Unit-1 Energy and its Uses

Units and scales of Energy use

1. What is Energy? Explain

Ans: “Energy is a property of matter that can be converted into work, heat or radiation”. Energy
is defined as the ability to do work, and work is moving something against a force.
It may exist in potential, kinetic, thermal, electrical, chemical, nuclear, or other various forms.
All forms of energy are associated with motion.
“Energy can be neither created nor destroyed but only changed from one form to another”. This
is known as the conservation of energy or the first law of thermodynamics.
The total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified into potential energy, kinetic
energy or combinations of the two in various ways.

2. What are units and scale of measure energy? Discuss.

Ans: In the International System of units (SI), the energy is measured in Joule. It is a derived unit.
1 joule is the energy expended in applying a force of one Newton through a distance of one
metre. i.e. 1Joule = 1 Newton-m
However, energy is also expressed in many other units such as ergs, calories, British Thermal
Units (BTU), kilowatt-hours (kWh) and kilocalories (kCal), which require a conversion factor
when expressed in SI units.
The SI unit of energy rate (energy per unit time) is the watt = (Joule/sec). Thus, 1 Joule = 1watt-
second, and 3600 Joules = l watt-hour.
The CGS unit of energy is erg and the imperial and US customary unit is the foot pound.
Other energy units such as the electron-volt (eV), food calorie or thermodynamic kcal
(based on the temperature change of water in a heating process), BTU (energy to heat 1
pound of H2O from 600 to 610 F) is used in specific areas of science and commerce.

Units of energy uses are classified as follows: There are different units of energy based on
the scale of production or uses.
1. Global size units: Exajoules (EJ), Quadrillion BTU (Quads) , Tera Watt-years (TWy),Trillion
kiloWatt-Hours (TkWh)
2. Industrial Strength Units: Tones of coal, Tons of TNT, Barrels of oil, Therms, kiloWatt
hours, Million BTU.
3. Human Sized Units: BTU, kilocalories
4. Child Sized Units: Calories, foot-pounds, Joules
5. Microworld Units: Ergs, electron-Volts

Conversion of Units (In Joules)

Unit SI equivalent Unit SI equivalent
ExaJoules 18
= 10 J Barrels of oil ~ 6.12× 109 J
Quads ≈ 1.055 × 1018 J Therms ≈ 1.055 × 108 J
Terra Watt-year ≡ 31.54 × 1018 J kiloWatt hours ≈ 1.055 × 106 J
Trillion kiloWatt-Hours ≡ 3.6 × 1018 J BTU ≈ 1.055 × 103 J
Tones of coal ~ 2.9 × 1010 J kilocalories ≡ 4.1868 × 103 J
Tons of TNT ≡ 4.184 × 109 J electron-Volts ≈ 1.6 × 10-19 J
 3. Discuss the various form of Energy?
Ans: Energy exists in several forms such as heat, kinetic or mechanical energy, light, potential
energy, and electrical energy etc.

Mechanical Energy: Mechanical energy is energy that results from movement of an object. It is the
sum of kinetic energy and potential energy.
Thermal Energy: Thermal energy or heat energy is energy from the movement of atoms or
molecules. It reflects the temperature difference between two systems.
Nuclear Energy: Nuclear energy is energy resulting from changes in the atomic nuclei or from
nuclear reactions. Nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, and nuclear decay are examples of nuclear
energy.

Chemical Energy: Chemical energy results from chemical reactions between atoms or
molecules. Electromagnetic Energy: Electromagnetic energy (or radiant energy) is energy
from light or electromagnetic waves.

Sonic Energy: Sonic energy is the energy of sound waves. Sound waves travel through the air or
another medium.
Gravitational Energy: Energy associated with gravity involves the attraction between two objects based
on their mass. It can serve as a basis for mechanical energy.
Kinetic Energy: Kinetic energy is the energy of motion of a body.
Potential Energy: Potential energy is the energy of an object's position.
Ionization Energy: Ionization energy is the form of energy that binds electrons to the nucleus of
its atom, ion, or molecule.
Magnetic Energy: This form of energy results from a magnetic field.
Electrical Energy: This is energy from the movement of charged particles, such as protons,
electrons, or ions.
Other forms of energy may include geothermal energy and classification of energy as
renewable or non-renewable.

Q. What do you mean by conservation of energy?

Ans: The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains
constant; it is said to be conserved over time. It means that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed; rather it can only be transformed or transferred from one form to another.
For instance, chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy when a stick of dynamite explodes.
In this, all forms of energy that was released in the explosion, as the kinetic energy and
potential energy of the pieces, as well as heat and sound.
In the special relativity, mass is related to energy and vice versa by E = mc2, and science now
takes the view that mass–energy as a whole is conserved. It means that certain mass can itself
be converted into pure energy and vice-versa and it is believed to be possible only under the
most extreme of physical conditions.
Q. What are the sectors of the economy that require energy? Discuss.

Ans: The forms of energy used in a country today, and the nature of the energy demand are quite
diverse. The sectors of the economy that require energy are broadly identified as the residential
 (domestic), commercial, industrial and transportation sectors. The industrial sector is really
quite complex, and includes the large sub-categories of agriculture, mining as well as
manufacturing.
1. Domestic: For cooking needs, the major part of country or poor countries depend heavily on
traditional biomass (i.e. firewood, coconut husks and shells) as well as animal manure. This
is supplemented by kerosene for kerosene stoves and natural gas or LPG for gas stoves.
Electricity is used for all electrical appliances. Solar thermal energy, modern biomass and
geothermal energy is used for water and space heating in the developed countries. And, also
solar and wind energy for small-scale power generation.
2. Commercial: Electrical energy is needed for office and communication equipment, appliances,
and diesel and petrol (gasoline) for transportation.
3. Industrial: Electrical energy is used for machinery and appliances. In addition, oil and biomass
in the form of timber and other industry residues and wood pellets are used for process heat.
4. Transportation: Diesel, petrol (gasoline) and LPG are typically used for land transportation,
heavy fuel oil (HFO) and diesel for sea transportation and aviation fuel (jet fuel/kerosene) for
air transportation.

Q. What are the forms of energy that are required?

Ans: The forms of energy that are available on the global market are best categorized into primary use
and end-use energy.
The original form of energy is called primary-use energy. This is transformed through various
processes to end-use energy for final consumption.
 Primary use energy is the energy that comes into circulation either from a primary energy
source (either fossil fuel or renewable energy) within the country, or is imported into the
country.
A country's Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) consists of all these forms of primary energy.
 End-use energy is the energy that the consumers ultimately use. It includes electricity, and
fuels such as diesel or gasoline (petrol).
The Total Final Consumption (TFC) of the country is the sum of all the end-use energy of the
country.

A flowchart representing the total energy flow of a country is shown below.

Q. What is Mechanical energy? How is mechanical energy conserved? Explain with examples. How
mechanical energy is transported?

Ans: The energy acquired by the objects upon which work is done is known as mechanical
energy. Mechanical energy is the energy that is possessed by an object due to its motion or due
to its position. Mechanical energy can be either kinetic energy or
potential energy (stored energy of position). In fact, mechanical energy is often defined as the
ability to do work.

Conservation of Mechanical energy:

The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that in an isolated system
(subject to conservative forces) the mechanical energy is constant.
If an object moves in the opposite direction of a conservative net force, the potential
energy will increase; and the kinetic energy of the object also changes.
However, in all real systems, nonconservative forces such as frictional forces will be
present. But if such forces are of negligible magnitude, the mechanical energy changes
little and its conservation is a useful approximation.
In elastic collisions, the mechanical energy is conserved. But, in inelastic collisions some
mechanical energy is converted into thermal energy.

An example of a mechanical system: A satellite is orbiting the Earth influenced only by the
conservative gravitational force; its mechanical energy is therefore conserved. If the satellite’s
orbit is slightly ellipse the potential energy of the satellite, kinetic energy or both vary with time,
but, total energy remains constant. ‘a’ the acceleration and ‘v’ the tangential velocity of
satellite.

An example of a mechanical system: A swinging pendulum subjected to the

conservative gravitational force where frictional forces like air drag and friction at the pivot are
negligible, energy passes back and forth between kinetic and potential energy, but never leaves
the system.

The pendulum reaches highest kinetic energy and least potential energy when in the vertical
position, because it will have the highest speed (nearest the Earth at this point). On the other
hand, it will have its least kinetic energy and highest potential energy at the extreme positions of
 its swing, because it has zero speed (farthest from Earth at these points).

Conversion/Transport of Mechanical energy:

Many devices are used to convert mechanical energy from other forms of energy, e.g. an
electric motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy, an electric generator
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy and heat engine convert heat energy to
mechanical energy.

A hydroelectric power plant converts the mechanical energy of water in a storage dam
into electrical energy.
An internal combustion engine is a heat engine that obtains mechanical energy from
chemical energy by burning fuel. A steam engine converts the heat energy of steam into
mechanical energy.

Q. Discus the conversion between heat and mechanical energy.

Ans: Mechanical energy can be converted into heat, and heat can be converted into some
mechanical energy. This important physical observation is known as the mechanical
equivalent of heat.

It means that the change in internal energy of a system by either doing work to the
system, or adding heat to the system. This is the fundamental to thermodynamics which
applies the ideas of heat and work in order to create useful systems such as engines, power
plants, and refrigerators.

According to first law of Thermodynamics, which says that ΔU = Q – W, where ΔU is the

change in the internal energy, Q is the heat added to the system, and W is the work done by
the system.
So, if a system is observed at any state (show in figure), it is difficult to observe that the
state is reached whether from an input of work, input of heat or combination of two.
Figure shown the state of a system
 Heat engines for conversion of heat to mechanical energy:
A heat engine is a type of engine, which produces macroscopic motion from heat. When people
rub their hands together friction turns mechanical energy into thermal energy.

Heat engines take the energy from fuel being warm and turn that into motion. Often this
motion is turned into electricity with a generator.
Almost all of the energy that is harnessed for transportation and electricity comes from
heat engines. Heat engines require a difference in temperature to function.
Depending on the type of engine (Internal combustion engines and External heat engines),
different processes are employed, like igniting fuel through combustion (gasoline and coal),
or using energy from nuclear processes to produce heat (uranium), but the end goal is the
same to turn the heat into work. The most familiar example of a heat engine is the engine of
a car, but most power plants, like coal, natural gas, and nuclear, are also heat engines.

Q. What is Electromagnetic Energy? How EM energy is stored? Discuss about Electromagnetic radiation
and Transmission.

Ans: Electromagnetic (EM) energy is an energy which flows/transfers in the medium through
electromagnetic waves (such as radio waves, microwaves, X-rays and gamma rays) from one
place to other and all around us. Light is also a form of EM energy, but visible light is only a
small portion of the EM spectrum. The energy of electromagnetic radiation is quantified by an
electron volt (eV)

Storage: Electromagnetic energy can be stored in the form of an electric field or as a

magnetic field generated, by a current-carrying coil. There are two technologies which can
store electrical energy directly include electrical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) and
superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES). Both of these storage technologies are
characterized by high power density, low energy density, high efficiency and little or no
degradation after repeated cycles of charging and discharging.

In a capacitor a dielectric material is sandwich between two plates. Opposite charges on

the two electrodes generate an electric field (E) in the dielectric and a voltage difference
(V).The energy (U) stored in it is given as U = CV2/2 and C= εA/d.
A is the surface of electrode, d is the thickness of dielectric and ε is the permittivity of
the
𝟏
dielectric. The expression for energy density in the dielectric is given as U = 𝟐 ε E 2 .

Poynting theorem states that “The work done on the charges by the electromagnetic
force is equal to the decrease in energy stored in the field, less the energy that flowed
out through the surface" (conservation of energy). i.e.
Where uE = εE2/2 is the energy stored in electric field and uH = μH2/2 is the energy stored in
magnetic field.

So, u = (εE2/2 + μH2/2), the total energy stored in the volume V under electromagnetic field.

Where the power density transferred into electromagnetic field or it

represent the rate of energy transferred in to the EM field (Mechanical work done
on a charge against electromagnetic field per unit time).
The energy density of an ordinary capacitor is therefore determined by the permittivity and the
breakdown electric field strength of the dielectric material.

Radiation and Transmission:

Electromagnetic radiation can also be regarded as sinusoidally varying electric and

magnetic fields, travelling with velocity c in vacuum. They are transverse waves (i.e. the
electric and magnetic field vectors are mutually in perpendicular plane and also ⊥ to the
direction of travel of the wave).

The EM radiation or energy flow is clear in figure. The flow of energy is in the direction of
propagation of wave. i.e. Poynting vector S = ExH = EHSinθ represent the electromagnetic
energy crossing the surface per unit time in the direction of S.

Also, we have wave impedence Zo = E/ H = √(μo/εo)

If a material is homogeneous in terms of its electromagnetic properties, it is apparent

that an incident EM wave would be partly reflected at the material boundary and partly
transmitted. The transmitted energy would be dissipated due to any losses within the
medium.
 Electromagnetic energy conversion:

Electromagnetic energy can be transformed to other forms of energy. For example, a solar
panel converts light energy to electrical energy. In the same way, other forms of
energy can be converted to electromagnetic energy. For example, electrical energy is
converted to electromagnetic energy in a light bulb.

Transforming (to and from) Electromagnetic Energy:

 Dynamos/motors • Phases and Power • Transformers
Basic idea: Induction Time changing magnetic field induces an electric field ->
Dynamos/motors Long range transmission ⇒ electromagnetic forms.
Hence Mechanical energy generation → EM Ttransmission → Mechanical energy use

Q. Discuss the quantum view of energy. Explain the concept of energy quantization.
Ans: Planck assumed the distribution of energy in black body radiation by considering number of
tiny atomic or molecular dimension in the black cavity. Planck’s suggested that energies of
the molecular oscillators must be quantized (discrete), not continuous, and is given as E=
nhυ,

n = 0, 1, 2, 3,.. Each discrete bundle of energy was called a quantum.

Einstein stated that the quantization is inherent property of the light, and that the lumps can
be interpreted as particles, which we call “photons" and energy E=hυ.

According to de Broglie hypothesis the wavelength of matter wave (de Broglie wave) is
given as λ = h/p = h/mv. Since, E = hυ and E = mc2 are energy as wave (quantum) and as
particle aspect respectively. From this relation the wavelength of a wave associated with
electron is given as λ = 12.28/√V and the energy with a wave is given as E = h/2mλ2. For a
photon, the energy is given as E = pc

The position of particle is uncertain in its wave and it can be located by using a wave
function ‘ψ’. Schrodinger’s gave mathematical partial differential (Time dependent and time
–independent) equations. Hamiltonian operator which is equal to total energy as H =
(p2/2m) +V. The Schrodinger’s general equation is given as Hψ = Eψ.

Applying Schrodinger’s time independent equation as free particle in a box, we can have
a wave function ψ(x,t) = Asin(nπx/L) and its corresponding energy value (eigen value) is

given as En=n2h2/8mL2 where n = 1, 2, 3,…..

Quantization of Energy (Concept of energy quantization):
Quantization of energy refers to the absorption or emission of energy in discrete packets
or quanta. As the intensity of electromagnetic energy increases or decreases, it step up
or down from one quantized level to another, rather than flow a smooth and continuous
curve.
Quantization became evident under three main studies (i) The black body radiation (ii)
Heat Capacities and (iii) Atomic and Molecular spectra (Bohr’s model for hydrogen
spectra , En = - 13.645/n2 eV)
From application of Schrodinger’s time-independent equation for a particle in one
dimensional box of length L and its solution can be expressed as a function
ψ(x,t) = A sin(nπx/L).

The energy values for a particle in the box is given as En = n2h2/8mL2.

Where L can be written in term of de Broglie wavelength as L =λ/2, λ, 3λ/2,… nλ/2
i.e. L = nλ/2 => 2L =nλ => 2L = nh/mv and vn = nh/2mL ,
thus En = n2h2/8mL2 ( where En = mvn2/2 )
The de Broglie hypothesis about the wave like properties of matter leads us to the
remarkable conclusion that the energy of a particle confined in a box is quantized.

A diatomic molecule vibrates somewhat like two masses on a spring with a potential energy that
depends upon the square of the displacement from equilibrium. But the energy levels are
quantized at equally spaced values. The energy levels of the quantum harmonic oscillator are
1
En = (n + 2) hυ

The most surprising difference for the quantum case is the so-called "zero-point vibration" of the n=0 ground
state. This implies that molecules are not completely at rest, even at absolute zero temperature.
Q. What is Entropy? How are entropy and temperature related?

Ans: Entropy of a system or surrounding is a measure of its disorder or randomness and of the
unavailability of energy to do work. Entropy is a measure of how much energy is not available
to do work. Entropy is a thermodynamical quantity denoted by ‘S’ like pressure P, volume V and
heat Q.
The concept of entropy provides deep insight into the direction of spontaneous change for many
everyday phenomena. Entropy is a property of state (Entropy depends only on the state of the
system and not how it reached that condition).
Entropy and Temperature:
Clausius introduced the concept of entropy as a precise way of expressing the second law of
thermodynamics. Clausius states that, if an amount of heat Q flows into a large heat reservoir at
𝑸
temperature T above absolute zero , then the entropy change is ΔS = . Assume that, there are
𝑻
two heat reservoirs as Source (A) and Sink (B) at temperatures T1 and T2 respectively
If an amount of heat Q flows from A to B, then the net entropy change for the two reservoirs is
𝟏 𝟏
∆𝐒 = 𝑸( − ) which is +ve provided that T1 > T2.
𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟏

𝜹𝑸𝒓𝒆𝒗
According to the Clausius equality, for a reversible cyclic process: ∮ = 0. It means that
𝑻
𝜹𝑸𝒓𝒆𝒗
∮ 𝑻
is path-independent. So, we can define a state function S called entropy, which

𝜹𝑸𝒓𝒆𝒗
satisfies dS = .
𝑻
Thus, the observation that for all spontaneous (irreversible process) flow of heat from cold to hot
is equivalent to requiring the net entropy change to be positive.
The condition ΔS ≥ 0 determines the maximum possible efficiency of heat engines in a cyclic
process.
𝑩 𝒅𝑸
For any part of the heat engine cycle (S B-SA) = ∫𝑨 . To make W as large as
𝑻

possible, Q2 should be as small as possible relative to Q1. However, Q2 cannot be zero, because
this would make ΔS negative and so violate the second law.
 Any real engine will result in more entropy given to the environment than was taken
from it leading to an overall net increase in entropy.

Q. The Entropy of universe tends to be maximum: Comment on it.

Ans: In actual practice whenever there is a change in the state of the system the entropy of the system
increases. The entropy of the universe increases because energy never flows uphill spontaneously.
In an irreversible process, entropy always increases, so the change in entropy is positive. The total
entropy of the universe is continually increasing.

Implications: 1. More particles means more states this implies more entropy.
2. Higher Temperature means more energy states. Therefore, more entropy.
3. Less structure (gas vs solid) means more states and more entropy.

Q. What is the physical concept of entropy?

Ans: The physical meaning of entropy is that it is a measure of degree of disorder (or randomness) of
a system. Entropy of an isolated system is constant. In this case, there is no exchange of matter or
energy between the system and the surroundings. The change occurs from ordered state
(less entropy) to disordered state (higher entropy).
Entropy (S) is a state function whose value increases with an increase in the number of available
microstates.
For a given substance, Ssolid < Sliquid < Sgas in a given physical state at a given
temperature, entropy is typically greater for heavier atoms or more complex molecules.

Q. What is Heat Engine?

Ans: A heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy and
uses this energy to produce mechanical energy.
In the heat engine, heat is taken from source (hot body) and some of heat discharge to the sink
(cold body). There are different types of a heat engine in which a Carnot engine has the maximum
efficiency.
There are mainly two types of heat engines: –
1. External combustion engine and 2. Internal combustion engine (ICE)

Q. What is Carnot engine? Describe its working using PV cycle and T-S diagram and show the
expression for efficiency.
Ans: Carnot Engine: The Carnot engine is a heat engine that is working between two reservoirs
(source and sink). Carnot cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by Leonard Carnot.
It estimates the maximum possible efficiency of a heat engine during the conversion process (heat
into work and work into heat).

According to Carnot, any system working between T1 (hot reservoir) and T2 (cold reservoir) can never have
more efficiency than the Carnot engine operating between the same reservoirs.

Also, the efficiency of this type of engine is independent of the nature of the working substance and is only
dependent on the temperature of the hot and cold reservoirs.

Following are the four processes of the Carnot cycle:

 Reversible Isothermal Expansion: In this process, the amount of heat absorbed by the ideal gas

is Q1 from the heat source at a temperature of T1. The gas expands and does work on the
surroundings.

 Reversible Adiabatic Expansion: Here, the system is thermally insulated, and the gas continues

to expand and work is done on the surroundings. Now the temperature is lower, T2.
 Reversible Isothermal Compression: Here, the heat loss Q2 occurs when the surroundings do

the work at temperature T2.

 Reversible Adiabatic Compression: Again the system is thermally insulated. The temperature

again rises back to T1 as the surrounding continue to do their work on the gas.

Carnot Cycle: For an ideal gas operating inside a Carnot cycle (figure-2), the following are the
steps:

Step 1: Isothermal expansion: Heat Q1 is absorbed from the reservoir at temperature T 1.

Gas expands from state-A (P1,V1,T1 ) → state-B (P2,V2,T1 ).

Since the expansion is isothermal, the total change in internal energy (dU) is zero, and the heat
absorbed by the gas is equal to the work done by the gas on the environment, which is given as:
𝒗
𝑾𝐀→𝐁 = (𝑸𝟏)𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻𝟏 𝒍𝒏 𝒗𝟐 (Since PV=RT)
𝟏

Heat energy Q1 is absorbed from high temperature resulting an increase in the entropy of gas
by the amount  S1= Q1 / T1.
Step 2:
Adiabatic expansion: The gas expands adiabatically from state-B (P2,V2,T1 ) → state-C (P3,V3,T2).
𝝁𝑹
Here, work done by the gas is given by 𝑾𝐁→𝐂 = 𝜸−𝟏 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 ) (since PVγ = contant)

The gas expands without heat input and cool to temperature TC, the entropy is remains
unchanged (shown in T-S diagram).
Step 3: Isothermal compression:
The gas is compressed isothermally from the state-C (P3, V3, T2) to state-D (P4, V4, T2).
𝟑 𝒗
Here, the work done on the gas by the environment is given by: 𝑾𝐂→𝐃 = 𝝁𝑹𝑻𝟐 𝒍𝒏 𝒗
𝟒

The entropy of the system decreases by an amount ΔS2= Q2 / T2.

Step 4: Adiabatic compression:
The gas is compressed adiabatically from the state-D (P4, V4, T2) to stage-A (P1, V1, T1).
𝝁𝑹
Here, the work done on the gas by the environment is given by: 𝑾𝐃→𝐀 = 𝜸−𝟏 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 ).

Again, the entropy remains unchanged.

Figure-1: Carnot
Cycle
2
From T-S diagram, we see that the area under the curve is given as Q = ∮1 𝑇𝑑𝑆 (i.e. amount
of heat or thermal energy transferred in the process).
For a reversible process, the amount of work done over a cycle is given as
W = ∮𝑃𝑑𝑉 = ∮(𝑑𝑄−𝑑𝑈) = ∮(𝑇𝑑𝑆−𝑑𝑈) = ∮𝑻𝒅𝑺

Where, dU is an exact differential, its integral over any closed surface is zero.
The total amount of energy transformed at T 1 is given Q1 = T1 (S2 -S1 ) and total energy
transformed at T2 is given Q2 = T2 (S1-S2)
Hence, the total work done by the gas on the environment in one complete cycle is given by:
𝑾 = 𝑾𝟏→𝟐 + 𝑾𝟐→𝟑 + 𝑾𝟑→𝟒 + 𝑾𝟒→𝟏

𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟑
𝑾 = 𝝁𝑹𝑻𝟏 𝒍𝒏 − 𝝁𝑹𝑻𝟐 𝒍𝒏
𝒗𝟏 𝒗𝟒
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 =
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅
 𝒗𝟑
𝑾 𝑸𝟏 − 𝑸𝟐 𝑸𝟐 𝑻𝟐 𝒍𝒏 𝒗𝟒
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = = = 𝟏− = 𝟏−
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟏 𝑻𝟏 𝒍𝒏 𝒗𝟐
𝒗𝟏
𝟏
𝒗𝟐 𝑻
Since the step 2→3 is an adiabatic process, we can write T1V2γ-1 = T2V3 γ-1 Or, = (𝑻𝟐 )𝜸−𝟏
𝒗𝟑 𝟏
𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟏
𝒗𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝜸−𝟏
Similarly, for the process 4 →1, we can write = (𝑻 ) This implies, 𝒗𝟑 = 𝒗𝟐
𝒗𝟐 𝟏
𝑻𝟐
So, the expression for net efficiency of Carnot engine: 𝜼 = 𝟏 − 𝑻
𝟏

The block diagram of Carnot Engine and its four

precess

Q. What are Stirling’s engines? Describe it. Why Stirling engines are not used?
Ans: Stirling engines are a type of reciprocating external heat engine that uses one or more
pistons to achieve useful work through some input of heat from an external source.

They differ vastly from internal combustion engines.

1. Stirling engines use the same gas over and over, unlike internal combustion engines.
2. Stirling engines do not use explosions like normal gasoline engines, therefore they are
very quiet.
3. Stirling’s engines are less practical in most vehicles because they require external
heat, rather than internal heat.
4. The external source of heat needs extra time for the heat get the inside of the engines.
This heat transfer makes the engine far less responsive than internal combustion
engines.

5. Stirling engines have also been found to be largely impractical in power plants.

6. Stirling engines have low specific power (i.e. the engine has to be quite large in order to
 roduce a relatively small amount of power).

Schematic diagram of Stirling engine

Main Components of Engine:

Power piston: Small tightly sealed piston that moves up when the gas inside the engine expands.
Displacer: Large piston and it is very loose in its cylinder so air cam move easily between the
heated cooled sections of the engine as the displacer moves up and down.
These piston moves by the action of compression and expansion.
Difference in the pressure causes the piston to move and produce power.
Stirling Cycle: Stirling cycle was devised by Stirling, which consists of two isothermal
processes and two constant volume processes.

The P-V and T-S diagrams of this cycle are shown in the figure.
Following are the four cycles of an Ideal Stirling Cycle:
1. Heating Process (Constant volume Process 1→2)
2. Isothermal expansion (Process 2→3)
3. Cooling Process (Constant volume Process 3→4)
4. Isothermal Compression (Process 4→1)

1. Heating Process (1→2) : It is isochoric heat addition process. Both

temperature and pressure of the system increases due to
isochoric heat addition. It is thus obvious, that the heat is absorbed by the air
from regenerator during this process.
 2. Isothermal expansion (2→3): It is isothermal heat addition process.
Volume of the system increases due to isothermal heat addition.
A little drop in pressure also happens in this process.
Heat supplied = Work done during isothermal expansion.
3. Cooling Process (3→4) : It is isochoric heat removal process. Both temperature and
pressure of the system decreases due to isochoric heat removal.
4. Isothermal Compression (4→1): It is isothermal heat removal process. It is a compression
process hence pressure of the system increases and volume decreases.
Thus, the cycle is repeated.

Types of Stirling Engine: Several types of Stirling engines have been introduced for
different purposes, the most known and practical models are three types: Alpha type, Beta
type and Gamma type engine.
The working mechanism of all the three is same and based on gas expansion at higher
temperature and thermodynamic laws, but each type has individual designation.
1. Alpha Type engine:
It is the type (figure above) of Stirling engine in which 2 cylinders are used, one is the
expansion cylinder or hot cylinder which is equipped with the heat source and another is the
compression cylinder or cold cylinder which is having cooling device at its outer wall.
These 2 cylinders are connected with a common passage through which the exchange of cold
gas from the cold cylinder to the hot cylinder and hot gas from the hot cylinder to the cold
cylinder takes place.
Alpha stirling engine is the low power engine and is used for light load applications.

2. Beta Type:
It is a type of stirling engine in which a single cylinder and two piston is used which is equipped
with the heat source at the one end and a cooling device at the another end.
The exchange of hot gas from hot end to the cold end and from cold gas from cold end to the
 hot end is provided by the loosely fitted displacer, this displacer is connected to the crankshaft
or the flywheel that controls its motion inside the cylinder.
Beta stirling engine is the high power engine and is used for high load applications.

Q. What are internal combustion engines? How does an internal combustion engine work?

Ans: An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs
with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the
working fluid flow circuit.
In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high-
pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to pistons in the cylinder,
turbine blades,
rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming
chemical energy into useful work. Figure-1 shows the basic diagram of IC engine.

Fig.1 IC Engine
Working of Internal Combustion working:
Combustion or burning is the basic chemical process of releasing energy from a fuel
and air

mixture. In an IC engine, the ignition and combustion of the fuel occurs within the
engine itself.

The engine then partially converts the energy from the combustion to work. The engine
consists of a fixed cylinder and a moving piston. The expanding combustion gases push
the piston, which rotates the crankshaft.

There are two kinds of internal combustion engines:

(1) The Spark Ignition (SI) gasoline, petrol engine and
(2) The Compression Ignition (CI) diesel engine. Most of these are four-stroke cycle engines
(i.e. four piston strokes are needed to complete a cycle).
 The cycle in the combustion engine completes in four distinct steps: intake,
compression, combustion and power stroke and exhaust.
Internal combustion engines are classified by number of strokes:
(i) Two-stroke engine (ii) Clerk cycle (iii) Day cycle (iv) Four-stroke engine
(Otto cycle) ( v) Six-stroke engine

Fig.2

While there are many kinds of internal combustion engines, the four-stroke piston engine is one of
the most common. Fig.2 shows the four stages of a four strok internal combustion engine. It is
used in various automobiles like cars, trucks, and some motorbikes. A four stroke engine delivers
one power stroke for every two cycles of the piston. The explanation of the process is given below.

1. Fuel injection: Fuel is injected into the chamber.

2. Ignition: The fuel catches fire (this happens differently in a diesel engine than a gasoline
engine).
3. Expansion (work is done): This fire pushes the piston which is the useful motion.
4. Exhaust: The waste chemicals, by volume (or mass) this is mostly water vapour and carbon
dioxide.

Two Stroke IC Engine

Fig.3 2-stroke internal combustion engine

 The system only requires two piston movements in order to generate power. The two stroke engine is
allow to function with only two piston movements is that the exhaust and intake of the gas occurs
simultaneously, as seen in Fig 3.

The piston itself is utilized as the valve of the system, along with the crankshaft, to direct the flow of
the gases. In addition, due to its frequent contact with moving components, the fuel is mixed with oil
to add lubrication, allowing smoother strokes. Overall two-stroke engine contains two processes:

1. The air-fuel mixture is added and the piston moves upwards (compression). The inlet port is
opened up due to the position of the piston and the air-fuel mixture enters the holding chamber. A
spark plug ignites the compressed fuel and begins the power stroke.
2. The heated gas exerts high pressure on the piston, the piston moves downward (expansion), waste
heat is exhausted.

Q. What is a heat pump? What are types of heat pumps?

Ans: A heat pump is a device that transfers thermal energy between an enclosed space and the outdoors.
When used to heat a building, the energy is transferred from the outside environment into the building.
A heat pump can also work as an air conditioner by transferring heat from the building to the outside
environment.
Heat pumps offer an energy-efficient alternative to other heating appliance and air conditioners for all
climates. Heat pumps use electricity to transfer heat from a cool space to a warm space, making the
cool space cooler and the warm space warmer.
During the winter season, heat pumps use to move heat from the cool outdoors into your warm
house. During the summer season, heat pumps use to move heat from your house into the outdoors.
Types of Heat Pumps: There are three main types of heat pumps connected by ducts:
(i) Air source heat pumps: Air - air, Air - water
(ii) Ground source heat pump: Soil - air, Rock - air and Water - air
(iii) Ground water source: Soil-water, Rock-water and Water-water

They collect heat from the air, water, or ground outside your home and concentrate it for use
inside. The most common type of heat pump is the air-source heat pump.
Importance of Heat pumps: Today's heat pump can reduce your electricity use for heating by
approximately 50% compared to electric resistance heating (such as furnaces and baseboard
heaters). High-efficiency heat pumps also dehumidify better than standard central air conditioners,
resulting in less energy usage and more cooling comfort in summer months.

Q. Discuss working of heat pump with neat diagram.

Ans: A heat pump is a cyclically operating energy-consuming device. Its main objective is to heat a space in
home or a building with the help of external work. Heat is removed from the low temp environment by
 doing some external work and is added to the high-temperature environment environment. Generally,
the surrounding atmosphere acts as a high-temperature body for the heat pump.

A heat pump can be used in two modes either heating or cooling a controlled space. A typical heat
pump consists of following parts:
A compressor, an Evaporator, a condenser, an expansion valve device and other supporting parts.
A circulating working fluid commonly known as refrigerant. Heat pumps and refrigerators operate in
reversed cycles compared with heat engines.

When we use a heat pump in heating mode, its function is to absorb certain amount of the
heat Q2 from a source at lower temperature T2 and transfer to a region at higher temperature T1.

Coefficient of Performance (COP) Heat Sink T1

Indoor section
COP = Desired Effect/ Work Output
The desired effect for heat pump is to supply Q1
heat Q1 to the hot body, Working
fluid
Therefore, (COP) hp = Q1/ W Heat Pump Win = (Q1 – Q2)
𝑸𝟏
= Q2
(𝐐𝟏 – 𝐐𝟐)
Heat Source T2
Outdoor section
Fig.1 Block Diagram of Heat pump
in heating mode

In figure 2, heat pump is used as heating applications, the working fluid or refrigerant (In gaseous state)
is pressurized by a compressor and circulated through the system. The process of compression makes the
fluid hotter. High temperature and pressurized vapor discharge through a heat exchanger called condenser
where it condensed and cooled into a high pressure moderate temperature liquid. The high pressure of
condensed fluid (liquid plus vapor mixed state) is reduces using a device called an expansion valve where
its temperature and pressure is low. The fluid of low pressure liquid state passed through evaporator
section where it absorbed heat from outdoor atmosphere, its temperature increases and the refrigerant
returned to compressor and the cycle is repeated.

Fig.2 A simplest heat pump has four basic components (Heating cycle)
Heat Pump in cooling mode/Refrigeration mode
When a heat pump is used for refrigeration applications, at the start of the thermodynamic cycle (vapor
compression cycle) the refrigerant enters the compressor as a low pressure and low temperature vapor.
The pressure and temperature of the refrigerant is increased (superheated gas) when leave the
compressor. This hot pressurised gas then passes through the condenser where it releases heat to the
surroundings as it cools and condenses completely. The cooler high-pressure liquid next passes through
the expansion valve which reduces the pressure abruptly causing the temperature to drop
dramatically. The cold low pressure mixture of liquid and vapor next travels through the evaporator
where it vaporizes completely as it absorbs heat from the surroundings before returning to the compressor
as a low pressure low temperature vapor/gas to start the cycle again.

COP = Desired Output/Work Output

Heat Sink T1
outdoor section
The desired output for heat pump is to supply Q1
heat Q2 to the hot body,
Working
Therefore, (COP)Ref = Q2/ W fluid Win = (Q1 – Q2)
𝑸𝟐 Heat Pump
= Q2
(𝐐𝟏 – 𝐐𝟐)

Heat Source T2
Fig.2 Block Diagram of Heat pump in cooling mode indoor section

Q. Write the applications of refrigeration. What are differences between heat pump and
refrigeratior?
Ans: Applications of Refrigeration
1. In chemical industries, for separating and liquefying the gases.
2. In manufacturing and storing ice.
3. For the preservation of perishable food items in cold storages. For cooling water.
4. For controlling humidity of air manufacture and heat treatment of steels.
5. For chilling the oil to remove wax in oil refineries.
6. For the preservation of tablets and medicines in pharmaceutical industries.
7. For the preservation of blood tissues etc.,
 8. For comfort air conditioning the hospitals, theatres, etc.,

Differences between heat pump and refrigerator:

Refrigerator Heat Pump
1. The refrigerator carries the heat from low
1. The heat pumps carry the heat from low
temperature reservoir or the sink to the high
temperature reservoir or the sink to the high
temperature reservoir or source.
temperature reservoir or source.
2. The main purpose of the refrigerator is to
2. The main purpose of the heat pump is to heat
cool or freeze the substance.
the room during winter seasons.
3. It absorbs the heat from the evaporator and
3. In the heat pump, it absorbs the heat from the
throws it to the atmosphere at high
atmosphere at low temperature and throws it to
temperature.
the room which is at high temperature.
4. The evaporator is located in the freezer section
4. In the heat pump the evaporator is located
and the condenser is located outside the
outside the room and the condenser is located
refrigerator.
inside the room and it acts as the heating
5. In the refrigerator the evaporator performs the
devise.
main function of chilling or freezing, while
5. In the heat pump, condenser unit performs the
the condenser performs the function of
main function of heating the room.
delivering the heat to the atmosphere.
Q. What is Rankine cycle? Describe the different operations of the Rankine cycle with the help of
diagram.
Ans: The Rankine cycle or Rankine Vapor Cycle is the process widely used in the thermal power
plants or nuclear power plant. In this mechanism, a fuel is used to produce heat within a boiler,
converting water into steam which then expands through a turbine producing useful work. This is
a thermodynamic cycle which converts heat into mechanical energy—which usually gets transformed
into electricity by electrical generator. Figure-1 shows the module diagram for Rankine cycle.

Figure-1
The four processes of an ideal Rankine cycle are as follows;

 Process 1-2: Isentropic compression in a pump. Here the working fluid is pumped from low to high
pressure.
 Process 2-3: Constant pressure heat addition in the boiler. In this process, the high-pressure liquid is
added to the boiler and is heated at constant pressure to become a dry saturated vapour.
 Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion in a turbine. The dry saturated vapour expands through the turbine
resulting in the generation of power.
 Process 4-1: Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser. Wet vapour is condensed at a constant
pressure to become a saturated liquid.

Figure -2 shows the T-S diagram of Rankine cycle Fig. 3 P-V Diagram of Rankine Cycle
Q. What is power plant? Write various component/parts of power plant.

Ans: A power plant is an industrial facility that generates electricity from primary energy (coal, oil, natural gas,
uranium etc.). It is a power station where one form of energy (i.e. thermal energy or heat energy and other
form of energy) converted into electricity. Most power plants use one or more generators to
convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Solar power plants, which used photovoltaic
cells (instead of a turbine) to generate this electricity.

Fig.1

Components of a power plant:

1. Fuel: The type of fuel that provides a thermal power plant its primary energy is coal, natural gas,
and uranium (nuclear power).
Water, as fuel used for electricity generation in hydro power generation plant.
Other sources of primary energy flows that are used to generate electricity
include wind, solar, geothermal and tidal.
2. Furnace: The fuel is burned in a giant furnace to release heat energy.
3. Boiler: In the boiler, heat from the furnace flows around pipes full of cold water. The heat boils the
water and turns it into steam.
4. Turbine: A turbine is a device that harnesses the kinetic energy of steam, water, air, or
combustion gases and turns this into the rotational motion of the device itself.
5. Generator: The turbine is linked by an axle to a generator, so the generator spins around with the
turbine blades.
6. Condenser section and cooling tower: Boiling hot water from the steam turbine is cooled in a heat
exchanger called a condenser. A cooling tower is a device that rejects waste heat to
the atmosphere through the cooling of a coolant stream.
7. Electricity cables
8. Step-up transformer & Step-down transformer and other accessories.
Q. What are necessary requirements for construction power plants?
Ans: Factors to be considered while designing a power plant:

1. Availability of fuel, water source for cooling, rail line, pipe line connections.
2. Fuel sources and the cost of fuel transport and transportation facilities, space for storage of fuel.
3. Development of residence for employees.
4. Distance of power plant site to the load demand place, cost of land for power plant, testing of soil,
examination of geographical and environmental aspect of proposed site area.
5. Safety measures and management of disposal of plant waste, consideration of economical and social
aspect.

Q. What are the important points to design a power plant? Discuss mechanism of different types of
power plants in brief.

Ans:
1. A power plant is designed economically, so, power output to be determined from the estimated
maximum demand and anticipated growth and reserve capacity needed.
2. After determining the installation capacity the size and number of generating units are decided
according the load curve and load duration curve.
3. In order to follow the variable load curve closely the total plant capacity has to be subdivided into
several power units of different sizes.
4. In a power plant with many generating units, there must be some spinning reserve in order to maintain
the continuity of service.

Mechanism of power plant:

1. A thermal power plant is a power station in which heat energy is converted to electric power. The
working fluid is water and steam. The operation of a thermal power station closely resembles to
the Rankine Cycle. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins turbine which drives an electrical
generator. After passes through the turbine the steam is condensed in a condenser where it cool and
recycled using a pump. The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to the
different heat sources.
Thermal Power Plants fall into two different categories;
– Nuclear Power Plants,– Coal Power Plants
Follow figure-1 for sketch diagram of thermal power plant
A common example of a thermal power plant that produces electricity by the consumption of fuel
(Uranium) is the nuclear power plant. Nuclear power plants use a nuclear reactor’s heat to turn water into
steam.
2. Solar power plant: This type of plant uses the suns energy to convert into electricity.

This is achieved by using Photovoltaic, or PV panels, made up from a number of semiconductor cells that
release electrons when solar radiation is incident on solar panel and they are warmed by the thermal energy
of the sun.
Solar energy is one of the cleanest ways of generating electricity. They can be used in domestic
environments too, and with the aid of batteries, can reduce households’ energy consumption drastically
without burning any fossil fuels.

3. Hydro power plant: Hydroelectric Power Plants generate power by converting the force of water to
turn large generators. Water is stored at high altitude. When water falls from high head on the turbine,
turbine spinning and therefore electricity using generator connected with turbine. Hydroelectric Power
Plants fall into three different categories;
– Impoundment Power Plants
– Diversion Power Plants
– Pumped Storage Power Plants
4. Wind power plant: Wind power plants, also known as wind turbines, drives their energy from the
wind by connecting a generator to the fan blades and using the rotational motion caused by wind to
power the generator. Wind power plant can be implemented on large, open expanses of land or on large
bodies of water such as ocean.

Some thermal power stations are also designed to produce heat for industrial purposes, for district
heating, or desalination of water in addition to generating electrical power.