engineering.

Valensona, Marcialito M., Textbook-Reviewer in Electrical Engineering. 2nd Edition.

Cebu City: CEERS

Hambley, Allan R. Electrical Engineering: Principles and Applications. 5th Edition.

Boston:
Printice Hall, 2011
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