CHEM 111LEC CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

CHAPTER 1: ENERGY

ENERGY
The exertion of power; the capacity to do work, taking the forms of kinetic energy,
potential energy, chemical energy,electrical energy, etc.

Energy is defined as the ability to produce change or do work. Energy is a

changing, doing, moving, working thing. And that work can be divided into several main
tasks we easily recognize:

 Energy produces light.

 Energy produces heat.

 Energy produces motion.

 Energy produces sound.

 Energy produces growth.

 Energy powers technology.

FORMS OF ENERGY

There are many forms of energy, but they all fall into two categories– potential
or kinetic.

Potential Energy

Potential Energy is stored energy and the energy of position, or gravitational

energy. There are several forms of potential energy, including:

 Chemical Energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. It is the
energy that holds these particles together.

 Stored Mechanical Energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a

force.

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 Nuclear Energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom—the energy that holds
the nucleus together. The energy can be released when the nuclei are combined
or split apart.

 Gravitational Energy is the energy of position or place. A rock resting at the top
of a hill contains gravitational potential energy.

Kinetic Energy

Kinetic Energy is motion—the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules, substances,

and objects.

 Electrical Energy is the movement of electrons. Everything is made of tiny

particles called atoms. Atoms are made of even smaller particles called electrons,
protons, and neutrons. Applying a force can make some of the electrons move.

 Radiant Energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves.

 Thermal Energy, or heat, is the internal energy in substances—the vibration and

movement of atoms and molecules within substances.

 Motion Energy is the movement of objects and substances from one place to
another.

 Sound Energy is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal

(compression/rarefaction) waves.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The law of conservation of energy says energy is neither created nor destroyed.
Energy can change form, but the total quantity of energy in the universe remains the
same. The only exception to this law is when a small amount of matter is converted into
energy during nuclear fusion and fission.

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EFFICIENCY

Efficiency is how much useful energy you can get out of a system. In theory, a
100 percent energy efficient machine would change all of the energy put in it into useful
work.

workoutput
n
Qinput

SOURCES OF ENERGY

The ten major energy sources we use today are classified into two broad groups—
nonrenewable and renewable.

 Nonrenewable energy sources

These energy sources are called nonrenewable because they cannot be

replenished in a short period of time. We could run out of economically recoverable
nonrenewable resources some day. These include coal, petroleum, natural gas, propane,
and uranium. They are used to generate electricity, to heat our homes, to move our cars,
and to manufacturing plants.

 Renewable energy sources

These energy sources are called renewable energy sources because their supplies
are replenished in a short time. These include biomass, geothermal, hydropower, solar,
and wind.

ENERGY USERS

The Department of Energy uses four categories to classify energy

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users—residential, commercial, industrial, and others. These categories are called the
sectors of the economy.

 Residential

Residences are people’s homes. Residential use are lumped together because
homes use energy in the same ways —for heating, air conditioning, water heating,
lighting, and operating appliances. In 2018, the Philippines consumed for about 28,261
GWh which comprises 34.21 percent of total consumption. .

 Industrial

The industrial sector includes manufacturing, construction, mining, farming,

fishing, and forestry. This sector consumed 27,587 GWH of energy in 2018, which
accounted for 33.39 percent of total consumption.

 Commercial

Commercial buildings include office buildings, hospitals, stores, restaurants, and

schools.

This sector has a total consumption of 29.07 percent with 24,016 GWh.

 Others

This sector consumed 2,753 GWh of energy in 2018, which accounted for 3.33
percent of total consumption.

Electrochemical Energy

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-The Electrochemical energy is defined as “the energy which converts electrical energy to
chemical energy and vice versa.” The electrochemical energy is related to fuel cells, photo
electrochemical, and energy storage systems such as batteries, super capacitors or ultra-
capacitors.

Redox Reactions
-An oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction is a type of chemical reaction that
involves a transfer of electrons between two species. An oxidation-reduction
reaction is any chemical reaction in which the oxidation number of a molecule,
atom, or ion changes by gaining or losing an electron. Redox reactions are
common and vital to some of the basic functions of life, including photosynthesis,
respiration, combustion, and corrosion or rusting.

RULES FOR ASSIGNING OXIDATION STATES

The oxidation state (OS) of an element corresponds to the number of electrons, e-, that
an atom loses, gains, or appears to use when joining with other atoms in compounds.
In determining the oxidation state of an atom, there are seven guidelines to follow:
1. The oxidation state of an individual atom is 0.
2. The total oxidation state of all atoms in: a neutral species is 0 and in an ion is
equal to the ion charge.
3. Group 1 metals have an oxidation state of +1 and Group 2 an oxidation state of
+2
4. The oxidation state of fluorine is -1 in compounds
5. Hydrogen generally has an oxidation state of +1 in compounds
6. Oxygen generally has an oxidation state of -2 in compounds
7. In binary metal compounds, Group 17 elements have an oxidation state of -1,
Group 16 elements of -2, and Group 15 elements of -3.

Note: The sum of the oxidation states is equal to zero for neutral compounds and
equal to the charge for polyatomic ion species.

EXAMPLE 11: ASSIGNING OXIDATION STATES

Determine the Oxidation States of each element in the following reactions:

a. Fe(s)+O2(g)→Fe2O3(g)

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b. Fe2+
c. Ag(s)+H2S→Ag2S(g)+H2(g)

SOLUTIONS

A. Fe and O2 are free elements; therefore, they each have an oxidation state of 0
according to Rule #1. The product has a total oxidation state equal to 0, and
following Rule #6, O has an oxidation state of -2, which means Fe has an
oxidation state of +3.
B. The oxidation state of Fe corresponds to its charge; therefore, the oxidation state
is +2.
C. Ag has an oxidation state of 0, H has an oxidation state of +1 according to Rule
#5, S has an oxidation state of -2 according to Rule #7, and hence Ag in Ag2S
has an oxidation state of +1.

EXAMPLE 2: ASSIGNING OXIDATION STATES

Determine the Oxidation State of the bold element in each of the following:
a. Na3PO3
b. H2PO4-

SOLUTIONS

a. The oxidation numbers of Na and O are +1 and -2. Because sodium phosphite is
neutral, the sum of the oxidation numbers must be zero. Letting x be the
oxidation number of phosphorus, 0= 3(+1) + x + 3(-2). x=oxidation number of
P= +3.
b. Hydrogen and oxygen have oxidation numbers of +1 and -2. The ion has a charge
of -1, so the sum of the oxidation numbers must be -1. Letting y be the oxidation
number of phosphorus, -1= y + 2(+1) +4(-2), y= oxidation number of P= +5.

EXAMPLE 3: IDENTIFYING REDUCED AND OXIDIZED ELEMENTS

Determine which element is oxidized and which element is reduced in the following
reactions (be sure to include the oxidation state of each):
a. Zn + 2H+ → Zn2+ + H2
b. 2Al + 3Cu2+→2Al3+ +3Cu
c. CO32- + 2H+→ CO2 + H2O

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SOLUTIONS

a. Zn is oxidized (Oxidation number: 0 → +2); H+ is reduced (Oxidation number:

+1 → 0)
b. Al is oxidized (Oxidation number: 0 → +3); Cu2+ is reduced (+2 → 0)
c. This is not a redox reaction because each element has the same oxidation
number in both reactants and products: O= -2, H= +1, C= +4.

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Redox reactions are comprised of two parts, a reduced half and an oxidized half,
that always occur together. The reduced half gains electrons and the oxidation number
decreases, while the oxidized half loses electrons and the oxidation number increases.
Simple ways to remember this include the mnemonic devices OIL RIG, meaning
"oxidation is loss" and "reduction is gain," and LEO says GER, meaning "loss of e- =
oxidation" and "gain of e- = reduced." There is no net change in the number of electrons
in a redox reaction. Those given off in the oxidation half reaction are taken up by another
species in the reduction half reaction.
The two species that exchange electrons in a redox reaction are given special names.
The ion or molecule that accepts electrons is called the oxidizing agent; by accepting
electrons it causes the oxidation of another species. Conversely, the species that donates
electrons is called the reducing agent; when the reaction occurs, it reduces the other
species. In other words, what is oxidized is the reducing agent and what is reduced is
the oxidizing agent. (Note: the oxidizing and reducing agents can be the same element
or compound, as in disproportionation reactions).
A good example of a redox reaction is the thermite reaction, in which iron atoms in ferric
oxide lose (or give up) O atoms to Al atoms, producing Al2O3.

Fe2O3(s)+2Al(s)→Al2O3(s)+2Fe(l)

Example 4: Identifying Oxidized Elements

Using the equations from the previous examples, determine what is oxidized in the
following reaction.
Zn + 2H+ → Zn2+ + H2

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SOLUTION
The oxidation state of H changes from +1 to 0, and the oxidation state of Zn changes
from 0 to +2. Hence, Zn is oxidized and acts as the reducing agent.

Example 5: Identifying Reduced Elements

What is reduced species in this reaction?

Zn + 2H+ → Zn2+ + H2

SOLUTION
The oxidation state of H changes from +1 to 0, and the oxidation state of Zn changes
from 0 to +2. Hence, H+ ion is reduced and acts as the oxidizing agent.

Combination Reactions

Combination reactions are among the simplest redox reactions and, as the name
suggests, involves "combining" elements to form a chemical compound. As usual,
oxidation and reduction occur together. The general equation for a combination reaction
is given below:

A+B→AB

Example 6: Combination Reaction

Consider the combination reaction of hydrogen and oxygen

H2+O2→H2O(5)(5)H2+O2→H2O

SOLUTION
0 + 0 → (2)(+1) + (-2) = 0

In this reaction both H2 and O2 are free elements; following Rule #1, their oxidation
states are 0. The product is H2O, which has a total oxidation state of 0. According to Rule
#6, the oxidation state of oxygen is usually -2. Therefore, the oxidation state of H in
H2O must be +1.

Decomposition Reactions
A decomposition reaction is the reverse of a combination reaction, the breakdown of a
chemical compound into individual elements:

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AB→A+B

Example 7: Decomposition Reaction

Consider the decomposition of water:

H2O→ H2+O2

Calculation:
(2)(+1) + (-2) = 0 → 0 + 0

Explanation: In this reaction, water is "decomposed" into hydrogen and oxygen. As in

the previous example the H2O has a total oxidation state of 0; thus, according to Rule
#6 the oxidation state of oxygen is usually -2, so the oxidation state of hydrogen in H2O
must be +1.

Single Replacement Reactions

A single replacement reaction involves the "replacing" of an element in the reactants with
another element in the products:

A+BC→AB+C

Example 8: Single Replacement Reaction

Equation:

Cl2+NaBr–––→NaCl+Br2

Calculation:
(0) + ((+1) + (-1) = 0) -> ((+1) + (-1) = 0) + 0
Explanation: In this equation, Br is replaced with Cl, and the Cl atoms in Cl2 are reduced,
while the Br ion in NaBr is oxidized.

Double Replacement Reactions

A double replacement reaction is similar to a double replacement reaction, but involves
"replacing" two elements in the reactants, with two in the products:

AB+CD→AD+CB

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Example 9: Double Replacement Reaction

MgSO4(aq)+Na2C2O4(aq)→MgC2O4(s)+Na2SO4(aq)

Combustion Reactions

Combustion reactions almost always involve oxygen in the form of O2, and are almost
always exothermic, meaning they produce heat. Chemical reactions that give off light
and heat and light are colloquially referred to as "burning."

CxHy+O2→CO2+H2O

Example 9: Combustion Reaction

2C8H18+25O2→16CO2(g)+18H2O

Disproportionation Reactions

In disproportionation reactions, a single substance can be both oxidized and reduced.

These are known as disproportionation reactions, with the following general equation:
2A→A+n + A−n

Disproportionation reactions do not need begin with neutral molecules, and can involve
more than two species with differing oxidation states (but rarely).

Example 10: Disproportionation Reaction

Disproportionation reactions have some practical significance in everyday life, including

the reaction of hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 poured over a cut. This a decomposition
reaction of hydrogen peroxide, which produces oxygen and water. Oxygen is present in
all parts of the chemical equation and as a result it is both oxidized and reduced. The
reaction is as follows:

2H2O2(aq)→2H2O(l)+O2(g)

DISCUSSION

On the reactant side, H has an oxidation state of +1 and O has an oxidation state of -1,
which changes to -2 for the product H2O (oxygen is reduced), and 0 in the
product O2O2(oxygen is oxidized).

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Balancing a simple redox reaction using the half-reaction method

Redox reactions can be split into reduction and oxidation half-reactions. Chemists use
half-reactions to make it easier to see the electron transfer, and it also helps when
balancing redox reactions. Let's write the half-reactions for another example reaction:

Steps:

Identify If the Charges are Equal

Identify the Oxidation Reaction and Reduction Reaction

Get the half Reduction/ Oxidation Reaction

Balanced the half reaction charges (addition of e-)

Combining the Balanced Half Reaction.

Example:

Al(s)+Cu2+(aq)→Al3+(aq)+Cu(s)

Solution:
Reduction half-reaction:
Cu2+(aq)→Cu(s)
Cu2+(aq)+2e−→Cu(s)
Oxidation half-reaction:
Al(s)→Al3+(aq)
Al(s)→Al3+(aq)+3e−

3× [Cu2+(aq)+2e−→Cu(s)]
2× [Al(s)→Al3+(aq)+3e−]
2Al(s) + 3Cu2+ → 3Cu(s) + 2Al3+

Balancing Redox Reactions Using the Half Reaction Method

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Many redox reactions occur in aqueous solutions or suspensions. In this medium most
of the reactants and products exist as charged species (ions) and their reaction is often
affected by the pH of the medium. The following provides examples of how these
equations may be balanced systematically. The method that is used is called the ion-
electron or "half-reaction" method.

Example 1 -- Balancing Redox Reactions Which Occur in Acidic Solution

Organic compounds, called alcohols, are readily oxidized by acidic solutions of

dichromate ions. The following reaction, written in net ionic form, records this change.
The oxidation states of each atom in each compound is listed in order to identify the
species that are oxidized and reduced, respectively.

Cr2O72- + C2H6O Cr3+ + C2H4O

dichromate ethanol chromium(III) acetaldehyde

An examination of the oxidation states, indicates that carbon is being oxidized, and
chromium, is being reduced. To balance the equation, use the following steps:

 First, divide the equation into two halves; one will be an oxidation half-reaction
and the other a reduction half- reaction, by grouping appropriate species. The
nature of each will become evident in subsequent steps.

Cr2O72- Cr3+

C2H6O C2H4O

 Second, if necessary, balance all elements except oxygen and hydrogen in both
equations by inspection. In other words, balance the non-hydrogen and non-
oxygen atoms only. By following this guideline in the example above, only
the chromium reaction needs to be balanced by placing the coefficient, 2 , in
front of Cr+3 as shown below.

Cr2O72- 2 Cr3+

C2H6O C2H4O

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 The third step involves balancing oxygen atoms. To do this, add water (H2O)
molecules. Use 1 molecule of water for each oxygen atom that needs to be
balanced. Add the appropriate number of water molecules to that side of the
equation required to balance the oxygen atoms as shown below.

Cr2O72- 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O

C2H6O C2H4O

 The fourth step involves balancing the hydrogen atoms. To do this one must use
hydrogen ions (H+). Use one (1) H+ ion for every hydrogen atom that needs to
balanced. Add the appropriate number of hydrogen ions to that side of the
equation required to balance the hydrogen atoms as shown below

14 H+ + Cr2O72- 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O

C2H6O C2H4O + 2 H+

 The fifth step involves the balancing charges. This is done by adding electrons
(e-). Each electron has a charge equal to (-1). To determine the number of
electrons required, find the net charge of each side the equation.

14 H+ + Cr2O72- 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O

+12 +6

C2H6O C2H4O + 2 H+
0 +2

The electrons must always be added to that side which has the greater positive
charge as shown below.

6 e- + 14 H+ + Cr2O72- 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O

+6 +6

C2H6O C2H4O + 2 H+ + 2 e-
0 0

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note: the net charge on each side of the equation does not have to equal zero.

The chromium reaction can now be identified as the reduction half-reaction and
the ethanol/acetaldehyde as the oxidation half-reaction. The reduction half-
reaction requires 6 e-, while the oxidation half-reaction produces 2 e-.

 The sixth step involves multiplying each half-reaction by the smallest whole
number that is required to equalize the number of electrons gained by reduction
with the number of electrons produced by oxidation. Using this guideline, the
oxidation half reaction must be multiplied by "3" to give the 6 electrons required
by the reduction half-reaction.

6 e- + 14 H+ + Cr2O72- 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O

3 x (C2H6O C2H4O + 2 H+ + 2 e-)

The seventh and last step involves adding the two half reactions and reducing to
the smallest whole number by cancelling species which on both sides of the
arrow.

6 e- + 14 H+ + Cr2O72- + 3 C2H6O 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 3

C2H4O + 6 H+ + 6 e-

Note that the above equation can be further simplified by subtracting out 6 e-
and 6 H+ ions from both sides of the equation to give the final equation.

8 H+ + Cr2O72- + 3 C2H6O 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 3 C2H4O

Note: the equation above is completely balanced in terms of having an equal

number of atoms as well as charges.

1. Petrucci, et al. General Chemistry: Principles & Modern Applications. 9th ed.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2007.
2. Sadava, et al. Life: The Science of Biology. 8th ed. New York, NY. W.H. Freeman
and Company, 2007

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