Energy Conversion

Dr. Ammar Alkhalidi

German Jordanian University
Energy Engineering Department
Ammar.alkhalidi@gju.edu.jo
 Chapter-1
Energy Basics:
Energy classification, resources and utilization
Energy is a property, when changed, it will produce heat and/ or
work
Major advances in human civilizations are measured by useful
energy consumption
Sometimes, energy consumption is not always useful.
For example: flaring of gas from oil wells and from refinery flares.
This is an energy consuming activity that is wasteful to the
economy and harmful to the environment.
TYPES OF
ENERGY
Mechanical,
Electromagnetic,
Electrical,
Chemical and Thermal
What is Mechanical Energy?
o Energy due to a
object’s motion (kinetic)
or position (potential).
The bowling ball has
mechanical energy.
When the ball strikes
the pins, mechanical
energy is transferred to
the pins!
Examples of Mechanical Energy
What is Electromagnetic
Energy?
• Light energy

• Includes energy from gamma

rays, xrays, ultraviolet rays,
visible light, infrared rays,
microwave and radio bands
What is Electrical Energy?

o Energy caused by
the movement of
electrons
o Easily transported
through power lines
and converted into
other forms of energy
What is Chemical Energy?

Energy that is
o
available for release
from chemical
reactions.
The chemical bonds in
a matchstick store
energy that is
transformed into
thermal energy when
the match is struck.
Examples of Chemical Energy
What is Thermal Energy?
o Heat energy
o The heat energy of an
object determines how
active its atoms are.
A hot object is one whose atoms and molecules
are excited and show rapid movement.

A cooler object's molecules and atoms will show

less movement.
QUIZ TIME!
What type of energy
cooks food in a
microwave oven?
ELECTROMAGNETIC
ENERGY
What type of energy is
the spinning plate inside
of a microwave oven?
MECHANICAL ENERGY
QUIZ TIME!
Electrical energy is
transported to your house
through power lines.
When you plug an electric fan
to a power outlet, electrical
energy is transform into what
type of energy?
MECHANICAL ENERGY
QUIZ TIME!

What energy transformation

occurs when an electric lamp is
turned on?

ELECTRICAL ENERGY

ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY
What types of energy are shown below?

Mechanical and Thermal Energy

(Don’t forget friction)
What type of energy is shown below?

Chemical Energy
What types of energy are shown below?

Electrical, Mechanical and

Electromagnetic Energy
What type of energy is shown below?

Chemical Energy (yummy)

What type of energy is shown below?

Thermal Energy
• Draw a flow map showing the flow of energy transformations in a car
from starting vehicle to driving. You should have 5 different types of
energy.
Energy Transfer
Sound
(mechanical)

Thermal
Mechanical

Electrical

Chemical

Light
(Electromagnetic)
 The 3-E's

Energy Economy Environment

Primary Energy
A quantity that any kind of energy can be expressed in its units.
For example, Jouls (J), kilojouls (kJ), Megajouls (MJ), Gigajouls (GJ)

British Thermal Unit (Btu), Million Btu (MBtu),

Ton of Oil Equivalent (T.O.E)……..used in countries that mostly use oil.
Barrel of Oil Equivalent (B.O.E)… . " " " " " " "
Ton of Coal Equivalent (T.C. E)….. " " " " " " coal.

For example, Jordan consumed 7.35 Million T.O.E in the year 2012.
All units are transferrable to each other. For example:
1 B.O.E = 5.8 x 106 Btu
1 T.O.E = 7 B.O.E
See App. B for more conversion factors.
 Energy vs. Economy

Define: Energy consumption per capita= Energy consumption/ population

Gross National Product (GNP) as the total economical activity in a country

including all goods and services.
GNP per capita = GNP/ population

The energy vs. economy situation in any country may be represented by Fig.1.1

Notes:
If both parameters are high → good
If both parameters are low → bad
If below the line this is better than above the line because there is saving in
energy for the same GNP.
 Energy and Power
Power = Energy / time = dE / dt
dE = P dt
E = ʃ P dt = P ʃ dt

Usually, in energy and power problems, the amount that is fixed is E

and t may be reduced to get higher P

An important feature of energy and power is that:

Energy is cumulative but power is not.
Energy can be stored but power cannot.
Units of Energy
In SI system In British system
E ≡ Joul = N.m E ≡ Btu, ft.lb
P ≡ Joul / sec = Watt P ≡ Btu / hr , ft.lbf / s
1 hp = 550 ft.lbf / s
1 kW = 1.341 hp
Now if 1 W = J/ s
Hence 1 J = W.s
1 kJ = 1 kw.s
= 1 kW-hr / 3600
1 kW-hr = 3600 kJ; a famous unit mostly used in
electricity generation.
Example:

A 100 W bulb is switched ON for 8 hours. If the price of electricity is 50

fils / kW-hr, what is the cost of energy consumed during that period?
Sol'n.
E = P. t = 100 x 8 x 3600 = 2.88 x 106 J = 2.88 x 103 kJ

= 2.88 x 103/ 3600 = 0.8 kW-hr

Energy Cost= 0.8 x 50 = 40 fils
What is Horsepower

Horsepower is a unit of power for measuring the rate at which a device

can perform mechanical work. Its abbreviation is hp or bhp (for brake
horse power). One horsepower was defined as the amount of power
needed to lift 33,000 pounds one foot in one minute.
Horsepower was defined by James Watt (1736-
1819), the inventor of the steam engine, who
determined after careful measurements that a horse
is typically capable of a power rate of 550 foot-
pounds per second.
Today the SI (International System of Units) unit of
power is named for Watt, and one horsepower is
equal to approximately 745.6999 watts.
Work = force x distance

• Work: the result of applying force

• Force: is a measurement in pounds
• Distance: is measured in feet

1. Work is defined as a force acting through a distance. Work is

done only when a force moves an object.
WORK = FORCE x DISTANCE

• No work is done by a force unless the force moves through a

distance.
• force = 20 pounds
• Distance = 50 feet
• Work = 1000 ft lbs
1.4 Energy Types and Classifications
1.4 Energy Types and Classifications, cont'd.

3- Electromagnetic

E=h×ν=hc/λ

Where: h is Plank's constant,

ν is the frequency,
c is the speed of light,
λ is the wavelength
Cannot be stored.

4- Chemical: mainly exothermic reaction; (Combustion)

The easiest to store: For example: hydrogen production

1.4 Energy Types and Classifications, cont'd.
1.5 Energy Sources

Energy Sources

Renewable, Celestial, or
Non-Renewable, Extraterrestrial
Capital, or
Terrestrial

Fossile Fuel: Solar,

Coal Wind
Petroleum, Shale Wave
oil, Hydro
Tar sand Tide
Gas OTEC (Ocean Thermal Energy
Nuclear Conversion)
Geothermal
1.6 Energy Reserves
1.6 Energy Reserves, cont'd.

One can concentrate on fossil fuels because they are the most
consumable energy sources during the late 1980's. Select the most
important ones:

Shale oil: 1.2 × 1021 J

Tar sand: 1.8 × 1021 J
Natural gas: 9.5 × 1021 J
Petroleum: 11.7 × 1021 J
Total: 24.2 × 1021 J

In 1986, the energy consumption in the world was 24 × 1019 J, which

means that the worlds energy reserves may be enough for about 100
years, given the consumption remained the same as that of 1986.
 1.6 Energy Reserves, cont'd.

Considering coal reserves: 200 × 1021 J

This will add about 833 years in order to consume coal, but coal has the problem of
pollution due to high sulfur content.

Considering Uranium 235 reserves: 13.7 × 1021 J

This will add 57 years to consume it,
but there is a safety problem here.

Considering solar power on the U.S. only: 187,000 × 1021 W.

× 3600 × 24 × 365 = 58.9 × 1021 J
Which is about 2.4 times of the fossil fuel reserves, but it is costly.
Considering wind power on the U.S. only: 970 × 1010 W
× 3600 × 24 × 365 = 0.3 × 1021 J
Which is enough for about 1.25 of the world's needs, but it is costly.

CONCLUSION: THERE IS NO MAJIC SOLUTION, ECCEPT WITH

CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT AND INVESTMENT IN
RENEWABLE ENERGY.
1.7 Energy Utilization
Energy Utilization in Jordan
Energy Supply and Consumption
 1.8 Energy Growth
Fig. 1.9 shows the growth of power vs. time.
Energy Growth, cont’d.
Energy Growth, cont’d.
Energy Consumption
Example on energy growth

If the world consumed its present energy reserves in a

period of a doubling time, and if new reserves
amounting to 10 times the present reserves were
discovered at the end of the doubling time, how many
years and doubling times the new reserves would last,
if the world's growth rate remained constant and
equals to 2.8%.
Example on energy growth, cont’d.

Sol'n.
Since the reserves may be expressed as ENERGY
CONSUMPTION.

Let the present reserves be E1, and let the energy consumption
since the beginning of history up to time t1 be Eo.
Sketch the problem on that basis:
 1.9 Energy Economics
Define the plant as any conversion device. It ranges from a solar
collector to a power station. The cost of the plant is divided into
two main categories:
1- Capital cost
A fixed amount to be paid, no matter if the plant was
operating or not. It covers: Equipment, Construction, Land
costs, Investment charges, Insurance and Taxes. This cost is
spread over a number of years to get the annual capital cost.
2- Operational cost
Varies with power production. It covers Fuel, Maintenance,
Salaries, Wages and in some cases, Production taxes.
 How to obtain capital cost
Assume a plant will be bought, for example, a solar collector system.

Define: Present (or Principal) value, Pr as the original cost of the plant,
if all of it was paid (cash) at once.

Define: Final worth of the plant after t years, as the money value of the
plant if, instead, the capital was put in the bank and the interest was
collected. If the investment was compounded n times a year at a rate of
i / year, the final worth is:
How to obtain capital cost ,cont’d.

Which can be represented by the Figure shown.

Final worth of Energy payments
Instead of installing the plant, assume that energy will be
bought from the electric company.
Final worth of Energy payments ,cont’d.
Effective short-term interest rate
Final worth with price escalation

If A is not constant, but varies over time due to price escalation

at a rate, e
based on m payments per year, and if the first payment was A1
, the final worth is:
 Breakeven Point
The year at which the final worth of money paid by the first method
equals to that of the second method plus a salvage value, SV.
Salvage Value, SV:
The price that the plant can be sold for at the breakeven point.
 Effective Value of Pr
Large electrical generating stations typically have a construction period of 3 to 15 years.
Since money is spent during the entire construction period and prices and wages will
probably escalate due to inflation, the effective value of the plant before it goes into
operation, Pr, is considerably larger than the actual cash outlay during the construction
period. If p construction payments of R, dollars are made each year, and assuming that
these payments could earn an annual interest rate of i percent/year compounded p
times a year, the value of the investment at plant startup is:
 Operating Cost
1- Fuel Cost
Define: Heat Rate, HR, as the amount of heat units required to
produce
1 kW-h of electric energy
Relation with ηth
From the definition of thermal efficiency:
ηth = Work output / heat input = 1kWe –h / Heat Rate
In British units: In SI units
If HR is in Btu/kWe-hr If HR is in kJ/kWe- hr
We know that: 1 kW = 3412 Btu/hr 1 kW = 1 kJ/s
ηth = 3412 / HR ηth = 3600 / HR
HR = 3412 / ηth HR = 3600 / ηth
 Operating Cost , cont’d.

Define: Unit fuel cost ≡ Cost of fuel / kWe –hr

If the price of fuel is f, cents/ 106 Btu then
Unit fuel cost = f [cents/ 106 Btu] × HR [Btu/kWe- hr]
= [ f / 106]. [3412 / ηth] = 0.003413 f / ηth [cent/kWe-hr]
2- Labor Cost
Define: Unit labor cost = 1.14 × 10-5 N. AS / Pmax . CF
Where: N is the number of workers,
AS is the average annual salary, $
Pmax is rated output, MWe,
CF is the capacity factor ≡ average load / installed capacity
 Chapter-2
Principal Fuels
Principal Fuels
Fossile Fuels: Origin

- Coal Plant Life

- Biomass Plant Life
- Oil Marine Life
- Oil shale Marine Life
- Tar sand Marine Life
- Natural gas Plant and Marine life
Parraffin Series, Saturated
10
 Standard Fuels:
• Octane Number
• For a fuel which exhibits knocking at a certain compression
conditions, it is the ratio of iso-octane in a mixture of octane and
natural heptane such that knocking properties of the mixture are
the same as that given by that fuel.

• Cetane Number
• The same, but for Diesel fuel.
Engine Compression Ratio
• Cooperative Fuel Research Engine (CFR)
• A variable compression engine that is used to
measure Octane and cetane Number.
• Compression ratio may be varied from 4:1 to 14:1.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPYlNR16q3k
Brand Kia Brand Ferrari
Model Sephia Model California
Generation Sephia II Generation California
Engine 1.5 i 16V GL (88 Hp) Engine 4.3 V8 (490Hp)
Doors 4 Doors 2
Power 88 hp
Power 490 hp
Maximum speed 180 km/h
Maximum speed 312 km/h
Acceleration from
11.8 sec Acceleration from standstill
standstill to 100 km/h 3.8 sec
to 100 km/h
Fuel tank volume 50 l
Year of putting into Fuel tank volume 78 l
2000 year Year of putting into
production 2012 year
Coupe type Sedan production
Seats 5 Coupe type Coupe
Length 4427 mm. Seats 4
Width 1711 mm. Length 4562 mm.
Height 1415 mm. Width 1909 mm.
Wheelbase 2560 mm. Height 1322 mm.
Front track 1465 mm. Wheelbase 2670 mm.
Rear (Back) track 1455 mm. Front track 1630 mm.
Minimum volume of Rear (Back) track 1605 mm.
370 l
Luggage (trunk) Minimum volume of
Maximum amount of 340 l
692 l Luggage (trunk)
Luggage (trunk)
Position of engine Front, lengthwise
Position of engine Front, transversely
Volume of engine 4297 cm3
Volume of engine 1498 cm3
Max power in 7750 rpm.
Max power in 5000 rpm.
Torque 505/5000 Nm
Torque 135/4000 Nm
Fuel System Direct injection
Fuel System Multi-point injection
Position of cylinders Inline Position of cylinders V engine

Number of cylinders 4 Number of cylinders 8

Diameter of cylinders Diameter of cylinders (bore) 94 mm.

78 mm.
(bore)
Stroke in the cylinder 78.4 mm. Stroke in the cylinder 77.4 mm.
Compression ratio 9.3 Compression ratio 12.2
Higher Heating Value (HHV)
• It is the energy obtained from burning a fuel if
the combustion products are cooled down to the
temperature at which water vapor coming out of
the combustion condenses.

• For example, if 1 kg of coal is burned on a dry,

ash-free basis, its components ( C, H2, O2 and N2)
have higher percentages because they are free
of moisture and ash.
Higher Heating Value (HHV)

• If the combustion products are not cooled down to the temperature

at which water vapor coming out of the combustion condenses, the
lower heating value (LHV) is obtained.

• HHV – LHV = 2,400( M + 9 H2) (kJ/kg) (2.3)

 Coal Proximate Analysis
The proximate analysis is the simplest coal analysis and gives the mass
fractions of fixed carbon (FC), volatile matter (VM), ash (A), and moisture (M)
in the coal. This analysis can be determined by simply weighing. heating, and
burning a small sample of powdered coal.

The coal sample is carefully weighed and then heated to 110°C (230°F) for 20
min. The sample is then weighed again and the mass loss is divided by the
original mass to obtain the moisture fraction . The remaining sample is heated
to 954°c (1750°F) in a closed container for 7 min. The sample is then
reweighed and the resulting mass loss in this heating process is divided by the
original mass to obtain the fraction of the volatile matter in the sample.
 Coal Proximate Analysis

The sample is then heated to-732°C (1350°F) in an open crucible until it is

completely burned. The residue is then weighed and the final weight is divided
by the original weight to obtain the ash fraction. The mass fraction of fixed
carbon is obtained by subtracting the moisture, volatile matter, and ash
fractions from unity. In addition to the FC, VM, M, and A, most proximate
analyses list separately the sulfur mass fraction (S) and the higher heating value
(HHV) of the coal.
• If it is burned on as- burned (or as- received or as- mined) basis, those
percentages are less. Therefore, in order to convert from dry, ash-free to
the other basis multiply by a factor of (1-M-A), called the MULTIPLIER.

• Hence, As-burned mass fraction = Dry, ash-free mass fraction × (1-M-A)

• Similarly, As burned HHV = Dry, ash-free HHV × (1-M-A)

• HHV may be approximately obtained by Dulong's Formula:

• HHV = 33,950 C + 144,200 ( H2 - O2/ 8 ) + 9400 S (kJ/kg) (2.4)

Example problem 2.1.a
• Appendix E:
Typical Coal Analysis
 Biomass Fuels
Defined as: matter which has recently been produced directly or indirectly from the
photosynthesis process.

• They include:
Wood and plants
Animals that consume plants
Organic wastes such as garbage, sewage sludge …etc.

• Heating values are shown in Appendix C.

• Classification of biomass fuels are shown at the end of Appendix C.

• A diagram of small starved air refuse combustion system is shown in Fig.

• 2.2.
Petroleum
These are fuels that remain in the distillation column in petroleum refineries
after the removal of LPG and gasoline. They are classified in 6 classes according
to the following properties:-

1. Specific gravity
• Defined as: Density of oil at 60 oF / Density of water at 60 oF Expressed as Sp.gr.(60/60oF)

2. API gravity
• Related to the Sp. Gr. by the expression:

• oAPI = [141.5 / Sp.Gr.(60/60oF)] – 131.5

• Which ranges from 5 to 50, the higher the lighter.

The 6 grades of fuel are:
Fuel properties Continue
3. Heating value

• Usually, the HHV is reported because oil has a much less moisture content
than coal.

• Heating value is related to API gravity through the following empirical

• Equations:
• Fig. 2.6 gives HHV, Sp. Gr.,
density and total heat of
combustion in terms of API
gravity for petroleum
derivatives.
Fuel properties Continue
4. Flash point
Minimum temperature at which the fuel vapor ignites. If the ignition flame is taken
away, the flame goes off. (See App. G)
For example,
For kerosene: 130 oF (54.4 oC)
For Diesel: 78- 80 oC.
5. Fire point
Minimum temperature at which the fuel vapor burns. The flame
is sustained even if the ignition flame is removed.
For example:
https://youtu.be/suce6QNkVRI?t=75
For kerosene: o
78 - 80 C
For Diesel: 80 - 90 oC
Fuel properties Continue

6. Pour point
Minimum temperature at which the fuel flows
7. Viscosity
8. Sulfur content
9. Vanadium content

10. Specific heat

This is important to calculate energy required to heat-up the fuel.
It ranges from about 1.67 to 2 kJ/kg oC.
Fuel properties Continue
11. Thermal expansion coefficient
This is important to calculate the actual volume of fuel when purchased.
For example, if one buys a fuel at a temperature t that is different from
the base temperature to and volume Vo at which the fuel was made, the
volume becomes:

• Vt = Vo [ 1 + 0.0004 ( t – to) ]

And if the base temperature is 20 oC, for example, then the density of the
fuel ρo at that temperature becomes
• ρt = ρ20 [ 1 - 0.00073 ( t – 20) ]
Problem 2.5
THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION OF STATE
• Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and
specific volume of a substance.
• The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances in the gas phase is
the ideal-gas equation of state. This equation predicts the P-v-T behavior of a gas
quite accurately within some properly selected region.

Ideal gas equation

of state

R: gas constant
M: molar mass (kg/kmol)
Ru: universal gas constant

Different substances have different

gas constants.
34
Mass = Molar mass  Mole number Ideal gas equation at two
states for a fixed mass

Real gases
behave as an ideal
Various
gas at low
expressions densities (i.e., low
of ideal gas pressure, high
equation temperature).

The ideal-gas
relation often is not
applicable to real
gases; thus, care
should be exercised
when using it.

Properties per
unit mole are
denoted with a
bar on the top. 35
Gaseous Fuels
Most common is Natural Gas,
• A mixture of Methane, CH4, HHV = 36,730 kJ/m3 = 986 Btu/ft3
and Ethane, C2H6,
LPG:
• A mixture of 25% propane, C3H8 HHV = 106,867 kJ/m3 = 3029 Btu/ft3
and 75% butane, C4H10
Note that the HHV on volumetric basis increases with the increase of
carbon ratio in the compound, and visa-versa on mass basis.
Manufactured Gas:
• Town Gas
Coal + heat = Coke + VM ; HHV = 550 – 600 Btu/ft3
• Water Gas
Coal + H2O+heat = H2 + CO; HHV = 250 – 325 Btu/ft3
• Producer Gas
Coal + H2O + O2 = H2 + CO + N2 + CH4 + C2H6; HHV = 100 – 180 Btu/ft3
Mixtures of Gases
The HHV for a mixture of gases may be calculated if the HHV for each
component is known using the relationship:

(HHVv) Tr, Pr = Σ (HHVv)i, Pr, Tr × Vi

Where:
HHVv is the higher heating value of the mixture on volumetric basis,
(HHVv)i, Pr, Tr is the higher heating value of each component of the
mixture at a reference pressure and temperature pr and Tr
Vi is the mole (volumetric ) fraction of the component.
If the (HHVv) Tr, Pr is known and it is required to calculate it at any other
pressure and temperature, the following relation may be used:

(HHVv) T, P = (HHVv) Pr, Tr × p Tr / pr T

To convert (HHVv) to (HHVm), divide by ρ, where ρ = p × MW / Ru T,

Where MW is the Molecular Weight (or Molar Mass) of gas mixture,
MW = Σ MWi × Vi
 Chapter- 3
Production of Thermal Energy
Production of Thermal Energy
By conversion of:
Mechanical energy, such as friction.

Electrical energy, such as in I2R heating.

Electromagnetic energy, such as in microwave

oven.

Chemical energy, such as in combustion of Carbon,

Hydrogen and Sulfur.
Combustion reactions
Hydrogen & Sulfur
Air Components

23.2%
Combustion Mechanics
• Combustion could be one of two ways:
Combustion Mechanics
• Yellow flame is desired in large boilers because it produces larger
radiation heat transfer → less combustion temperature → less NOx
• Blue flame is desired in gas stoves because it produces localized
heating, less soot and hot flame.
 Theoretical Air/fuel Ratio
On mass basis
Let the mass fractions of carbon, hydrogen and sulfur be C, H , and 2

S, respectively. For 1 kg of fuel, we need:

(C ) × (2.66) = ……….kg of O to burn C in 1 kg of fuel

mass fraction 2
(H ) × (7.94) = ………kg of O to burn H in 1 kg of fuel
2 mass fraction 2 2
(S ) × (0.998) = ……….kg of O to burn S in 1 kg of fuel
mass fraction 2

Total = ………. kg of O to burn 1 kg of fuel

2
Theoretical Air/fuel Ratio
But if the fuel includes some oxygen, it has to be subtracted:

(O ) × (- 1.0) = - …….. kg of O in the fuel

2mass frction 2
difference = ……… kg of O required from air per kg of fuel
2

Define: Theo. A/F ratio on Gravemetric (mass) and Dry basis ( Air
entering the combustion process has no moisture in it):

• (A / F) = ……..kg O2 / 0.232
T, G, D

• (A / F) = (2.66 C + 7.94 H2 + 0.998 S – O2) / 0.232

T, G, D
Coal A/F ratio
𝐴
• As Burned mass fraction Analyses
𝐹

𝐴
• Dry Ash free mass fraction Analyses
𝐹
Example Problem 3.1:
Actual Air/fuel Ratio
Actual combustion needs:

Mixing: Fuel / air mixture should be available

Air: enough air should be available

Temperature: a certain temperature should be reached before combustion.

time: enough time should be available

Density of mixture: the mixture should reach certain proportions in order for
the combustion to commence.
 Actual Air/fuel Ratio
There are two ways of expressing the amount of air supplied for a given
combustion process-the dilution coefficient and the percent excess air. The
dilution coefficient is defined as the ratio of the actual to the theoretical air-fuel
ratios, or:

The actual air-fuel ratio for a given combustion process is normally estimated
from an experimental measurement of the gaseous components of the exhaust
gas. There are several ways of experimentally determining the concentration of
the various gas compounds in a mixture of gases.
Orsat Apparatus
Used to measure
volumetric or molar
fraction of CO, CO , O
2 2

and N in dry exhaust

2

gas. Moisture and SO2

are assumed to be
trapped in water in the
burett.
An orsat analysis is required and is usually sufficient to determine the
actual air-fuel ratio when burning a gaseous fuel or a liquid fuel.

One important additional analysis is needed to evaluate the actual air-fuel

ratio when burning a solid fuel such as coal. This is the refuse analysis.
The refuse analysis is simply an experimental determination of the higher
heating value, HHV, of the refuse. This analysis can be reported in units of
the amount of energy per unit mass of refuse (kJ/kg or Btu/Ibm) or as the
mass fraction of unburned carbon or percent combustible in the refuse.

If the refuse analysis is given in terms of the higher heating value of the
refuse, the percent combustible can be found by dividing the refuse
heating value by the heating value of pure carbon:
Gas Analyzer
• An electronic
apparatus that gives
the same analysis
for combustion
products, in
addition to H2S, NOx,
SOx and HC.
Actual A/F ratio
• The Actual A / F ratio on mass basis is given by:

• It can be shown that the actual A / F ratio on mole basis is given by:
 Air /Fuel Ratio on Mole Basis
• Let the Figure shown represent 1 mole of fuel, which
is composed of j components. Each component is
composed of a number of elements i. Let Zi be the
number of moles of atoms of element i in a mole of
fuel. (which may be called elemental mole fractions).
• Let νj be the mole fraction of the component j in the
fuel mixture.
• Zi = Σ νj× no. of atoms of element i in the component
molecule.
Recall
 Molar Base (A/F)
• Theo. A/F ratio on volumetric (mole) and Dry basis ( Air entering the
combustion process has no moisture in it) may be given as:

• And in order to convert to gravimetric basis, the following Eqn. is used:

Where the mol. wt. (or molar mass) of fuel may that is composed of
several components i may be obtained from the relation:
(MW)fuel = Σ (MW)i × Vi
Where (MW)i is the mo. Wt. of each component and Vi is the mole
fraction of that component.
 Example
• A fuel gas is composed of 50% CH4, 40% C2H6, 5% H2S and 5% O2. Find the
elemental mole fractions of this fuel.
 Chapter-4
Fossil-Fuel Systems
 4.2.4 Draft Systems
Helps in introducing air in and moving air out of the
power plant

 Natural:
Based on density difference in chimney and the ambient
air as a driving force, since ρ2 > ρ1

Hence, Δp = (ρ2 - ρ1) g h

The only way to increase Δp is

• Increase h, causes structural problems
• Reduce ρ1 , requires raising gas temperature, which causes
heat losses.
Mechanical Draft
The difference between ID fan and FD fan
A forced draft fan will draw in air and force it into the combustion
chamber of the boiler, where it mixes with the fuel being supplied.

FD fans are typically used to regulate the proper amount of air-to-fuel

ratios in an effort to maximize fuel efficiency and to minimize EPA-
regulated emissions, such as NOx (Nitrogen Oxides).

Induced Draft fans are commonly used to draw flue gases from the
combustion chamber and through the rest of the system to the stack.
They help most to regulate the pressure inside of the boiler system.
 Volumetric flow rate of air:
For Forced Driven (F.D.) fan, if the moisture in combustion air is neglected,
the volumetric flow rate flow rate of air may be given by the Eqn.:

QFD = Fuel rate (A / F)A,G,D (Ru T / 28.97p )

But if the moisture (ω) in combustion air is considered, the previous Eqn.
is modified as follows:

QFD = Fuel rate (A / F)A,G,D (Ru T / p)[( 1/28.97) + (ω /18.016)]

For Induced Driven (I.D.) fan, it is usually difficult to determine the MW of

gas, therefore assume it the same as that of air.
A single-s rage, 5000 hp, forced-draft fan and a two-stage, 12,000-hp,
induced-draft fan. (From Editors of Power Magazine, 1976.)
Mass flow rate of air:
Obtain first an expression for (A/F)A.G,W:

( A / F )A,G,W = ( A / F )A,G,D ( 1 + ω )

Where ω = 0.622 pw /pair

• pw is the partial pressure of H2O in the air and pw = φ psat
• For F.D. Fan = Fuel rate × ( A / F )A,G,W
• For I.D. Fan = Fuel rate × [ ( A / F )A,G,W + 1.0 – R ]

• See example 3.1 for more details.

Methods of Combustion of fossil Fuels
1. Burning bed, such as in travelling chain Stoker, Fig. 4.11.
2. Travelling flame front, such as in I.C. Engines and solid rocket
motors.
3. Burner tourch, which could be for Gas, Atomized liquid or Solid fuel
4. Fluidized bed.
1- travelling chain or grate stoker
Solid fuel, usually crushed coal is fed into a coal hopper by means of
conveyor belts.
The coal flows by gravity from the hopper onto the grate. Primary air
flows from below the coal bed where combustion takes place.
Secondary air is blown at the top of the bed from over fire air nozzles
and combustion is completed as the grate travels down to the end of
the stoker where ash is dropped in the ash pit.
2. Travelling flame front, such as in I.C.
Engines and solid rocket motors.

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yBSqfHIEgho

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DacGl9drefg
 3- Gas Burners
Gas is issued at the center of the burner where it draws air by Venturi
action. This part of air necessary for combustion is called primary air and
is mixed with gas along the Venturi tube where pre-mixing occurs.
Complete combustion takes place after the flame is issued out of the
tube where it is mixed with secondary air.
3-Gas burners,
cont'd.
• Refractory gas burners are
used to protect the
metallic parts of the
burners from over
heating.
3-Gas burners,
cont'd.
Fan-mix burners are used
to introduce gas from
nozzles mounted at angles
in a rotating distributer.
The resulting reaction
force turns the distributer
and an attached fan which
produces thorough mixing
and the combustion
occurs very close to the
burner.
3-Oil burners
3-Oil burners

Steam may be used to

atomize oil in the burner
(a). Alternatively, air may
be used to atomize and
further combust the fuel.
3-Oil burners, cont'd.
Rotary cup burners are used
for high capacity and steady
load boilers. Oil is sprayed on
the inside surface of a cup
that rotates at about 3,500
rpm creating swirls of oil
which are faced with
opposite swirls of air and the
result is mixing fuel with
primary air which enters at
the tip of the cup.
-Fuel oil supply and
distribution system

• https://youtu.be/PkrgGXYcHRs?t=15
• https://youtu.be/wgLc-WnwBMk?t=5
4-Fluidized bed system

This system is used mainly to control pollution through reducing the

combustion temperature of 820 to 950oC by immersing the boiler tubes
inside the fluidized bed combustion. Also SOx emission may be controlled
by introducing CaO and CaCO3 in the bed.
Fig. 4.18 Fluidized bed combustion system
4.4 STEAM GENERATORS
The steam generator or boiler is a combination of systems and
equipment for the purpose of converting chemical energy from fossil
fuels into thermal energy and transferring the. resulting thermal energy
to a. working fluid, usually water, for use in high-temperature processes
or for partial conversion to mechanical energy in a turbine.

In most modern large power plants, one boiler is used to supply steam
to one steam-turbine generator unit. The boiler complex includes the
ductwork and air-handling equipment, the fuel-handling and
processing equipment, the furnace, the water supply and treatment
system, the steam drums and piping, the exhaust gas system, and the
pollution control systems including scrubber and electrostatic
precipitator or baghouse filter.
The heat-transfer sections of a large boiler include the evaporator, the
superheater, the reheater, the air preheater, and the economizer
sections. The evaporator, superheater, and reheater surfaces are called
primary heat-transfer surfaces, while the air preheater and economizer
are called secondary heat-transfer surfaces. A schematic of a typical,
large, pulverized-coal steam generator is depicted an energy flow
diagram for a typical large steam generator is shown in Fig. 4.20.
 4.4.2 Boiler Types and Classifications
Steam boilers can be classified many ways but there are actually two basic
types of steam generators, depending on the orientation of the water-steam
and hot-gas flow paths. These two general classifications are the fire-tube
boilers and the water-tube boilers.

The common fire-tube boiler is essentially composed of a water-filled pressure

vessel containing a number of tubes which are the passageways for the hot
exhaust gas arid through which heat is transferred from the hot gas to the
water in the vessel. This system is the simplest and probably the least
expensive of all the steam generators.
1- Fire-tube
boilers
fire-tube boiler Continue
In the fire-tube system, the high-pressure water is placed on the
external surface of the tubes. Since most pressure-vessel codes will
limit the external pressure on a tube to half that for internal pressure,
the fire-tube systems are limited to relatively low steam pressures. The
maximum drum diameter is around 2.5 m (8ft) and the maximum
steam pressure is limited to about 1.7 Mpa (250 psia), although most of
the systems normally operate at a pressure of about 1 MPa (150 psia).

Another problem associated with the fire-tube boiler is the

consequence of a major tube failure. In the event of a sudden tube
failure, the high-pressure water flows into the hot combustion
chamber, generating large quantities of steam in the furnace. This is
likely to produce a steam explosion in the furnace.
2- Water-wall boilers
 2- Water-wall boilers continue
The water-tube boilers are best suited for high-pressure, high-capacity steam
generators. The high-pressure water and the steam flows from tube headers or
drums through tubes in the furnace walls or in tube bundies mounted in the
exhaust gas duct.
These tubes range from 0.05 to 0.1 m (2 to 4 in) in diameter and can withstand
boiler pressures up to 35 MPa (5000 psia). The water-tube steam generators
can be classified according to the shape of the tubes, the position of the drums,
the number of drums, the method of circulation, the type of service (stationary
or marine), or the capacity and thermal conditions of the outlet steam. Because
of the large exhaust gas ductwork in a water-tube steam generator, danger of a
steam explosion in the event of a catastrophic tube failure is lessened.
4.4.5 Boiler Rating and Performance
Boiler efficiency, Direct Method
• This is also known as ‘input-output method’ due to the fact that it
needs only the useful output (steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for
evaluating the efficiency. This efficiency can be evaluated using the
formula
• Parameters to be monitored for the calculation of boiler efficiency by direct
method are :
• Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q) in kg/hr.
• Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in kg/hr.
• The working pressure (in kg/cm2(g)) and superheat temperature (oC), if any
• The temperature of feed water (oC)
• Type of fuel and gross calorific value of the fuel (GCV) in kcal/kg of fuel

Where, hg – Enthalpy of saturated steam in kcal/kg of steam

hf - Enthalpy of feed water in kcal/kg of water
Advantages of direct method
• Plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers
• Requires few parameters for computation
• Needs few instruments for monitoring

Disadvantages of direct method:

• Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of
system is lower
• Does not calculate various losses accountable for various
efficiency levels
Indirect Method
There are reference standards for Boiler Testing at Site using indirect
method namely British Standard, BS 845: 1987 and USA Standard is
‘ASME PTC-4-1 Power Test Code Steam Generating Units’.

Indirect method is also called as heat loss method. The efficiency can
be arrived at, by subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100.
 The principle losses that occur in a boiler are:
• Loss of heat due to dry fluegas
• Loss of heat due to moisture in fuel and combustion air
• Loss of heat due to combustion of hydrogen
• Loss of heat due to radiation
• Loss of heat due to unburnt

In the above, loss due to moisture in fuel and the loss due to combustion of
hydrogen are dependent on the fuel, and cannot be controlled by design.
 The data required for calculation of boiler efficiency
using indirect method are:
• Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2, O2, S, C, moisture content, ash content)
• Percentage of Oxygen or CO2 in the flue gas
• Flue gas temperature in 0C (Tf)
• Ambient temperature in 0C (Ta) & humidity of air in kg/kg of dry air.
• GCV of fuel in kcal/kg
• Percentage combustible in ash (in case of solid fuels)
• GCV of ash in kcal/kg (in case of solid fuels)
≡ Dilution Coefficient (DC)
ii. Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel
 Chapter- 6
Environmental Impact of Power Plant Operation
 Introduction
The design, location, construction, and operation of electrical power
generation facilities have been markedly affected by the concern for the
environment. As was discussed earlier, the power engineer of today must have
a sincere concern for the environment but must also be concerned with
producing enough power to meet the public demand with as low a cost as
possible.

The power engineer must also be knowledgeable about the rules and laws
governing power plant operation and keep in mind what the public will or will
not accept. Meeting all five of these considerations, i.e., the "five P's" of
energy conversion (power, pennies, pollution, politics, and prejudice), is one
of the major problems facing modern society.
 Clean Air Act
For power plants > 25 MWe, the Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) of the US
declared the Clean Air Act in 1971, which was modified in 1983 to deal with the
following pollutants:

1. Particulate matter, which is dust

The maximum 2 h average permitted is ˂ 0.03 lbm / million Btu input thermal
energy

Classified as:
1. Fumes ˂ 1 μm
2. Smoke ˂ 10 μm, Visible only in aggregate
3. Dust ˂ 100 μm
4. Ash ≈ 100 μm → Fly ash
5. Ash > 100 μm → Cinders
Smoke
aggregate
 Particulate removal
Fig. 6.3 shows four techniques:

-Upper left: sudden decrease of gas

sudden decrease of gas velocity Abrupt change in direction
velocity.
-Upper right: Abrupt change in Impingement on a series of baffles Cinder-vane fan
direction.
-Lower left: Impingement on a
series of baffles.
All Above could be used as Cinder
Catchers, for crushed coal furnaces
-Lower right: Cinder-vane fan
Particulate removal, Collection efficiency
Define:, ηcoll = mass of dust removed /mass of dust present

For the mechanical dust collection systems in Fig. 6.3, ηcoll = (50-75) %
A cyclone Dry particulate-
removal system
A cyclone wet
particulate-removal
system
Electrostatic Precipitators
Gases flow between high voltage
electrodes and collector plates. The
particles acquire a charge from the
negatively charged wires at (30,000-
60,000 V) and are attracted to the
plates. ηcoll = 99 %

Disadvantages: Explosion may occur

if unburned gas passes through.

Does not work properly for high

resistivity ash.
 Baghouse filters

Particles are removed when the gases

flow through filters in the direction
shown. The bags are either shaken
(bottom right) or the gas flow is reversed
momentarily ( bottom left and center)
which causes the bags to get rid of the
particles.

The trend is towards this technique

How to calculate mass rate of SO2
Back to the combustion reaction of sulfur
S + O2 → SO2
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
32 kg 32 kg 64 kg
1 kg 2 kg
Mass rate of SO2 = Coal rate × S × 2
Where S is sulfur mass fraction, as burned.
2. Sox,
The EPA regulations relate SOx emissions to the sulfur mass fraction in the coal
and the HHV in the coal burned.

Define: Theoretical SO2 production rate, ℘s, lbm/ Mbtu

℘s = 2 × 106 S / (HHV)Btu = 4.65 × 106 S / (HHV)kJ
Where S and HHV are on Dry, ash-free or as-received basis.

Define: Allowable release rate, Rs , lbm SO2 / Million Btu in.

For ℘s ˂ 2 lbm SO2 / MBtu, → Rs = 0.3, ℘s lbm SO2 / MBtu
2 ˂ ℘s ˂ 6 lbm SO2 / MBtu, → Rs = 0.6, ℘s lbm SO2 / MBtu
6 ˂ ℘s ˂ 12 lbm SO2 / MBtu → Rs = 0.1 ℘s, ℘s lbm SO2 / MBtu
℘s > 12 lbm SO2 / MBtu → Rs = 1.2, ℘s lbm SO2 / MBtu
The FW-Bergbau Forshung absorption Process for
Sulfur Recovery
The Lime-Limestone FGD Nonregenerative Process(
Throw away)
The process that occurs in the
SO2 absorber is either:

SO2 + CaO → CaSO3

or:
SO2 + CaCO3 → CaSO3 + CO2
 NOx Removal
The best thing to do is to prevent the NOx emission from the start by:

-Lower the flame temperature

-Do not use cyclone furnaces,
-Lower the A/F ratio
-Recycle some of the flue gas

There is, however a process that is used to take the NOx away, which is
based on the reaction of NOx with Urea.
 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
SCR Process Description
• Applied to Coal Fired Electric Power Plants
• NOx in the flue gas exiting the boiler economizer is converted to
nitrogen and water by reaction with ammonia in the presence of
a catalyst.
• Process is called Selective Reduction because it take the Oxygen
from Nitrogen compounds and not Carbon, sulfur or others.
• Undesirable Product:
• Ammonium Sulfate (NH4)2SO4
• Ammonium Bisulfate NH4HSO4
SCR Units installation
in USA
Site Layout
Power Generation

Coal Yard

Water Cooling
Man Made Lake
Gibson Generation Station
Coal Power plant - Owensville, Indiana, USA

Coal Yard

Water Cooling
Man Made Lake
Generated Emissions
Gibson Station Unit 5
• Gibson Unit 5 is a 625 MW coal-fired base-load generating facility located
in southwestern Indiana.
• The unit was placed in service in 1982 and relies on high sulfur coal
supplies predominantly from southern Indiana.
• Coal for Gibson Unit 5 is delivered to the plant by rail and truck
• Gibson Unit 5 is equipped with particulate, sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen oxide (NOX) removal facilities.
• Installation of a Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) system for NOX control
was completed in 2004, and in 2008, Gibson Unit 5 upgraded its flue gas
desulfurization system to increase SO2 removal efficiency.
Gibson Station SCR Units
Gibson Station SCR Units
Gibson Station SCR Unit 5

•200 feet height

• Weight 4000MT
•15,000 pieces of
steel
Source: Reference 1
Costs of SCR

The average cost is £136/kWe for SCR

http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/static/documents/Business/UKTWG13_Final_NOx_baseload_coal.pdf
Thermal Pollution
Assume a power plant of the following model
Pin is the heat given to the power plant, MWth
Pe is electric power produced, MWe
Prej is rejected power from plant, MWth

Define: Thermal Discharge Index, TDI = Prej / Pe

And in order to relate that to ηth , recall
ηth = Output electric power / Thermal input = Pe / Pin
Therefore, the discharge to the environment is: Prej = Pin - Pe
Prej = Pe / ηth - Pe = Pe( (1 / ηth) - 1) = Pe ( 1 - ηth ) / ηth
Hence: TDI = Prej / Pe = ( 1 - ηth ) / ηth
 Thermal Pollution continue
For example,
if ηth = 33% (Aqaba thermal power plant) → TDI = 2
If ηth = 29% (Al-Hussain thermal power plant) → TDI = 2.45
Wind Energy
Conversion
Introduction
Over the past 10 years, the worldwide installed
capacity of wind energy has grown at an average rate
of over 28% per year, leading to an installed
nameplate capacity at the end of 2004 of about
48,000 MW, enough to power about 16 million
average American homes.

As of January 2005, Germany was the world leader in

windenergy installations with about 16,600 MW
installed, followed by Spain with 8300, the US with
6700, Denmark with 3100, India with 3000, Italy with
1100, The Netherlands with 1100, the United
Kingdom with 900, Japan with 900, and China with
800.
Although wind power supplies only about 0.6% of the
world electricity demand today, the size of that
contribution is growing rapidly. In Germany, the
contribution of wind power to electricity
consumption is over 5%, in Spain it is about 8%, and
in Denmark it is approximately 20%.

The cost to generate wind energy has decreased

dramatically from more than 30 cents (U.S.) per
kilowatt-hour (¢/kWh) in the early 1980s to under
4¢/kWh (at the best sites) in 2004. The cost has
actually increased somewhat in the recent past, in
spite of continuing technological improvements, as a
result of worldwide increases in steel, concrete, and
transportation costs that have led to increases in the
prices of wind turbines.
 Wind energy History
There is considerable
anecdotal evidence that
the first wind machines
may have been built over
2000 years ago, perhaps
in China, but there is no
firm evidence to support
this conjecture. However,
there is considerable
written evidence that the
windmill was in use in
Persia by AD 900, and,
perhaps, as early as AD
640.
The center vertical shaft was attached to a millstone
and horizontal beams or arms were attached to the
shaft above the millstone. Bundles of reeds attached
vertically to the outer end of the arms acted as sails,
turning the shaft when the wind blew. The
surrounding structure was oriented so that the
prevailing wind entered the open portion of the
structure and pushed the sails downwind. The closed
portion of the structure sheltered the sails from the
wind on the upwind pass.

The primary applications of these machines were to

grind or mill grain and to pump water; they became
generally known as windmills.
The wind turbines of today may
look much different than those
first machines, but the basic
idea remains the same—use
the power in the wind to
generate useful energy.
Modern wind machines, called
wind turbines, tend to have a
small number of airfoil-shaped
blades, in contrast to the older
windmills that usually had
several flat or slightly curved
blades. The reasons for this
difference in blade number will
be examined later in this
chapter.
Classification of wind turbines
According to direction of flow of wind with respect to the
axis of the turbine:
– Parallel to the axis.
– Perpendicular to the axis.
According to the direction of the axis of the machine:
– Horizontal.
– Vertical.
According to number of blades:
– Single.
– Double.
– Tripple.
– Multiblade.
According to working principle:
– Lift-type.
– Drag-type.
 Wind Mill Terminology
Although there are many different configurations of wind turbines,
most of them can be classified as:
either horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWTs), which have blades that
rotate about a horizontal axis parallel to the wind, or vertical-axis
wind turbines (VAWTs), which have blades that rotate about a
vertical axis. They both contain the same major components, but
the details of those components differ significantly.
The terms “horizontal” and “vertical” associated with these
classifications are a potential source of confusion. Although they
now refer to the driving shaft on which the rotor is mounted, in
the past these terms referred to the plane in which the rotor
turned. Thus, the ubiquitous multibladed water-pumper windmill
shown in Figure 21.2, now referred to as a horizontal-axis
machine, had a rotor that turned in a vertical plane, and was
therefore at one point known as a vertical mill.
Although the fuel for wind turbines is free, the initial cost of a
wind turbine is a very large contributor to the cost of energy
(COE) for that turbine. To minimize that COE, wind turbine
designs must be optimized for the particular site or wind
environment in which they will operate. Trial and error methods
become very expensive and time-consuming when used to
design and/or optimize turbines, especially larger ones.
A large optimized wind turbine can be developed at a reasonable
cost only if the designers can accurately predict the
performance of conceptual machines and use modeling to
investigate the effects of design alternatives.

Over the past two decades, numerous techniques have been

developed to accurately predict the aerodynamic and
structural dynamic performance of wind turbines. These
analytical models are not, in general, amenable to simple
approximations, but must be solved with the use of computer
codes of varying complexity. Several of these models are
summarized below.
 Wind Turbine Aerodynamics
Items exposed to the wind are subjected to forces in both the
drag direction (parallel to the air flow) and the lift direction
(perpendicular to the air flow). The earliest wind machines,
known as windmills, used the drag on the blades to produce
power, but many windmill designs over the last few centuries
have made limited use of lift to increase their performance. For
predominantly drag machines, such as those illustrated in
Figure 21.1 and Figure 21.2, larger numbers of blades result in
higher drag and produce more power; therefore, these
machines tend to have many blades.

The old Dutch windmills, such as the one shown in Figure 21.4,
utilized lift as well as drag, and because lift devices must be
widely separated to generate the maximum possible amount of
power, those machines evolved with a small number of blades.
The high-lift, low-drag shapes, referred to
as airfoils, that were developed for
airplane wings and propellers in the
early part of the twentieth century
were quickly incorporated into wind
machines to produce the first modern
wind machines, usually known as wind
turbines.
An example of a typical modern wind
turbine is shown in Figure 21.5. Wind
turbines use the lift generated by the
blades to produce power. Because the
blades must be widely separated to
generate the maximum amount of lift,
lift-type machines have a small number
of blades. The following paragraphs
contrast the characteristics of the
drag-type and lift-type machines.
 Description of the system
The total system consists of the wind turbine and load.
A typical wind turbine consists of the rotor (blades
and hub), speed increaser (gearbox), conversion
system, controls, and tower (Figure 5.9). The nacelle
is the covering or enclosure. The output of the rotor,
rotational kinetic energy, can be converted to
electrical, mechanical, or thermal energy. Generally,
it is electrical energy, so the conversion system is a
generator.
Blade configuration may include a nonuniform
platform (blade width and length), twist along the
blade, and variable (blades can be rotated) or fixed
pitch. The pitch is the angle of the chord at the tip of
the blade to the plane of rotation. The chord is the
line from the nose to the tail of the airfoil.
Components for a large unit mounted on a bedplate are shown in
Figure 5.10. Most large wind turbines, which are pitch regulated,
have full-span (blade) control, and in this case, electric motors are
used to rotate, change the pitch of the blades. All blades must
have the same pitch for all operational conditions.
For units connected to the utility grid, 50 or 60 Hz, the generators
can be synchronous or induction connected directly to the grid, or
a variable-frequency alternator or direct current generator
connected indirectly to the grid through an inverter. Most direct
current (DC) generators and permanent magnet alternators on
small wind turbines do not have a speed increaser. One type of
large wind turbine has no gearbox, which means it has very large
generators.
Some HAWTs use slip rings to transfer power and control signals
from the top of the tower to ground level, while others have wire
cords that have extra length for absorbing twist. After so much
twist, it must be removed by yawing the turbine or by a manual
disconnect. For large wind turbines, the transformer or a winch
may be located in the nacelle. A total system is called a wind
energy conversion system (WECS).
 `

https://youtu.be/LNXT
m7aHvWc
How Wind turbine Works
Wend Energy Resource
(Beaufort scale, wind speed distributions, Influence of the ambient and height) Power
contained in the wind
- Wind arises due to the
differential heating of
the continents

- The path of the

sunlight to the poles is
longer than the
equator, so the
incoming solar
radiation is lower than
at the equator

-A gigantic energy
transport from the
Figure: Global circulation and formation of the Winds equator to the poles
12.04.2020
occurs as a result 22
- Beaufort scale is an approximate method to
determine the wind velocity.

12.04.2020 23
- The Weibull distribution of
wind velocity is
determined by a shape
parameter k and a Scala-
parameter a. Both
parameters depend on the
Figure: Frequency distribution of wind velocity at a location
location. on the North Sea coast in Germany at 10 m height.

- Rayleigh distribution
results from the usage of
a and k = 2 in the Weibull
distribution.

12.04.2020 24
 Figure: Rayleigh distributions for various mean wind speeds

- With the help of the mean wind speed, a wind speed

distribution can be specified through the Rayleih-
distribution.
12.04.2020 25
 Weibull parameters and mean wind speeds at 10 m height for various locations in
Germany [Source: Quaschning, 2011, Hanser publishing company Munich]

Terrain classes to Roughness Surface description

Roughness Lengths Z0 Davenport length Z0 in m

for various terrain 1-Lake 0,0002 open lake

2-Smooth 0,005 watt areas
classes to Davenport
3-Open 0,03 open flat terrain pasture landscapes

Roughness length 4-Open to rough 0,1 agriculturally used areas with low
inventory
(Definition):
5-Rough 0,25 agriculturally used areas with high
inventory
it is equivalent to the 6-So rough 0,5 park landscape with bushes and
height at which the wind trees
speed theoretically 7-Closed 1 regularly covered with obstacles
(forests, villages, suburbs)
becomes zero.
8-City ​cores 2 center from the largest cities with
12.04.2020 26 high and low buildings
Weibull parameters and mean wind
speeds for Jordan
Table 1: Weibull parameters and optimum velocity for various locations in Jordan
C40 Vop,40 C90 Vop,90
Location α K
(m/s) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s)
JUST 0.14 1.87 5.17 7.64 5.81 8.58
Aqaba 0.22 4.24 5.13 5.62 6.13 6.70
Deir Alla 0.22 3.53 3.17 3.6 3.79 4.31
Gur Al-Safi 0.22 1.47 0.9 1.61 1.08 1.97
Ras Muneef 0.23 4.37 6.85 7.46 8.25 9.02
Amman 0.23 3.42 3.74 4.28 4.51 5.15
Irbid 0.23 3.67 3.83 4.31 4.61 5.18
Shobak 0.23 3.39 3.02 3.46 3.64 4.17
South Azraq 0.17 2.63 5.18 6.42 5.93 7.34

Figure: Growth of the wind speed with the height depending
on the roughness length, with respect the wind speed at 10
m height.
- The roughness length z0 indicates in
which height the wind is braked to zero
- The greater the roughness, the greater
the influence on the wind.
- The influence of the ground on the wind
speed decreases with increasing height
above the ground
12.04.2020
- The mean wind speed is usually
measured at 10 m height.
- Objects, plants and ground
bumps in the vicinity of a
location can strongly brake the
wind speed
- Individual greater obstacles
don't matter for a wind power
plant if the whole rotor area is
about three times higher than
the height of the obstacle or in
a sufficient distance from the
obstacle.
- In extreme cases, the distance
can be up to 35 times the
height of the obstacle.
- The Parameter d corresponds to
the influence of obstacles, d = 0
for widely scattered obstacles
and d = 70% of the height of the
obstacle in other cases.
28
 The kinetic energy E carried in
wind with velocity V can be
calculated through the following
equations:

And the power contained in the

wind at constant wind velocity:

Figure: Flow behavior for a free flowed The air mass flow rate with the
around wind turbine. density ρ, which flows through an
area A with velocity v:

Notice:
At a wind velocity of 25 m/s and air Thereafter the power of the wind
temperature of 20 °C the power density of is given:
the wind is:
P=9,6 kW/m2, while this is P=132 W/m2 at
wind velocity of 6 m/s, and it is P=0,162
The density of the air depends on
W/m2 at 1 m/s (not usable)
the pressure and the
temperature. It can be taken from
12.04.2020 29
tables
 - The maximum power coefficient (ideal
power coefficient) is denoted as the
Betz- power coefficient CP, Betz
- with

follows:

Then the ideal velocity ratio is :

Figure: Flow behavior for a free flowed around wind turbine.

and also the maximum power coefficient (ideal power coefficient):

- In case of the real systems (plants) the power coefficient is

about 0.5
- The efficiency is the ratio of PN to Pid:

12.04.2020 30
 - With the use of wind power the wind speed is slowed by the
wind turbine from the velocity v1 to the velocity v2, and thereby
the power results as power difference.

- At constant pressure or constant density of the air is valid:

- The wind speed at the height of the wind turbine is:

v= (v1+v2)/2
- The wind power PN is then given by:

Figure: Flow behavior for a free flowed around wind turbine.

- Without the influence of the wind turbine, the power in the

wind through the area A:

- The power coefficient CP is the ratio between PN and P0 and is:

12.04.2020 31
Resistance Rotor - With an object, which is vertically put up to
the wind, the wind practices a force FW on
this object. This resistance power can be
calculated using the following equation:

- Here: Cw is one of the body-dependent resistance

coefficient, A: area of the body and v: wind speed
- The power Pw, which must be applied when this
force resists, is calculated by:
PW= FW.v zu:

- If the object is moved by the action of the wind with

the velocity U in the same direction as the wind, the
power of resistance follows:

Figure: Flow behavior for a free flowed around wind turbine.

And also the used power is

12.04.2020 32
Resistance Rotor
- As an example, the power of a cup-intersection
anemometer is calculated.
- The resultant force F in the anemometer is composed of a
driving and a braking component together:

And the used power yields:

The power coefficient for the cup-intersection anemometer

Figure: Model of a cup-intersection anemometer for is given by:
calculating of the power

- The ratio of the circumferential velocity u to the wind

velocity v is called as a tip speed ratio:

- With resistance rotors the tip speed ratio is always less

than one. The performance of a cup-intersection
anemometer yields:

12.04.2020 33
Resistance rotor
- With resistance rotors the tip speed ratio is always less
than one. The power of a cup-intersection anemometer
yields:
1
𝑃𝑁 = . 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝜐 3 . 𝜆. (𝑐𝑊1 . (1 − 𝜆)2 − 𝑐𝑊2 . (1 + 𝜆)2 )
2
- The power coefficient for the cup anemometer-intersection is determined as:
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁
𝐶𝑃 = = = 𝜆. (𝑐𝑊1 . (1 − 𝜆)2 − 𝑐𝑊2 . (1 + 𝜆)2
𝑃0 1 . 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝜐 3
2
- The maximum value of the power coefficient at the cup-intersection anemometer is
approximately 0.073 and is clearly below the ideal value of 0.593. This is achieved at a
speed ratio of about 0.16

- The optimal power coefficient of resistance rotor is

calculated at:
1 2
𝑃𝑁 2 . 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝑐𝑊 . (𝜐 − 𝑢) . 𝑢 𝑢 𝑢
𝐶𝑃 = = = 𝑐𝑊 . (1 − )2 .
𝑃0 1 𝜐 𝜐
. 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝜐 3
2

And u / v = 1/3 and also a maximum resistance coefficient of Cw,max= 1/3 to Cp,opt,w=
0,193. This value is clearly below the ideal value of 0.593. Therefore in modern wind
plants the principle of resistance is no longer used!.

12.04.2020 34
Conclusion
The previous power is based on 100% efficient wind
turbine, which is an un-realistic assumption, and if
the efficiency of the turbine is to be taken into
account,
A Power coefficient, Cp is defined as the actual
power / Pout, max.
Another parameter, termed as Tip-speed ratio, TSR
is defined as:
TSR = Blade tip speed / Wind speed
Fig. 7.37 (bottom right) shows Cp and TSR for major
wind turbine configurations.
Example:
A wind turbine of the Δ-Darrius type has the
shape of an equilateral triangle. The length of
each side of the triangle is l. The wind speed is
16 km/hr (4.44 m/s) and the rotor is working at
its maximum power coefficient. Find l and the
RPM of the turbine if the power output is 0.3
kW.
 Problems Associated with Wind
Energy
1- Variability of wind speed
a) On long time scale (hours)
b) On medium time scale (minutes)
c) On short time scale (seconds)

2- Speed Control:

Cut-in; rotation starts at a certain minimum speed, to

avoid operation at off-design conditions.

Cut-off; Rotation stops at a certain maximum speed,

to avoid Damage of the turbine at excessive wind speeds.
3- Pitch control:

Controls the pitch angle of the turbine to avoid excessive

wind speed, especially when the blade changes its
position from the high to low position.

4- Direction Control: This is achieved by controlling the

turntable, which also shows other controls such as the
Braking.

5- Siting:
- on the top of a smooth hill
- At sea shore
- In a valley
- At sites where the wind speed is larger than 7 m/s.
 CONTROL
Because the power in the wind increases so rapidly, all wind
turbines must have a way to dump power (not capture power)
at high wind speeds. The methods of control are:
1. Change aerodynamic efficiency
A. Variable pitch, feather or stall
B. Operate at constant rpm

2. Change intercept area

A. Yaw rotor out of wind
B. Change rotor geometry

3. Brake
A. Mechanical, hydraulic
B. Air brake
C. Electrical (resistance, magnetic)
All of these methods have been used alone or in
combination for control in high wind speeds and for loss
of load control. There were two vertical-axis wind turbines
where they actually changed the rotor geometry; one was
a V shape that became flatter in high winds, and the other
was a two- bladed giromill where the rotor geometry
changed from an H shape to a <-> shape. A blade was
designed where the length could be change as the outer
part of the blade moved into the rest of the blade.

For control in high winds, most small wind turbines and farm
windmills have a stail to yaw the wind turbine out of the
wind, to furl the rotor. This operation is also called furling.
There are some wind turbines where the rotor is rotated
about the horizontal axis for the high wind speed control,
rather than yawed about the vertical axis. The results are
the same; the intercept area has been decreased.
A pitch control system is one method to control rpm, start up
(need high torque), and overspeed. Blades are in the
feather position (chord parallel to the wind) during
shutdown, and when the brake is released, the feather
position provides starting torque, and then the pitch is
changed to the run position (pitch angle around 0°) as rpm
increases. The blades are kept at the same pitch over a
range of wind speeds, the run position. For high wind
speeds and overspeed control, the blades are moved to the
feather or stall position (blades perpendicular, negative
pitch, to wind) to shut the unit down. The pitch can be
changed to maintain a constant rpm for synchronous
generators. For an induction generator, variable-speed
generator, or alternator that operates over a range of rpm
in the run position, over this range the tip speed ratio is
constant, and the unit operates at higher efficiency.
For fixed-pitch blades, there are two possible
operations, constant tip speed ratio (variable rpm),
which is the maximum efficiency, and constant rpm.
The blade has to have enough twist to produce
torque for start-up, or the induction
motor/generator starts the rotor at the cut-in wind
speed. The constant rpm operation with induction
generators means that the maximum efficiency is
reached only at the design wind speed. Above rated
power, the power output is controlled by the
reduced aerodynamic efficiency, called stall control.
Part of the control system can be electronic, generally
a microprocessor or microcomputer (Figure 5.14). In
constant-rpm operation, such as an induction
generator, the unit is connected to the utility line
after the rpm is above the synchronous rpm of the
generator.

In reality, an induction generator is not strictly

constant rpm, as there is a small change in rpm (slip)
with power output.

Doubly fed induction generators have a large rpm

range, around 50%, and are used because of the
increased aerodynamic efficiency with blades in the
run position for large wind turbines.
 Normal Operation
A power curve, power versus wind speed, describes the
normal operation of a wind turbine(Figure 5.15). Notice
that difference in power output at low wind speed is due to
difference in the electric efficiency of the generators. At
the cut-in wind speed the unit starts to rotate or produce
power, then reaches rated power (size of generator) at the
rated wind speed and continues to produce that power
until the unit shuts down at the cut-out wind speed.

Some wind turbines with fixed-pitch blades and induction

generators continue to operate at any wind speed. Above
the rated wind speed the power output is constant or even
decreases somewhat because of the decreasing
aerodynamic efficiency with increasing wind speed.
The most important parameter in determining energy
production is the rotor area, as energy production will
increase as the square of the radius. A larger generator
does not necessarily mean more energy production
because the efficiency at low wind speeds will change
with generator size. Some large wind turbines have two
generators, one a smaller generator for lower wind speeds
to increase overall efficiency.

Although a larger generator is probably desirable in the best

wind regimes, the optimum size for a given rotor radius
for a given wind regime is still undetermined.
Manufacturers are now offering different size generators
(rated power) for the same rotor diameter, or the same
size generator for different rotor diameters. Jay Carter, Sr.
designed and built a wind turbine for both medium and
good wind regimes, which is done by only changing the
size of the induction generator (30 kW, six poles; 50 kW,
four poles).
 FAULTS
Wind turbines are shut down for faults such as loss of load,
vibration, loss of phase, current or voltage anomalies, etc.
Each of these safety features could save the unit, but the
most important feature is a method of controlling the
rotor when there is a loss of load (fault on the utility grid)
during high winds (overspeed control).

If the unit is not shut down within a few seconds, it will reach
such high power levels that it cannot be shut down and
will self-destruct. The large torque excursions and also the
emergency application of mechanical brakes may damage
the gearbox. Faults result in power spikes, large current,
and voltage drops.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CqEccgR0q-o
Faults
 ENERGY PRODUCTION
Annual energy production is the most important factor
for wind turbines. Of course, that is combined with
economics to determine feasibility for installation of
wind turbines and wind farms. Approximate annual
energy can be estimated by the following methods:

1. Generator size (rated power)

2. Rotor area and wind map
3. Manufacturer’s curve of energy versus annual wind
speed
 GENERATOR SIZE
This method gives a rough approximation because wind turbines
with the same size rotors can have different size generators:
AKWH = CF * GS* 8,760
where AKWH = annual energy production, kWh/year; CF =
capacity factor; and 8,760 = number of hours in a year.

The effect of the wind regime and the rated power for the rated
wind speed can be estimated by changing the capacity factor.
The capacity factor is the average power divided by the rated
power (generator size).

The capacity factor is estimated from energy production over a

selected time period, and in general, capacity factors are
quoted on an annual basis, although some are calculated for a
quarter of a year.
Capacity factors can also be calculated for wind farms,
and they should be close to the same values as
capacity factors calculated for individual wind
turbines.

if the wind farm is composed of different wind

turbines, it should be noted. For example, the Green
Mountain Wind Farm at the Brazos near Fluvana,
Texas, has 160 1 MW wind turbines; however, 100
have rotor diameters of 61.4 m and 60 have rotor
diameters of 56 m. Therefore, the capacity factor
will be larger for the units with the larger rotor.
Notice that capacity factor is like an average
efficiency.
In general, the generator size method gives
reasonable estimates if the rated power of the
wind turbine is around 10–13 m/s. If the rated
power is above that range, or for wind regimes
below class 3, then the capacity factor should be
reduced accordingly.
 ROTOR AREA AND WIND MAP
The amount of energy produced by a wind turbine primarily depends on
the rotor area, also referred to as cross-sectional area, swept area, or
intercept area. The swept area for different types of wind turbines can be
calculated from the dimensions of the rotor (see Figure 1.7).
HAWT area = π r 2, where r = radius.
VAWT, where H = height and D = diameter of rotor:
Giromill area = H*D
Savonius area = H*D
Darrieus area = 0.65 H * D
The annual average power/area can be obtained from a wind map, and
then the energy produced by the rotor can be calculated from

AKWH = CF *Ar*WM* 8.76

where Ar is the area of the rotor, m2; WM = power/area from a wind map,
W/m2; and 8.76 gives the answer in kWh/year, the conversion W to kW.
Again, the capacity factor reflects the annual average efficiency of the
wind turbine, around 0.20 to 0.35.
Notice the large difference in the answers for the two
examples, which could be related to two factors:
generator size is too large for rotor size, or the wind
regime is low, that is, the wind map value is low. With this
estimate of energy production, the wind map value
should be selected or estimated for the hub height of the
wind turbine, especially when estimating energy
production for large wind turbines.
 Park Effect

• Spacing between turbines in a wind park in terms of rotor

diameters (e.g. 4 means four times the rotor diameter)
Solar Energy Utilization (I)
 Content

 Solar radiation

 Utilization of passive solar energy

 Solar thermal heat utilization

 Solar thermal power generation

 Photovoltaic power generation

 Solar radiation

 Sun
 Solar radiation
 Mechanisms of energy transport
 Celestial mechanics
 Solar constant
 Solar radiation on the earth
 Optical windows
 Weakening of radiation in the atmosphere
 Global radiation
 Fundamental ways of use
 Main parameters of the sun

Diameter 1,390,000 km (approx. 109 times the

diameter of the earth)
Mean density 1.4 g/cm3 ==14 000 Kg/m3
Core density 80 to 100 g/cm3
Mass 2 1033 g (approx. 330,000 times the
mass of the earth)
Gravitational acceleration approx. 275 m/s (28 times earth
gravity)
Components 75 % hydrogen (H2)
23 % helium (He)
2 % others
Condition gaseous
 Nuclear fusion

Hydrogen fuses together to form Helium

2 protons 1.00759 2.01518

2 neutrons 1.00898 2.01796
2 electrons 0.00055 0.00110

Sum 4.03424

Atomic mass of helium 4.00260

Difference 0.03164
 Solar power

𝐸𝑆𝑢𝑛 ∆𝑚 𝑐 2 Approx. 650 Mio. t/sec

𝑃𝑆𝑢𝑛 = = hydrogen form approx. 646
𝑡 𝑡
Mio. t/sec helium. The
𝑃𝑆𝑢𝑛 = ∆𝑚 𝑐 2 difference of 4 Mio. t/sec is
emitted as radiation energy
into space.
𝑘𝑔 9 8
𝑚
𝑃𝑆𝑢𝑛 = 4 × 10 3 × 10
𝑠 𝑠
𝑃𝑆𝑢𝑛 = 3.6 1026 𝑊 = 3.6 1020 𝑀𝑊

The power of the sun is incredibly high!

Schematic structure of the sun
 The sun as a radiation source

The energy stream released by the sun is differentiated as

• Radiation of Matter
• Protons and electrons are released by the sun at a speed of
approx. 500 km/sec (solar wind). However, only a few of
these electrically charged particles reach the earth‘s surface,
as most of them are deflected by the terrestrial magnetic
field.

• Electromagnetic Radiation
• This radiation covers the entire frequency from short-wave to
long-wave radiation; it reaches the earth‘s surface only
partially and diluted since only some parts of this radiation
can penetrate the atmosphere.
Relations for the derivation of the
solar constant

Mean diameter earth - sun

Sun

Earth
 Derivation of the solar
constant

The solar radiation is approximately equivalent to that of a black body.

(Stefan-Boltzmann Law applies)

Fraction that reaches the earth

(assumption: no losses)
 Measuring the Sun’s Energy

• Irradiance: the amount of power received from the sun over

a given area of earth
» Typically measured in Watts per Square-Meter
• Cumulative Irradiance: the amount of energy that hits an
area over a certain period of time
» Typically measured in Watt-Hours per Square-Meter
 Why these variations even due the name "Solar Constant"?
Solar constant in the course of
Why do we have in Germany in summer high temperatures even
one year
due to a low solar constant?
1,420
Solar constant in W/m2

1,400

1,380
Annual mean

1,360

1,340

Monthly mean
1,320

u ary uary arch April May une July gust b er ober ber b er
r J m t
Au epte Oc Nove m m
Jan Feb M
S De ce
Time in months
 Elliptical orbit of the earth
around the sun

March 21

Earth
23.5°
Ecliptic
June 21 December 21
Sun
152 Mio. km 147 Mio. km

Aphelion Perihelion
(July 2) (January 2)
September 23
Solar Resource
Incident angle
 Effects of Atmosphere

• The lower the angle of the Sun in the sky, the more atmosphere
the Sun’s rays must pass through to reach earth and therefore the
less energy those rays have when they reach earth.
The Sun’s Path
 Cross-section through the
atmosphere
Air pressure in mbar
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
160

140 Temperature
Thermosphere
120 Polar lights
Height in km

100

Mesopause
80
Air pressure
Mesosphere 60 Meteors
Stratopause
40
Stratosphere
20
Tropopause Mount Everest Clouds
Troposphere
0
-200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Temperature in °C
Composition of the air
 Optical windows of the
atmosphere

Gamma radiation, The light Infrared radiation Short-wave Long-wave

X-radiation and visible on is mostly radio-wave radio-wave
ultraviolet light are earth is only absorbed by can pass are blocked
blocked by the partly gases within the the by the air
atmosphere. absorbed. atmosphere. atmosphere. layers.
100 %
Transmittance of
the atmosphere

50 %

0%
0,1 nm 1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1 µm 10 µm 100 µm 1 mm 1 cm 1 dm 1m 10 m 100 m 1 km
Wave length
 Optical windows of the
atmosphere

Radio-
longwave
Radio- Telefony
Gamma radiation shortwave telegraphy
Micro wave
Cosmic X-radiation radar
radiation

Window I Window II
High energy Low energy
-12 -6 -2 2 6
10 10 10 1 10 10
Wavelength in m

Yellow

Medium and Violet Blue Green Red Shortwave

longwave infrared
ultraviolet
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 5
0.29 0.38 0.44 0.57 0.78 Wavelength in µm
 Weakening of radiation in the
atmosphere

Global radiation = solar constant times transmission factor

The transmission factor describes the weakening within the

atmosphere and consists of the following components:

• Transmission factor of the diversion of radiation at particles with

a radius significantly smaller than the wavelength of the
incident light (Rayleigh diffusion)
• Transmission factor of the diversion of radiation at particles with
a radius within the wavelength of light and larger (Mie diffusion)
• Transmission factor within gases
• Transmission factor within particles
 Weakening of radiation in the
atmosphere
Irradiance Ġ [kW m-2 μm-1]

1 extraterrestrial Wavelength [μm]

2 after ozone-absorption
3 after Rayleigh diffusion
4 after aerosol absorption and diffusion
5 after H2O and CO2-absorption
 Energy distribution spectrum
on the earth
2,500

Theoretical radiation of a
black body at 5,700 °C

Exoatmosheric
2,000 solar radiation
Radiated power in W/(m µm)

Energy component mainly reflected by

2

O3 atmospheric elements

O2
1,500
Solar radiation
after penetrating the atmosphere
O2
1,000

O3 Absorption bands
H2O

500 H2O

H2O
Yellow
Green
Blue

Red

H2O
CO 2
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2
Ultraviolet Visible Close infrared Far infrared

Wavelength in µm
 Energy Balance on Earth’s Atmosphere

Net heat flux = 0.

Net heat flux = 0.

• An equilibrium energy balance. Heat fluxes are both surface- and time-averaged.

• If the chemical constituents of the atmosphere change, atmospheric absorption and

scattering will change, potentially resulting in net heating or cooling of the atmosphere.

• If the chemical constituents of the atmosphere change, radiation fluxes will change,
and surface convection and condensation heat fluxes may be affected. Weather patterns
may change.
 Definition of radiation types

• Direct radiation (beam

radiation) comes straight from
the sun (causes shadows)

• Diffuse radiation has changed

its original direction by diffusion in
the atmosphere.

• Global radiation is the total solar

radiation on a horizontal surface

Direct Radiation + Diffuse Radiation = Global Radiation

Radiation Heat Fluxes and Material Properties

 → reflectivity → fraction of irradiation (G) reflected.

a → absorptivity → fraction of irradiation absorbed.
t → transmissivity → fraction of irradiation transmitted through the medium.

 + a + t = 1 for any medium.  + a = 1 for an opaque medium.

Problem: Solar Irradiation

Problem 12.9: Evaluation of total solar irradiation at the earth’s surface

from knowledge of the direct and diffuse components of
the incident radiation.

KNOWN: Flux and intensity of direct and diffuse components, respectively, of solar
irradiation.

FIND: Total irradiation.

Problem: Solar Irradiation (cont.)

SCHEMATIC:

ANALYSIS: Since the irradiation is based on the actual surface area, the contribution due to
the direct solar radiation is
  cos  .
Gdir  qdir

For the contribution due to the diffuse radiation

Gdif   Idif .

Hence
  cos    Idif
G  Gdir  Gdif  qdir
or

G  1000 W/m2  0.866   sr  70 W/m2  sr

G  866  220 W/m2 <

G  1086 W/m2 .

COMMENTS: Although a diffuse approximation is often made for the non-direct

component of solar radiation, the actual directional distribution deviates from this condition,
providing larger intensities at angles close to the direct beam.
Problem 12.4
 Distribution of global radiation
worldwide

< 800
800 – 1.200
1.200 – 1.600
1.600 – 2.000
> 2.000
2
Values in kWh/m
 Distribution of
global radiation in
Jordan
 Global radiation incident on
surfaces with various alignments

250
2-axes tracking
Monthly irradiance in kWh/m²

200
Horizontal

150
South 45°
East West
100

South
50
North

0
n

c
l

v
ct
ay

g
r
ar
b

p
Ju
Ap

No
Ju

De
Ja

Au
Fe

Se

O
M

M
 Solar position plot
Breitengrad: 48 ° (Nord (+), Süd (-))

90
21. Jun
80
21. May/Jul
70 12h
Solar altitude in °

21.Jun 21. Apr/Aug

60 10h 14h
21. Mar/Sep
50
21.Mar/Sep 21. Feb/Oct
40 8h 16h
21. Jan/Nov
Horizon
30 21. Dec
6h 18h Horizon
20
10 21.Dec

0
-180 -135 -90 -45 0 45 90 135 180
North East South West North
Azimuth in °
Direct use options for solar
energy

Heat Collector

Point

Solar Solar Tower,

Farm Dish-Stirling
 Utilization of passive solar
energy
 Basics
 System components
 Transparent covers

 Shading devices

 Absorber and heat storage

 Functional systems
 Direct gain systems

 Indirect gain systems

 Transparent thermal insulation

 Solar systems with convective heat

flow
 Decoupled systems

 Sunspaces
 Five Elements of Passive Solar
Design
 Aperture (Collector): the large
glass (window) area through which
sunlight enters the building.
 Absorber: the hard, darkened
surface of the storage element.
 Thermal mass: the materials that
retain or store the heat produced by
sunlight.
 Distribution: the method by which
solar heat circulates from the
collection and storage points to
different areas of the house.
 Control: roof overhangs can be
used to shade the aperture area
during summer months [6].
The elements can be seen in Figure 3.

. Five Elements of Passive Solar Design

Energy flows within a building
 Energy flows due to solar
radiation on clear surfaces

Fenster-
rahmen
Sonne
Fenster-
scheiben

qi g = τe +
e qi

Fenster-
rahmen
 Shading of transparent
building surfaces
South
Example: single
family house
Summer

Winter
Well-insulated roof

Optional
Living space
sun space
with insulating
glazing facing
south

Thermal mass
 Shading systems located
outside the window
Direktes
Sommersonnenlicht

Reflektiertes
Tageslicht
Direktes
Winterposition
Wintersonnenlicht
Sommerposition

Sonnenschutz des
unteren Fensterbereichs
 Window integrated shading
systems

Lichtwellenleiter Mikroraster Kapillarsystem

 Operating principles of shading
systems incorporated into the glass
pane

• Thermotrophic glazing becomes opaque at defined outside or

system temperatures, as molecules tend to accumulate to a
pane-incorporated gel layer.

• Electrochromic glazing is characterized by a special coating

which converts from transparent to opaque at a defined voltage.

• Glazing covered by holographic foils reflect the irradiation from

the high-angle sun, so that sun-rays incident at small angles
reach the absorber without any obstacle.
 Active heat storage

T q  2T T
q    2   Sp c p Active heat storage masses
x x x dt need changes in the room
24
17 h temperature
23
Stored and released heat:
0.076 kWh/(m2 d)
Temperature in °C

22
19 h
21 h
23 h
21 13 h 15 h
1h Significant temperature
11 h
7h
9h changes happen till a depth
20
5h
of approx. 10 cm

19 It does not make sense to

3h increase the thickness of the
18 wall further (!!!)
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Wall thickness in m
Heat storage mass means
Temperature flow within an internal wall exposed SURFACE, not THICKNESS
to radiation and varying temperatures on one side
 Functional systems

 Direct gain systems

 Indirect gain systems

 Transparent thermal insulation

 Solar systems with convective heat flow

 Decoupled systems

 Sunspaces
 Direct gain systems

Window Glas extension

Skylight
 Indirect gain systems (Solar
wall systems)

Solar wall Solar wall with glass extension

Solar wall with convection support

 Comparison of opaque and
thermal insulation

Opaque Transparent

TI-material

Solar radiation Solar radiation

Heat gain Heat gain
Heat loss
Heat loss mainly by
mainly reflection diffusion and
reflection

Thermal storage
Solid wall wall

Insulation Absorption surface

Air gap, if applicable
 Thermally decoupled solar system
attached to the building envelope

Transparent cover

Absorber Rock storage system

 Sunspace

June 21

December 21
Heating period:
ventilation flaps,
windows
(manual or
automatic control)
Summer case:
ventilation flaps,
windows Sun
(manual or
automatic control)
space
Example for a Sunspace
 Active Solar Heating Systems

A detailed design of solar systems requires in-depth

knowledge and experience in:
I. the use of specially developed computer programs for
detailed simulation of solar system performance,
II. designing conventional equipment, controls, and hydronic
systems,
III. practical aspects of equipment installation, and
IV. economic analysis. These aspects are not addressed here,
given the limited scope of this chapter.
 Solar Collectors, Collector Types

A solar thermal collector is a heat exchanger that converts

radiant solar energy into heat. In essence this consists of a
receiver that absorbs the solar radiation and then transfers
the thermal energy to a working fluid.
Because of the nature of the radiant energy (its spectral
characteristics, its diurnal and seasonal variability, changes
in diffuse to global fraction, etc.), as well as the different
types of applications for which solar thermal energy can be
used, the analysis and design of solar collectors present
unique and unconventional problems in heat transfer, optics,
and material science.
The classification of solar collectors can be made according to
the type of working fluid (water, air, or oils) or the type of
solar receiver used (nontracking or tracking).
 Solar Collector Classification:

1. Working fluid:
Most commonly used working fluids are water (glycol being
added for freeze protection) and air. Table 18.1 identifies the
relative advantages and potential disadvantages of air and
liquid collectors and associated systems.

Because of the poorer heat transfer characteristics of air with

the solar absorber, the air collector may operate at a higher
temperature than a liquid-filled collector, resulting in greater
thermal losses and, consequently, a lower efficiency.
 The choice of the working fluid is usually dictated by the
application. For example, air collectors are suitable for space
heating and convective drying applications, while liquid
collectors are the obvious choice for domestic and industrial
hot-water applications. In certain high-temperature
applications, special types of oils are used that provide
better heat transfer characteristics.
 Solar Collector Classification:

2. Tracking System.
The second criterion of collector classification is according to
the presence of a mechanism to track the sun throughout
the day and year in either a continuous or discreet fashion
(see Table 18.2).
The stationary flat-plate collectors are rigidly mounted, facing
toward the equator with a tilt angle from the horizontal
roughly equal to the latitude of the location for optimal year-
round operation.

The compound parabolic concentrators (CPCs) can be

designed either as completely stationary devices or as
devices that need seasonal adjustments only.

On the other hand, Fresnel reflectors, paraboloids, and

heliostats need two-axis tracking. Parabolic troughs have
one axis tracking either along the east–west direction or the
north–south direction.
 Solar Collector Classification:

3. nonconcentrating and concentrating collectors.

The main reason for using concentrating collectors is not that

more energy can be collected but that the thermal energy
is obtained at higher temperatures.

This is done by decreasing the area from which heat losses

occur (called the receiver area) with respect to the aperture
area (i.e., the area that intercepts the solar radiation). The
ratio of the aperture to receiver area is called the
concentration ratio.
 Flat-Plate Collectors

The flat-plate collector is the most common conversion device

in operation today, since it is most economical and
appropriate for delivering energy at temperatures up to
about 100oC. The construction of flat-plate collectors is
relatively simple, and many commercial models are
available.

Figure 18.1 shows the physical arrangements of the major

components of a conventional flat-plate collector with a
liquid working fluid. The blackened absorber is heated by
radiation admitted via the transparent cover.
Thermal losses to the surroundings from the absorber are
contained by the cover, which acts as a black body to the
infrared radiation (this effect is called the greenhouse effect),
and by insulation provided under the absorber plate.

Passages attached to the absorber are filled with a circulating

fluid, which extracts energy from the hot absorber.

The simplicity of the overall device makes for long service life.
The absorber is the most complex portion of the flat-plate
collector, and a great variety of configurations are currently
available for liquid and air collectors.
Figure 18.2 illustrates some of these concepts in absorber
design for both liquid and air absorbers. Conventional
materials are copper, aluminum, and steel.

Another common absorber consists of tubes soldered or

brazed to a single metal sheet, and mechanical
attachments of the tubes to the plate have also been
employed.

This type of collector is called a tube-and-sheet collector. Heat

pipe collectors have also been developed, though these are
not as widespread as the previous two types.
The so-called trickle type of flat-plate collector, with the
fluid flowing directly over the corrugated absorber plate,
dispenses entirely with fluid passageways.

Tubular collectors have also been used because of the

relative ease by which air can be evacuated from such
collectors, thereby reducing convective heat losses from
the absorber to the ambient air.
The absorber is either painted with a dull black paint or can be
coated with a selective surface to improve performance
(see “Improvements to Flat-Plate Collector Performance”
for more details).

Bonded plates having internal passageways perform well as

absorber plates because the hydraulic passageways can
be designed for optimal fluid and thermal performance.
Such collectors are called roll-bond collectors.
The absorber in an air collector normally requires a larger
surface than in a liquid collector because of the poorer heat
transfer coefficients of the flowing air stream.
Roughness elements and producing turbulence by way of
devices such as expanded metal foil, wool, and
overlapping plates have been used as a means for
increasing the heat transfer from the absorber to the
working fluid.
Another approach to enhance heat transfer is to use packed
beds of expanded metal foils or matrices between the
glazing and the bottom plate.
 Problem: Heat Load on Food Delivery
Truck

Problem 12.122: Determination of preferred roof coating (Parsons Black,

Acrylic White, or Zinc Oxide White) and corresponding
heat load for prescribed operating conditions.

KNOWN: Dimensions and construction of truck roof. Roof interior surface temperature. Truck
speed, ambient air temperature, and solar irradiation.

FIND: (a) Preferred roof coating, (b) Roof surface temperature, (c) Heat load through roof,
(d) Effect of velocity on surface temperature and heat load.
Problem: Heat Load on Food Delivery Truck
(cont.)

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Turbulent boundary layer development over entire roof, (2) Constant
properties, (3) Negligible atmospheric (sky) irradiation, (4) Negligible contact resistance.

PROPERTIES: Table A.4, Air (Ts,o  300 K, 1 atm):   15  106 m2 s , k  0.026 W/m  K ,
Pr = 0.71.

ANALYSIS: (a) To minimize heat transfer through the roof, minimize solar absorption relative
to surface emission. Hence, from Table A.12, use zinc oxide white for which aS = 0.16
and   0.93. <

(b) Performing an energy balance on the outer surface of the roof, a S GS  qconv 
 E  qcond 0,
it follows that
4
a S GS  h (T  Ts,o )   Ts,o  (k t )(Ts,o  Ts,i )
Problem: Heat Load on Food Delivery Truck
(cont.)

where it is assumed that convection is from the air to the roof. With
VL 30 m s(5 m)
ReL    107
 6 2
15  10 m s

Nu L  0.037 ReL4/5 Pr1/3  0.037(107 )4/5 (0.71)1/3  13,141

h  Nu L (k L)  13,141(0.026 W m K/5 m)  68.3 W m 2 K .

Substituting numerical values in the energy balance and solving by trial-and-error, we obtain

Ts,o = 295.2 K.
<
(c) The heat load through the roof is

q  (kAs t )(Ts,o  Ts,i )  (0.05 W m  K 10 m2 0.025 m)35.2 K  704 W .

<
(d) From parametric calculations based on the foregoing model, the following results are
obtained.
Problem: Heat Load on Food Delivery Truck
(cont.)

The surface temperature and heat load decrease with decreasing V due to a reduction in the
convection heat transfer coefficient and hence convection heat transfer from the air. <
COMMENTS: The heat load would increase with increasing aS/..
Thank you for your
attention
 Solar Thermal II
Photovoltaic Systems
Introduction
Photovoltaic, Greek photos - light; : ( PhotoVolta, Graf Volta, ital. Physiker (1745-
1827))

The principle is based on the direct conversion of sunlight into electricity

In the beginning of 1839, discovery of the photoelectric effect by Alexandre

Becquerel Edmont

The first solar silicon-cell, after the discovery of the pn-junction (1949) from the
Bell Laboratories (USA) in 1954 – efficiency 5% - extremely high costs

The application has been developed in the world, especially in Germany, rapidly
of 0.700 GW in 1996 to 40 GW in 2010, of which 44% in Germany (about 17
GW)
Photovoltaic power, Photovoltaic cells

Valence electrons

Tabs

Grid lines

3
Photovoltaic cells: Cross section

4
 Photovoltaic cells: Parts
Front contact (tabs and grid lines)
• Collects current generated by the cell – negative
contact
• Tab material generally copper with tin coating
• Large tabbing – loses area: Small tabbing has greater
resistance
Anti reflective coating (~150 nm thick)
• Stops silicon reflecting ~1/3 of the light (reduces this to
5% - texturing reduces this to <2%) silicon monoxide is
a common coating
Texturing
• Pyramids and cones, chemically etched onto the
surface 5
 Photovoltaic cells: Parts
n-type silicon (~300nm thick)
• silicon doped with phosphorous forming the negative
side of the cell

p-n junction
• Where n and p type silicon meet
• Sometimes called the depletion zone

p-type silicon (250,000 nm thick)

• silicon doped with boron forming the positive side of
the cell

Back contact
• The positive contact
6
Photovoltaic cells: How they work: atomic
structure

7
 Photovoltaic cells: How they work: doping
Pure silicon is stable – electrons moved will just move to
the next hole
Introducing other materials into the silicon can create a net
electric charge on the material – the process is called
doping
The most common dopants are:
Boron
• valence 3 – makes a positive charge
• Doping is about 1 Boron to 10,000,000 silicon
Phosphorous
• valence 5 – makes a negative charge
• Doping is about 1 Phosphorus to 1,000 silicon
8
Photovoltaic cells: How they work: doping

Boron doping Phosphorus doping

9
YOU Tube

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K76r41jaGJg

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y0InAuhAre4
Photovoltaic cells: How they work: Band gap
energy
The energy needed to release a valence electron
• Photons with an equivalent energy to the bandgap
energy displace electrons
• Photons with higher energy displace electrons and
create heat
• Photons with lower energy either pass through the
material or just heat it up slightly
Measured in electron Volts
• energy gained by an electron when it passes through a
potential of 1 volt in a vacuum
Determine the open circuit voltage of the cell
• High band-gap = high voltage
12
Photovoltaic cells: How they work: Photon
energy

Wavelength 10-9 10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4

(m)

Frequency
(Hz) 1017 1016 1015 1014 1013 1012

Photon Energy
(eV) 103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2

13
Photovoltaic cells: How they work: Band gap energy
Material Band gap
energy (eV)
at 25ºC
Crystal silicon 1.12

Amorphous silicon 1.75

Cadmium telluride 1.44

Gallium arsenide 1.43

a band gap, also called an energy gap or bandgap, is an energy range in

a solid where no electron states can exist 14
The x-axis is the bandgap of the solar cell, the y-axis is the highest possible
efficiency (ratio of electrical power output to light power input). (Assumes a
single-junction solar cell under unconcentrated light, and some other
assumptions too.)
The curve is wiggly because of IR absorption bands in the atmosphere: I
used the actual AM1.5G solar spectrum data. Sometimes people
approximate the solar spectrum by a 6000K blackbody spectrum instead,
and they get a smoother curve with slightly different values. I cross-checked
my curve with independently-calculated ones and they agree to high
accuracy.
Photovoltaic cells: Specifications: “Standard” conditions

Temperature 25ºC

Insolation (Irradiance) 1000 W/m2

Air mass AM1.5

16
 Photovoltaic cells: Specifications: “Standard”
conditions (Air Mass)
The Air Mass is the path length
which light takes through the
atmosphere normalized to the
shortest possible path length
(that is, when the sun is directly
overhead). The Air Mass
quantifies the reduction in the
power of light as it passes
through the atmosphere and is
absorbed by air and dust. The Air
Mass is defined as:

17
Solar Cell Performance
Define:
Short circuit current, Isc Current obtained when the p-side is
connected to the n-side without load.
Open circuit voltage, Voc Voltage obtained when the p-side is
connected to the n-side through load.
Photovoltaic cells: Specifications: Efficiency

h = efficiency
Pout VI Pout = Power out (W)
h  Pin = Power in (W)
Pin Gt A V = Voltage (V)
I = Current (A)
Gt = Irradiance on the surface
(W)
A = Cell area (m2)

19
Photovoltaic cells: Specifications: measures
•Peak power (Pmax)

•Open circuit voltage(Voc)

•Max power voltage(Vmp)

•Short circuit current (Isc)

•Max power current(Imp)

20
Photovoltaic cells: Specifications: IV curve

21
Photovoltaic cells: Specifications: IV curve: Fill factor
Fill factor (solar cell), the ratio of maximum obtainable
power to the product of the open-circuit voltage and short-
circuit current
Pmax
FF 
Voc I sc

FF = Fill factor
Pmax = Maximum power out (W)
Voc = Open circuit Voltage(V)
Ics = Short circuit current (A)

22
Photovoltaic cells: Specifications: IV curve: Fill factor

FF = 0.75

FF = 0.45

23
Photovoltaic cells: Specifications: IV curve: Effect of
temperature

24
Photovoltaic cells: Specifications: IV curve: Effect
of temperature

• Power output falls as temperature increases

• Voltage falls ~0.0023V per ºC

• Current rises (but only a bit – you can really

ignore it)

25
Photovoltaic cells: Specifications: IV curve: Effect of
insolation

26
Photovoltaic cells: Specifications: IV curve:
Effect of insolation

• Power output increases as insolation increases

• Voltage has a slight increase and can be ignored

• Current rises significantly in direct proportion to

insolation

27
Photovoltaic cells: Arrays

Cell Module Array 28

Photovoltaic cells: Arrays: Cells in parallel

A
Voltage from A to B = 0.5V
Current through A = B = 3A

B
A
Voltage fro A to B = 0.5V
Current through A = B = 6A

B
A
Voltage fro A to B = 0.5V
Current through A = B = 9A

B 29
Photovoltaic cells: Arrays: Cells in parallel

30
Photovoltaic cells: Arrays: Cells in series

A B Voltage from A to B = 0.5V

Current through A = B = 3A

A B Voltage fro A to B = 1.0V

Current through A = B = 3A

A B Voltage fro A to B = 1.5V

Current through A = B = 3A

31
Photovoltaic cells: Arrays: Cells in series

32
 Photovoltaic cells: manufacturing process
•Crystal growing
• Czochralski
• Float zone
• Ingot casting

•Sawing (wastes 20% of crystal)

•Doping

•Coating and contacts

33
Photovoltaic cells: encapsulation

Cover film

Solar cell

Encapsulant

Substrate
Cover film
Seal
Gasket
Frame 34
 Photovoltaic cells: encapsulation
• Electrical resistivity

• Light transmission

• Heat conduction

• Thermal expansion

• Durability

• Weight

• Cost
35
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: silicon: Single crystal
silicon
• Commercial production. Companies include: BP Solar,
Siemens Solar Industries, University of New South
Wales
• Main processes are Czochralski and Float zone
• Make up the bulk of the PV market (>60%)
• Most efficient (and most expensive) silicon cells
Thickness 200 – 300mm
Band gap 1.12 eV
Lab efficiency 24%

36
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: silicon: Single crystal
silicon

37
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: silicon: Polycrystalline
silicon
• Commercial production. Companies include: Kyocera, Solarex
(now BP Solarex)
• Main process is ingot casting
• Make up a large part of the PV market (>30%)
• Less expensive (and less efficient) than single crystal cells –
electrons and holes can recombine at crystal edges

Thickness 200 – 300mm

Band gap 1.12 eV

Lab efficiency 17.8%

38
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: silicon:
Polycrystalline silicon

39
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: silicon: Amorphous
silicon
• Commercial production.
• Make up a significant part of the PV market (~4%) mainly for
low power applications such as watches and calculators
• No crystal structure but hydrogen reduces recombination
• High absorptivity (40 X single crystal)
• p-i-n construction – intrinsic middle layer forms bulk of
material between doped layers
• Cheap but slow production process
Thickness 1-2mm
Band gap 1.75 eV
Lab efficiency 13% cells but 7-9% for stable
modules as they degrade during
the first month 40
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: silicon: Amorphous
silicon

41
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: silicon: Amorphous silicon

42
B8.6 Photovoltaic power
Photovoltaic cells: Classification

43
Photovoltaic power, Photovoltaic cells
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: Polycrystalline thin films
Cheap and flexible manufacture
• series of vapour depositions – no crystal growth
• Can be applied to cheap substrates
• Can be applied to any surface shape
Easily scaled from lab to manufacture
Tend to use“hetero-junctions” instead of oppositely
doped layers. The top layer has a very wide bandgap
(>2.8eV) so is transparent
Uses a thin layer of a transparent conducting oxide,
such as tin oxide rather than a conducting grid
45
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: Polycrystalline thin films

46
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: Polycrystalline
thin films

47
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: Polycrystalline
thin films

48
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: Polycrystalline thin films:
Copper Indium Diselenide (DIS)
• Commercial production. Companies include: Energy
PV, International Solar Electric Technologies, Martin
Marietta, Seimens Solar Industries, Solarex
• No degradation problem
• Very high absorptivity (99%)

Thickness 1-2mm
Band gap 1.0 eV

Lab efficiency 17.1% cells but 11% for

modules
49
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: Polycrystalline thin films:
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
• Commercial production. Companies include: BP Solar,
Golden Photon Inc., Matusushita
• Good bandgap
• P-type highly resistive – tends to be intrinsic in an n-i-p
structure with p-type layer behind (such as zinc
telluride (ZnTe)

Thickness 1-2mm
Band gap 1.44 eV
Lab efficiency 15.8% cells
but 10.5% for
modules 50
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: Single crystalline thin films:
Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
• Gallium is a by-product of the smelting of other metals, notably
aluminium and zinc - it is rarer than gold
• Very absorptive and with an ideal band gap
• Not sensitive to heat and resistant to radiation damage
• Alloys well so can give precise control over generation of
electrons and holes so efficiencies can approach theoretical
limits
• Very expensive so used in critical applications such as spacecraft
and concentrator systems

Thickness 1-2mm

Band gap 1.43 eV

Lab efficiency 25.1% cells but

20% in commercial production 51
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: augmented:
Multijunction cells

• A stack (or cascade) of different cells with different

bandgaps – Highest bandgap top lowest bottom

• Photons not absorbed by top cell passed on to next

• Lab efficiencies of >35% possible (using gallium

arsenide)

• Amorphous silicon can be good for the top cell and

copper indium diselenide good for the bottom cell
52
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: augmented: Multijunction
cells

53
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: augmented: Concentration

• Highly efficient (but expensive) cells enclosed in a light

focusing device

• Cell area is reduced per unit output due to higher

insolation levels

• Usually parabolic concentrators

• Needs tracking (not unlike concentrating solar-thermal

collectors)

54
Photovoltaic cells: Cell types: augmented: Concentration

55
Photovoltaic systems: Considerations
•Is the system going to be Standalone or Grid
Connected?

•Are you going to use standard AC or will DC do?

•Are you using the system at night?

•Energy audit
• How much energy do you use on a day to day basis?
• How much sun do you get at your location?
56
Photovoltaic systems: Storage
•Why?
• Power is unavailable at night and may be unreliable
from hour-to-hour
• Peak loads may be larger than panel power
•Reliability  cost trade-off
•Usually Deep cycle lead acid batteries
• Cycle efficiency 75-80%
•In development
• Flywheels
• Fuel cells
• Super capacitors 57
 Photovoltaic systems: Components

•Cell array
•Regulator & shunt load
•Storage • AC distribution
• Batteries
• Flywheel • Grid connection

•DC distribution • Back-up generator

•Inverter

58
Photovoltaic systems: Components

59
Photovoltaic systems: Storage

60
Photovoltaic systems: Storage

61
Photovoltaic systems: Energy Audit
Appliance Amps Hours Amp
(at /day hours/
12V) day

Fridge 10 12 120
Lights (8 x 13W) 9 5 45
….
….
….
Television 2 3 6
Total 500
Battery pack is usually 3-5 days power
62
Photovoltaic systems: Converters
•Converts power from one form to
another
•Voltage conversion
• DC-DC converter
•DC-AC conversion
• Inverter
•Maximise array output
•Peak power tracker
•Dump load

63
Photovoltaic systems: Components: Peak power tracker

64
Converter and Inverter
Why We Need Converters?
Voltage Divider?
This is totally
unacceptable except in
very low power
applications
Photovoltaic systems: Off grid
•Keep it simple
• Complexity lowers reliability and increases
maintenance cost.
•Understand system availability
• Achieving 99+% availability with any energy system is
expensive.
•Be thorough, but realistic, when estimating the
load
• A 25% safety factor can cost you a great deal of
money.
•Cross-check weather sources
• Errors in solar resource estimates can cause
disappointing system performance. 77
 Photovoltaic systems: Off grid
•Make each connection as if it had to last 30
years – it does.
•Safety
•Local and national building and electrical
codes.
•Periodic maintenance
•Life-cycle cost (LCC) to compare PV systems to
alternatives
• LCC reflects the complete cost of owning and
operating any energy system.
78
Photovoltaic systems: On grid

•Grid can act as large battery (so no storage

needed)
• Sell to the grid (at wholesale rates)
• Net metering
•Power must be delivered to the grid at the
right frequency and in phase with the grid

79
Photovoltaic systems: On grid: Grid tied inverter

80
 Photovoltaic systems: System costs
Component Cost

Single crystal silicon panels (23m2 - 3kW generating £17,000

0.5kWh/day*)

Regulator £75

30 x 12V deep-cycle batteries £1,500

Inverter (2000W modified sine) £300

£18,875

* British Photovoltaic association quotes ~ 750kWh/year/kW installed

0.5kW/h/day = 2,190 kWh/year

81
Photovoltaic systems: Off grid system

82
 Photovoltaic systems: Off grid system
• 24 75W panels
• House wired for 24 V
• Mounted south facing at 63º (15º more than the
latitude – better for winter sun but loses about 10%
of summer insolation)
• 1400 Ah of storage in 6V batteries
• Peak power tracker
• Two inverters –large modified square wave and small
sine wave
• Micro-hydro back-up

83
Photovoltaic systems: Off grid system

84
Photovoltaic systems: Off grid system

85
Photovoltaic systems: Off grid system

86
Photovoltaic systems: Off grid system

87
Photovoltaic systems: On grid system

Area covered 532 m2

Total installed power 73 kWp

Energy consumption 150,000 kWh

Energy generated 55,000 kWh

Total cost £900,000

www.portalenergy.com/caddet/retb/no162.pdf
88
Photovoltaic systems: On grid system

Area covered 26.5 m2

Total installed power 1.6 kWp

Energy consumption 1,042 kWh

Energy generated 1,189 kWh

Exported to grid 850 kWh

Rate paid 4p/kWh

Total cost £13,600

www.solarcentury.co.uk

89
 Photovoltaic systems: Other applications
•Watches and calculators
• Low power / low voltage – can operate even under
artificial light

•Satellites
• Not a lot else out there – most initial research was
concentrated on space applications

•Stand-alone appliances
• Path lights, street lamps (on remote corners), train
signals
• No need for wiring which can offset cell cost
90
Photovoltaic systems: Other applications: Lighting

91
Photovoltaic systems: Other applications: Water
pumping

92
Photovoltaic systems: Other applications: Grid
augmentation

93
Photovoltaic systems: Other applications: Grid
augmentation

94
Photovoltaic systems: Trends: Prices

6.4

6.2

6
Price per Wp (€)

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.2
Apr-01 Oct-01 Apr-02 Oct-02 Apr-03 Oct-03 Apr-04 Oct-04

Price /Wp ~ €27 in 1983,

Cost of electricity generated is about 20 p/kWh in sunny climes (44 p/kWh in temperate)
95
 Southern California / USA
NRG Solar, partnering with Eurus Energy America Corp., is about to launch on a 45-megawatt project in Kings County. Split
into three parts, the 20-megawatt Sun City portion and the 19-megawatt Sand Drag section will start going up by the end of
September, while the final Avenal Park piece will follow in about a month.
Photo: NRG's Blythe Project. Credit: NRG
 Saudi Arabia
Germany Phoenix Solar AG (PS4) developed the 3.5-megawatt plant in Riyadh that uses 12,684 panels from China Suntech
Power Holdings Co. Ltd. (STP) and inverters from SMA Solar Technology AG (S92), Phoenix Solar was quoted as saying in
an e-mailed statement.
Reve: wind energy and electric vehicle review
 Florida/USA

A 25-megawatt plant will be installed by DeSoto County by 2009 and the Kennedy Space Center will have its 10 megawatt
plant done by 2010. Florida Power &Light will own and operate the plants.
(Credit: SunPower)
 Waldpolenz Solar Park, Germany

Waldpolenz Solar Park, which is the world’s largest thin-film photovoltaic (PV) power system, is built in on military air base
to the east of Leipzig in Germany. The power plant is a 40-megawatt solar power system using state-of-the-art thin film
technology. 550,000 First Solar thin-film modules are used, which supplies 40,000 MWh of electricity per year. The
investment cost for the Waldpolenz solar park amounts to some Euro 130 million.
Source: Wikipedia
Conergy is building a 10.5MW grid-connected PV plant in the grounds of the historic Linslerhof estate in Germany’s
Saarland region.
By Andrew Lee London Wednesday, June 20 2012
Updated: Monday, November 26 2012
 Shaikh Zayed Solar Power Plant in Mauritania inaugurated

During the inauguration of the Shaikh Zayed Solar Power Plant, a utility-scale, 15-megawatt solar photovoltaic (PV) facility in
the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, Shaikh Saeed Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Abu Dhabi’s Ruler Representative, reaffirmed the
UAE’s long-standing support for economic and social growth projects in developing countries.
Reve: wind energy and electric vehicle review
 Thank you for your attention

18.03.2019 102
Additional Material
Extrinsic conduction in semiconductors (I)
• By incorporation of foreign atoms (“doping”) with a number of valence
electrons that differs from that of the base material, an extrinsic conduction
can be created.
• If for instance the valence electron number of the incorporated impurities
exceeds that of the lattice atom (e.g. in pentavalent arsenic (As) incorporated
into tetravalent silicon (Si) lattice), the excess electron is only weakly bound
to the impurity atom.
• It thus separates easily from the impurity atom due to thermal movements
within the lattice and increases the conductivity of the crystal lattice as a
freely moving electron. Such foreign atoms which increase the number of
electrons are referred to as donor atoms. By thus the number of electrons
exceeds by far that of the holes. In this case electrons are called majority
carriers, whereas the holes constitute the minority carriers. Since
conductivity is mainly created by negatively charged particles, this type of
conduction is referred to as n-conduction.
 Extrinsic conduction in semiconductors (II)
• If the impurities incorporated into the semiconductor material are by contrast
provided with less valence electrons (e.g. trivalent boron (B) or aluminum (Al)
incorporated into tetravalent silicon (Si)), these doping atoms tend to absorb one
additional electron from the valence band of the basic material. Such foreign atoms
are thus referred to as acceptor atoms. They increase the number of holes (quasi
positive charge carriers) and create p-conductivity. Under these conditions deficit
electrons (i.e. holes) are majority carriers whereas electrons act as minority carriers.
• By doping the semiconductor with acceptors (p-doping) and donors (n-doping)
conductivity of semiconductor materials can be controlled across several orders of
magnitudes. However, the product of electron density and hole density of a certain
material is a temperature-dependent material constant. Hence, if for instance the
electron density is increased by the incorporation of donors, the hole density is
automatically reduced. Nevertheless, the conductivity increases. However, both
kinds of doping must not be applied simultaneously, since the effects of acceptors
and donors cancel each other out.
 Photo effect
• Photo effect
• Release of electrons from any material by means of absorbing
electromagnetic radiation; external and internal photo effect is
distinguished.
• External photo effect
• Electrons leave the irradiated, absorbing surface
• Internal photo effect
• Electrons stay as free electrons within the material (e.g.
semiconductors)
• In physics, the term photon describes the elementary excitation (quantum)
of the quantized electromagnetic field. In other words, photons are the
“building blocks” of electromagnetic radiation, they are “light particles”.
Photons are not electrically charged and have no mass, but possess moment,
energy and spin (i.e. intrinsic angular momentum); they have both wave and
particle properties.
 Photovoltaic effect (I)

• If photons hit and penetrate into a semiconductor, the electrical field directly
separates the created charge carrier pair. The electron moves towards the n-region,
whereas the hole moves to the p-region.
• If, during such light absorption, electron-hole-pairs are created outside of the
depletion region within the p- or n-region (i.e. outside of the electrical field), they
may also reach the space-charge region by diffusion due to thermal movements (i.e.
without the direction being predetermined by an electrical field). At this point the
respective minority carriers (i.e. the electrons within the p-region and the holes in
the n-region) are collected by the electrical field of the space-charge region and are
transferred to the opposite side. The potential barrier of the depletion layer, in
contrast, reflects the respective majority carriers.
• Finally, the p-side becomes charged positively while the n-side is charged negatively.
Both, photons absorbed within and outside of the depletion layer, contribute to this
charging. This process of light-induced charge separation is referred as p-n-photo
effect or as photovoltaic effect.
Photovoltaic effect (II)

• Outside of this electrical field there is an increasing likelihood that charge carrier
pairs created by light get lost by recombination. This is more likely the greater the
distance is between the location of the generation of the electron-hole-pair and the
depletion layer. This is quantified by the "diffusion length" of the charge carriers
inside the semiconductor material; i.e. the average path lengths to be overcome by
electrons or holes before recombination takes place. This diffusion length is
determined by the semiconductor material and highly depends on the impurity
content – and thus also on doping (the more doping the lower the diffusion length) –
and on crystal perfection. For silicon the diffusion length varies from approximately
10 up to several 100 µm.
• Due to the charge separation during irradiation, electrons accumulate within the n-
region, whereas holes accumulate in the p-region. Electrons and holes will
accumulate until the repelling forces of the accumulated charges start to impede
additional accumulation; i.e. until the electrical potential created by the
accumulation of electrons and holes is balanced by the diffusion poten-tial of the p-
n-junction. The open-circuit voltage of a solar cell is reached.
• If p- and n-sides are short-circuited by an external connection, the short-circuit
current is measured. In this operating mode the diffusion voltage at the p-n-junction
is restored. According to the operating principle, short-circuit current increase is
proportional and almost linear to solar irradiance.
 Photovoltaic effect
- Summary -
• Photovoltaic effect
• Creation of a voltage within a solid body by the absorption of light

• Steps
• Creation of free charge carriers by absorption of light

• Separation of the positive and negative charge carriers by means of an internal electrical
field

• Charge carriers are conducted away to the contacts which connect the cell to a consumer
resistance
Solar cell types

•Solar cells from mono- and polycristalline silicon

•Silicon thin film solar cells
•Thin film solar cells based on chalcogenides and chalcopyrits
(particularly CdTe and CdInSe2 ("CIS"))
•Thin film solar cells with integrated serial circuit
•Solar cells for concentrating photovoltaic systems
•Dye solar cells made of nano-porous titan oxide
•Others
Comparison of different
solar cell types

Monocrystalline Polycrystalline Amorphous

cells cells cells

Material silicon several silicon non-crystalline

monocrystal crystals silicon
Production costs highest medium lowest

Energy highest medium lowest

expenditure
Efficiency highest medium significantly
lower
Degradation no no yes
From the sand to the wafer

SiO2 Quartz sand

1800C
SiO2  2C  Si  2CO Metallurgical Si,
14 kWh / kg Si
98 % pure

300400C
Si  3HCl   SiHCl3  H 2 Trichlorosilane
exothermal
evaporated at 30 °C
Distillation of SiHCl3
up to 10-12 purity
 chopped
polycrystalline Si
Production of silicon wafers

Polycrystalline silicon
nuggets (purity: 1:109)

P-doted silicon melt

(addition of boron)

Octahedral Column
tube

Ingot casting
Czochralsky process
Ribbon pulling

Cutting into
Edge prisms
trimming

Cutting into wafers Sawing wafers (wire

(laser) saw)
Single crystal
drawing from a
melt

Melting Insert Crystal Crystal Crystal Poly-Si

germ carrier growth drawing and melt
Alternative “tube drawing"

silicon tube

Edge defined film

fed growth (EFG)
of ASE
Alternative „ingot casting"

silicon
block
casting
mould

rods

Large block wafers

Small blocks

Slices
Solar cell production (I)
Solar cell production (II)
 Solar cell parameters

• Peak power output

• Power generated by solar cells under standardized test conditions: 1 000 W/m²; AM (air
mass) = 1.5; cell temperature 25 °C
• Fill factor
• Serves as an index for the "quality" of the photovoltaic cell
• Relation between the product of current and voltage within the MPP and the product of
open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current
• Fill factor = 1 for an ideal solar cell
• Efficiency
• Relation between the electrical power output within the MPP and the incident light at a
cell temperature of 25 °C.
Solar cell losses
(values serve as examples)

Photons with
23.0 % insufficient energy

33.0 % Excess energy of the

photons

17.5 % Diffusion
losses

Fill factor,
11.0 % Reflection losses,
ohmic losses,
shading losses

15.5 % Electrical energy

 Maximum efficiencies
Efficiency in %

of various materials
for solar cells

Band gap in eV
 Solar cell efficiencies
Material Type Efficiency State of
Labor Production the arta
in %
Silicium mono-crystal 25,0 16,0 – 18,0 1
Poly-Silicium poly-crystal 20,4 15,0 – 16,5 1
Silicium-MIS mono-crystal 19,6 16,0 2
HIT (Silicium) mono-crystal 23,0 19,0 1
Silicium-concentrating cell mono-crystal 27,6 25,0 2
Amorpheuos silicium thin layer 12,5 7,5 1
Double layer Silicium/µc-Si thin layer 13,0 11,4 1
Gallium-Indium-Phosphid/Gallium- tandem cell 32,0 28 2
Indium-Arsenidb
Gallium-Indium-Phosphid/Gallium- triple cell 35,8 32 2
Indium-Arsenidb / Ge
Gallium-Indium-Phosphid/Gallium- triple cell 43,5 33,9 2
Indium-Arsenidb / Ge(Konzentrator)
Cadmium-Telluridc thin layer 17,3 14,4 1
Copper-Indium-Gallium-Di-Selenidd thin layer 20,3 14,7 1
Organic solar cells thin layer 10,6 5 2
a 1 industrial scale production, 2 small scale production; b GaInP/GaAs; c CdTe; d CuInSe2
Impact of inclination and
orientation on energy yield

Specific annual electricity generation in kWh/m2

Inclination of 0 degrees
Inclination of 10 degrees
Inclination of 20 degrees Exact southern orientation
Inclination of 35 degrees 15 degrees deviation
Inclination of 50 degrees 30 degrees deviation
Inclination of 65 degrees 50 degrees deviation
Inclination of 80 degrees 75 degrees deviation
Inclination of 90 degrees 90 degrees deviation

Deviation from exact southern orientation in degrees Module inclination in degrees

 Impact of module inclination on the monthly
average electricity generation
Specific electricity generation

Angle:
35 degrees
50 degrees
65 degrees

Months
Shading of PV cells

Shading due to the building Shading by skylights Shading by cover strips and
geometry plants
Mirror supported installation
 Tracking of solar modules

• The two main types of available tracing systems are:

• single-axis tracking
• two-axes tracking

• A tracking mechanism constantly adjusts the module to the current position of

the sun, so that the module is as perpendicular as possible to the direct radiation
(i.e. maximum exploitation achieved)
• This always means that a trade-off has to be made between the additional costs
of the tracking system and the additional yield due to the tracking.

129
 PV tracking systems
Fixed

Two axis
tracking

One axis
tracking
 Tracking systems vs. fixed mounting systems
• A tracking system enables the
module to be adjusted fully
automatically to the position of the
sun during the course of the year.
Compared to a fixed module, this
can result in a maximum surplus

Leistung
yield of 30 to 40 %.

Power
Zweiachsige
Two axis
• The energy yield is not only Nachführung
maximized but also equalized over
the course of the day.
Feste
• In our latitude, a tracking system Fixed
Installation
like this is generally associated with
relatively high investment costs but 14:00
06:00 10:00 18:00
comparatively low additional yield. Uhrzeit
Time
Fixed mounting systems and tracking systems

(a) September 6, 1980

Clear day
fixed
tracked
1200 TLT solar cell

(b) September 7, 1980

Cloudy
fixed
tracked
solar cell

CET

a) Clear day in autumn

b) Cloudy day in autumn
Concentrating PV systems

Concentrating PV systems use mirrors or lenses to concentrate the incident

radiation onto the cells.

 Therefore, less cells are needed and more efficient cells can be used
 Since the cell efficiency decreases with increasing temperature, such systems generally need
a cooling system; a combination of a solar thermal and a photovoltaic plant does therefore
generally not make much sense since solar thermal system need high and photovoltaic
plants need low temperatures.
 Concentrating PV systems can use basically only direct solar radiation, since diffuse radiation
cannot be concentrated (i.e. not suitable for temperate latitudes).
Concentrating PV cells
Principle
 Concentrating PV cells
Examples

Concentration factor 10 … 20
Concentration factor 100 … 1,000
Non-concentrating vs. concentrating photovoltaic
cell systems
• Non-concentrating PV cells
• Use diffuse and direct solar radiation
• If the module is fixed in a certain position, a fraction of the energy of the direct sunlight is
lost, due to the changing angle of the sunlight in relation to the module.
• Concentrating PV cells
• By focusing the solar radiation onto a relatively small area, it is possible to reduce the
necessary surface area of the photovoltaic material and therefore also the costs.
• Due to the higher radiated power, the power output of the cell also increases.
• Higher efficiency compared to non-concentrating PV cells