22CHE22

GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY, BENGALURU.
2021-22
MODULE-1: ELECTRODE POTENTIAL AND CELLS. CO-1

Module-1: Electrochemistry and Energy Storage Systems: 20 Marks
Use of free energy in chemical equilibrium: Thermodynamic functions: Definitions of free energy and entropy.
Cell potential ,derivation of Nernst equation for single electrode potential, numerical problems on E,E 0 and Ecell.
Electro Chemical Cells: Reference electrodes: Introduction; Construction, working and applications of calomel
electrodes. Ion selective electrode – Definition, construction and working of glass electrode, determination of pH
using glass electrode. Concentration cells: Electrolyte concentration cell, numerical problems.
Energy storage systems: Introduction, classification-primary, secondary and reserve batteries. Construction
,working and applications of Li-ion batteries.
Fuel cells: Introduction, Definition of fuel cell, Construction, working and applications of Methanol-Oxygen fuel
cell.
Course Objectives: After the Completion of this module, the student is able to:
Know the meaning Thermodynamic terms and applications of thermodynamics,
Analyze the different electrodes used in chemical, agriculture, etc industries.
Illustrate the characteristics, different types of batteries, its construction and application.
Introduction:
The Chemical reactions involving through III law: the entropy of a pure crystal at
the transfer of electrons are called Oxidation absolute zero is Zero, since there can be no
and reduction reactions or redox reactions. physical system
A spontaneous electrode redox reactions is
always carried out by the change in decrease Electro Chemical Cell: An electrochemical
in free energy. When two dissimilar metals, cell is a device consisting of two electrodes,
one with higher electrode potential is contact with a solution of its own ions, which
connected to the other having lower electrode converts the chemical energy into electrical
potential are immersed in their own energy (Galvanic cell) or electrical energy in
respective metal ion solutions, the metal to chemical energy (Electrolytic cell).
spontaneously develop a tendency to lose or The electrochemical cells are classified into
gain electrons at their respective electrodes, the following types,
undergoes redox reactions with a decrease in 1. Voltaic cell or Galvanic cell.
free energy. 2. Electrolytic cell.
G = - nFE 3. Concentration cell.
Thermodynamics: 4. Fuel Cell.
It is the science of relationship between the
heat, work, temperature and energy, broadly Thermodynamic functions:
deals with the transfer of energy or heat is Four important and useful thermodynamic
known as thermodynamics. functions will be considered in this section
1. Internal energy (U)
Laws of thermodynamics: 2. Enthalpy (H)
I law: The amount of energy is added to a 3. Helmholtz free energy or free energy) () and
system is equal to the sum of its increase in 4. Gibbs free energy or Gibbs function) (G)
heat energy and the work done on the system.
(Ist law is the example of Principle of 1. Internal energy (U): The internal energy
Conservation energy) of a system may be defined as” the energy
contained within the system, Every substance
II Law: The heat energy that cannot be is with a definite amount of energy, which
transferred from a body at a lower depends on its chemical nature, its
temperature to a body of higher temperature temperature, pressure and volume.”
without the addition of energy. Or the sum of the different kind of energies
Example: warm air, cold air in room. possessed by a system.
Dr.Ashok S D. M.Sc., Ph.D.,Associate Professor Page 1

GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY, BENGALURU. 2021-22
It is made up of number of components like F= Faraday’s constant
kinetic, rotational, vibrational, nuclear, E= electromotive force.
electronic bond energy etc.,
It is denoted by U & its unit is J mol-1 Electrochemical Series:
The elements/Metals are arranged in an
2. Enthalpy: (H) electrochemical series based on their standard
It is the a property of a thermodynamic electrode potential values.
system. The enthalpy of a system is equal to A _ve value indicates the more oxidation
the system's internal energy plus the product tendency and +ve value indicates the
of its pressure and volume. For a processes at reduction tendency w.r.t. Hydrogen.
constant pressure, the heat absorbed or The metal with lower electrode potential are
released equals the change in enthalpy. more reactive, the reactivity decreases,& the
The unit for enthalpy in SI is joule. and in metal with higher electrode potential are
BTU is the calorie. more noble.
Metal with _ve electrode potential can
3. Helmholtz free energy or free energy: () liberate hydrogen from acidic solutions.
It is the internal energy of the system minus Metals with lower electrode potential have
the amount of energy that can not be used to the tendency to replace metals with higher
perform work, this unusable energy is given electrode potential from their solutions
by the entropy of a system multiplied by the Ex. Zn displaces Cu, Cu displaces Ag.
temperature of the system.
Standard EMF:
4. Gibbs free energy or Gibbs function (G): It is defined as the emf of a galvanic cell,
Gibbs free energy is a measure of the when the reactants and the products of the
potential for reversible or maximum work cell at the unit concentration at STP. It is
that may be done by a system at constant denoted by Eo
temperature and pressure. It is a
thermodynamic property that was defined in Electrode Potential:
1876 by Josiah Willard Gibbs to predict When a metal is dipped in its own metal ion
whether a process will occur spontaneously solution, the potential developed at the
at constant temperature and pressure. Gibbs interface between the metal and the solution
free energy G is defined as G = H - TS where is said to be an electrode potential.
H, T and S are the enthalpy, temperature, and
entropy. Standard electrode Potential:
The SI unit for Gibbs energy is the kilo joule When a metal is dipped in its own metal ion
(kJ). of unit molar solution, the potential
developed at the interface between the metal
Electro motive force or (EMF) of a cell: and the solution at STP is said to be an
It is the potential difference between two electrode potential.
electrodes of a galvanic cell which causes the
flow of current from one electrode (higher Electrochemical series: The different
potential) to the other (lower potential) is metal/metal ions have different values of standard
called EMF of a cell. electrode potentials. These metals/ elements are
It is denoted by E cell, and it is represented by arranged in the order of increasing or decreasing
the thermodynamic relation, values of their standard reduction potentials. This
G = - nFE arrangement of metals/elements is called
electrochemical series
Where, G = Change in free energy
n= Number of electrons transferred

Q1. Derive Nernst’s equation for the

determination of single electrode potential. -nFE = -nFE0 + RT ln [M] - RT ln[Mn+]
-nF -nF -nF -nF
Nernst’s equation is used to determining the Under standard conditions(STP) M=1, hence
single electrode potential as well as the emf the above equation becomes, since ln1=0
of the cell.
Let us consider a redox reaction E = E0 + RT ln [Mn+]
Mn+ + ne- M nF
Substitute the values of R=8.314JK-1mol-1,
According to thermodynamics, the decrease F=96,500Cmol-1,T=250C.Converting natural
in free energy (-∆G) represents the maximum log (ln) to log base10. The above equation
amount of work reduces to,
-∆G = Wmax E = E0 + 0.0591 log [Mn+]
Wmax = nFE n
The change in free energy for the above The above equation is known as Nernst
redox reaction is given by, equation for single electrode,
∆G = -nFE (1)
Under standard conditions, when the Simillarly, The Nernst equation for the cell is
concentrations of all species is unity, the given by
standard free energy change is given by the E = E0 + 0.0591 log Cathode
equation n Anode
∆G0 = -nFE0 (2)
Where, ∆G = Free energy change Q2.What are Reference electrodes, Explain
∆Go= Standard Free energy change construction and working of Calomel electrode.
n = No. of electrons
F= Faradays constant Definition:
E= Electrode potential Electrodes whose potentials are known at
Eo= Standard electrode potential. STP, from which the electrode potential of
unknown electrode or solution is
The equilibrium constant K is related to determined.
change in free energy change by the Vant Example: Calomel electrode.
Hoff equation
∆G=∆G0+ RTlnK (3)
Applying law of mass action to above redox
reaction,
Where, K= [M]/[Mn+]
Substitute the value of K in equation (3),

We get, G =∆G0+ RT ln [M]/[Mn+]
∆G =∆G0+ RT ln [M]- RT ln[Mn+]
Substitute the values of equ (1) and (2) in the

above equation, Weget
-nFE = -nFE0+ RT ln [M]- RT ln[Mn+] ---(4)

(5)
Divide the equation (4) by –nF, weget

Construction: Q3. Explain the following terms.

Calomel electrode is a metal-metal salt ion a. Internal Energy b. Entropy c. Free Energy.
electrode & secondary reference electrode. a) Internal Energy
The internal energy of a system may be defined as”
It consists of glass tube with side tube, The
the energy contained within the system, Every
Mercury is placed at the bottom of the glass substance is with a definite amount of energy, which
tube and it is covered with a paste of depends on its chemical nature, its temperature,
Mercurous chloride with mercury. A glass pressure and volume.”
tube is filled with KCl solution of known QOr the sum of the different kind of energies possessed
3.What are Reference electrodes, Explain
by a system.It is made up of number of components
concentration through the side tube. A construction and working of
like kinetic, rotational, vibrational, nuclear, electronic
platinum wire sealed into a glass tube is Silver-Silver
bond energy etc., Chloride electrode:
dipped into mercury and it is connected yo It is denoted by U & its unit is J mol
-1
the external electrical contact.
Depending on the concentration of the KCl Entropy: It is a measure of disorderedness or
solution used. randomness of a system.
Calomel electrode develops potential. If, The entropy change during a process is
Saturated KCl Soln.is used develops=0.242V, mathematically defined as S=q/T,
1N KCl Solution is used develops =0.284V, Where q= heat exchange (absord or evolved)
0.1N KCl Solution is used develops =0.333V.
It is expressed in terms of joules per degree
kelvin (JK-1).
The Calomel electrode/Cell is represented as
The entropy is an extensive property, depends
Hg / Hg2Cl2 / Cl- Construction:
on the amount of the substance
The calomel electrode can acts as anode or Silver–Silver chloride
present.Therefore it is isnecessary
a metal-metal salt
to mention
cathode depending on the nature of the other ion electrode & it is a secondary reference
the quantity of the substance involved.the
electrode of the cell. electrode.
entropy is per mole.
As anode: 2Hg + 2Cl- Hg2Cl2 + 2e- ItFree
consists of a glass tube at the bottom of
- energy:
As cathode : Hg2Cl2+2e 2Hg + 2Cl- which it contains agar
The spontaneity of plug. The glass
a process tube isbe
cannot
filled with a saturated solution
predicted on the basis of the enthalpy of KCl and aor
Eq.ium reaction:Hg2Cl2+2e- 2Hg + 2Cl- few KCl crystals are kept in the solution to
entropy, Therefore a new function called
maintain
Gibbs free theenergy
concentration
is defined. of the KCl always
The electrode potential is given by, constant.
The Gibbs free energy of a 1M
Add 1to 2 drops of silver
system is nitrate
defined
E = E0 – 0.0591 log [Cl-] at 298 K solution to increase the conductance
as the maximum amount of energy is of KCl
available
solution. A silver wire partially
to a system to perform useful work. It is coated with
Advantages of Calomel elctrode: Silver chloride
denoted by the issymbol
inserted (G),as Enthalpy
electrode (H)in the
and
1. It has simple construction KCl solution and it is connected to the
entropy (S).
2.Cell potential is constant over a long period external
G=H-TSelectrical contact.
3. The cell potential does not vary with Depending
At constant on the concentration
temperature, the change of the KCl
in Gibbs
tempr. solution used.
free energy is given by, G= H-T S
4. The cell potential is reproducible. Ag-AgCl electrode develops potential. If,
This equation is known as Gibbs Helmholtz
Saturated
equation. KCl Soln. is used develops=0.199V,
Applications: Calomel electrode is used as 1N
If ,KCl Solution is used develops=0.244V,
1.Secondary reference electrode in the 0.1NGKCl Solution
is –ve ,i.e., ifis the
usedfree
develops=0.290V.
energy decreases, the
measurement of electrode potential. process is spontaneous
2.Reference electrode in all potentiometric & TheG isSilver- silverThechloride
equal to Zere,, electrode
process is in equilibrium.is
pH determinations. G is as+ve
represented AgCl /ifCl-the
Ag / ,i.e., free energy increases, the
process is non spontaneous.
The Silver – silver chloride electrode can acts as anode or cathode
depending on the nature of the other electrode of the cell.

Q5. What are Ion selective electrode. The exchange of ions by the inner and outer
Explain the Determination PH of a membrane gives rise to a boundary potential.
solution using Glass electrode. This boundary potential consists of two
potentials E1 and E2 which are associated
Definition: Ion selective electrode is the one with the outer and inner membranes
which selectively responds to a specific ion respectively.
in a mixture and the potential developed at Eb = E1 – E2
the electrode is a function of the The potential of the glass electrode is given
concentration of that ion in the solution. by
Example: Glass electrode (exchanges H+ ions EG = E0G + 0.0591 log (H+)
with the solution)
Glass Electrode: Q6. Explain the determination of PH of a
solution by using glass electrode.
Construction:
Glass electrode is a pH sensitive electrode, it In this experiment glass electrode is
is widely used for pH determination. combined with calomel electrode. Glass
The glass electrode consists of a glass bulb electrode acts as indicator electrode and
made up of special type of silicate glass calomel acts reference electrode. Both the
electrodes are connected to a PH meter and
(corning glass) of low melting point with
both the electrodes are dipped into the given
high electrical conductance. The glass bulb is unknown PH solution.
filled with 0.1M HCl and is inserted with a The cell assembly is represented as
Ag-AgCl electrode, which is the internal Hg / Hg2Cl2 / Cl- // solution of unknown PH/
reference electrode and also serves for the glass / HCl(0.1M) / AgCl / Ag
external electrical contact. The electrode is The PH is determined by using following
dipped in a solution containing H+ ions. relation,
WKT, Ecell = Ecathode- Eanode
The glass electrode can be represented as
Ecell = EGlass - Ecalomel …………(1)
Ag / AgCl / 0.1M HCl / glass For glass electrode,
Working: When Glass electrode dipped in a EGlass = EG0 + 0.0591 log[H+]
solution it can be represented as
Na+Gl- + Solution H+Gl- +Na+ WKT, {PH = - log [H+] }
EGlass = EG0 - 0.0591pH ………... (2)
External Internal Internal
analyte referance referance
solution solution electrode Substituting (2) in (1)
(H+) C2 0.1M HCl Ag/AgCl Ecell = E0G –0.0591pH- Ecalomel
(H+) C2
E1 E2 pH = (E0G – Ecalomel - Ecell)
0.0591

Numericals: Dec-Jan-2017.
Q7. What are Concentration Cells. Explain 1. A concentration cell is constructed by immersing
two Silver electrodes in 0.02 M and 2M AgNO 3
the construction and working of solution. Write the cell representation, Cell
concentration cells reactions and Calculate EMF of the cell at 25 oC
rods in 0.001M & 0.1M
Concentration cells are the galvanic cells
consisting of anode and cathode made up of i) Cell representation:
Ag Ag+ Ag+ Ag
similar metals dipped in its electrolyte 0.02M 2M
solution containing its own ions of different ii) Cell Reactions:
concentrations. The electrode which is in Anode: Oxdn: Ag Ag+ + e-
+ -
contact with higher electrolyte concentration Cathode: Redn. Ag + e Ag
acts as cathode and the one with lower Over all Cell rxn: Eocell ZERO
electrolyte concentration acts as anode. Wkt, Ecell = 0.0591 log [Cathode C2 ]
Ex:- Zinc concentration cell:- n [ Anode C1 ]
Ecell = 0.0591 log [2 ]
1 [ 0.02]
Ecell = 0.0591 log (2) – log(0.02)
1
Ecell = 0.1182 V
Model Question Paper (CBCS) 2015-16.
2. The cell potential of concentration cell of copper
was measured 0.0592V. One of the concentrations
of the CuSO4 solution was 0.001M. Calculate the
The concentration cell is consists ofIt concentration of other CuSO4 solution.
Wkt,
consists of anode and cathode made up zinc
Ecell = 0.0591 log [Cathode C2 ]
dipped in zinc sulphate solution of different n [ Anode C1 ]
concentrations. Both the half cell is 0.0592 = 0.0591 log (0.001)
internally connected by means of salt bridge 2 x
and externally by a wire through an ammeter. 0.0592 × 2 = 0.0591 log (0.001) – log(x)
log X = 0.0591 log(0.001) - 0.0592 × 2
Cell reactions: log x =
Anode: Zn → Zn2+ (C1)+ 2e- June-July 2015,
Cathode: Zn2+ (C2) + 2e- → Zn 3. A cell is obtained by combining two Cadmium
Net Cell reaction = Eocell= Zero electrodes immersed in cadmium sulphate solutions
of 0.1M and 0.5M a 25oC. Give the cell
representation, Cell reaction and calculate the
Cell can be represented as
EMF of the cell.
Zn Zn2+ (C1) Zn2+ (C2) Zn i) Cell representation:
The emf of the concentration cells is given by Cd Cd+2 Cd+2 Cd
the Nernst equation, 0.1M 0.5M
ii) Cell Reactions:
Anode: Oxdn: Cd Cd + + 2e-
Ecell = Eocell + 0.0591 log [Cathode ] OR +2 -
Cathode: Redn. Cd + 2e Cd
n [ Anode ] Over all Cell rxn: Eocell ZERO
Ecell = Eocell + 0.0591 log C2
n C1 WKT,
Where, EoCell= 0 Ecell = 0.0591 log [Cathode C2 ]
n [ Anode C1 ]
Ecell = 0.0591 log [0.5 ]
Ecell = 0.0591 log [C2 ] 2 [ 0.1]
n [ C1] Ecell = 0.0591 log (0.5) – log(0.1)
Where, C2= Concentration of Cathod 2
C1= Concentration of Anode Ecell = 0.508V
V
Dec.2015/Jan2016 Dec-2015-Jan-2016
4. The emf of the cell 7.The spontaneous galvanic cell tin|tin ion
Ag AgNO3 AgNO3 Ag (0.02M)||tin ion(0.06M)|tin develops a potential of
0.0083 M (x M) 0.0141V at 298 K Calculate the valency of tin.
was found to be 0.074V at 298K. Calculate the Write the cell reaction
value of x and write the cell reaction.
i) Cell Reactions: i) Cell Reactions:
Anode: Oxdn: Ag Ag+ + e- Anode: Oxdn: Sn Sn+2 + 2e-
+ - 2+ -
Cathode: Redn. Ag + e Ag Cathode: Redn. Sn + 2e Sn
Over all Cell rxn: Eocell ZERO Over all Cell rxn: Eocell ZERO
WKT,
Ecell = 0.0591 log [Cathode C2 ] WKT,
n [ Anode C1 ] Ecell = 0.0591 log [Cathode C2 ]
0.074 = 0.0591 log [x ] n [ Anode C1 ]
1 [ 0.0083]
0.074 = 0.0591 log(x) –log(0.0083) 0.0141 = 0.0591 log [0.06 ]
Log x = log (0.0083) + 0.74 n [ 0.02]
0.0591 0.0141 = 0.0591 log(0.06) –log(0.02)
n
X=0.26V
n= 2
Dec.2015/Jan2016 & June 2012 Therefore the valency of Tin is 2
5. The emf of the cell
Ag AgNO3 (C1) AgNO3 Ag 8. A concentration cell is constructed by dipping
(C2)=(0.2M) copper rods in 0.01M and 0.1M CuSO4 solutions.
Is 0.8V. Calculate C1 and write the cell reaction. write the cell representation, cell reaction and
i) Cell Reactions: Calculate the emf of the cell at 298K.
Anode: Oxdn: Ag Ag+ + e- i) Cell representation
+ -
Cathode: Redn. Ag + e Ag Cu CuSO4 (C1) CuSO4 Cu
Over all Cell rxn: Eocell ZERO (0.01M) (C2)=(0.1M)
WKT, i) Cell Reactions:
Ecell = 0.0591 log [Cathode C2 ] Anode: Oxdn: Cu Cu+2 + 2e-
+2 -
n [ Anode C1 ] Cathode: Redn. Cu + 2e Cu
0.8 = 0.0591 log [0.2 ] Over all Cell rxn: Eocell ZERO
1 [ x] WKT,
0.8 = 0.0591 log(0.2) – log(x) Ecell = 0.0591 log [Cathode C2 ]
Log x = n [ Anode C1 ]
Ecell = 0.0591 log [0.1 ]
X=0.26V 2 [ 0.01]
Ecell = 0.0591 log(0.1) – log( 0.01)
Dec.2015/Jan2016 Ecell =
6. The emf of the cell
Cu CuSO4 (C1) CuSO4 Cu Ecell =
(0.01M) (C2)=(x M)
Is 0.0295V. at 25oC find the Value of x. and write 9. When two copper electrodes are dipped in
the cell reaction. sulphate solutions to form a concentration cell.
i) Cell Reactions: Calculate the cell potential if one of the solutions is
Anode: Oxdn: Cu Cu+2 + 2e- diluted to 1/5 th of its original concentration.
+2 -
Cathode: Redn. Cu + 2e Cu Tips: Assume C2 = 1M then C1 = 1/5 C2
Over all Cell rxn: Eocell ZERO
WKT, 10. Calculate the cell potential of the following cell
Ecell = 0.0591 log [Cathode C2 ] Ag Ag+ Ag+ Ag
n [ Anode C1 ] 0.001M 0.5M
0.0295 = 0.0591 log [x ] What will be the potential, when the concentration
2 [ 0.01] of silver ions in the above cell is changed from
0.0295 = 0.0591 log(x) – log( 0.01) 0.001M to 0.0005M at the same temperature.
Log x = 0.0295 + log(0.01)
X=

Energy storage system 3. Electrolyte: Which provides medium for

transfer of ions inside the cell between the
Introduction: anode and cathode. The electrolyte must be a
The cell is only two electrodes(or haf cells) good ionic conductivity.
that generate electrical energy and the EMF
generated depends on the magnitude if the 4. Separator: The anode and cathode
electrode potentials of the two electrodes. electrodes are separated by inserting a non
Depending on the specific purpose, higher conducting material to avoid the mixing and
voltage can be achieved by coupling a short circuit in the cell, Generally Poly
number of cells in series are called battery. propylene is used as a separator.
The working principle of a battery is the
transformation of free energy change of Classification of Battery:
redox reactions of the electrode achieve
materials of cells into electrical energy. Depending on their capability the
Batteries are an indispensable source of electrochemical cells or batteries are
portable energy. The batteries are constructed classified as
as per the desired requirements and also to 1. Primary (non rechargeable),
suit specific applications. 2. Secondary (rechargeable) and
Depending on the type of battery, they are 3. Reserve batteries.
used in electronic gadgets, pacemakers,
calculators, power supplies, Primary batteries: In primary batteries the
telecommunications, etc., cell reactions are not reversible. They are not
rechargeable and once discharged have no
A battery is a device that consists of one or further electrical use.
more cells are connected in series or parallel The net cell reaction of primary batteries is
or both, which converts the chemical energy irreversible and as long as the active material
by means of electrochemical oxidation – are present in a battery.
reduction reaction depending on their desired ex. Zn-MnO2 dry cell.
output voltage and capacity.
The basic concepts of a battery are, Secondary batteries: Secondary batteries is
known a galvanic batteries,
1. Anode: (the _ve electrode) Undergoes In secondary batteries the cell reactions are
oxidation during electrochemical reaction reversible. They are also called storage
and liberates electron to the external circuit. batteries. The discharged cell can be
M Mn+ + ne_ recharged by passing current through it in the
The anode must be good reducing agent direction opposite to that of discharge
High columbic output current.
Good conductivity Ex. Nickel-Cadmium battery.
Easy to fabricate and has low cost.
Reserve batteries: In which one of the
2. Cathode: Positive electrode) which component is stored separately and it is
reduced during the electrochemical reactions, incorporated into the battery when required.
and accepts the electron fron the external Usually the electrolyte is stored separately.
circuit. Ex. Magnesium batteries are activated by
Mn+ + ne_ M water., Zn-Ag2O batteries.
The cathode must be a Good oxidizing agent
Stable, when it is in contact with the
electrolyte and Useful working voltage.

FUEL CELLS
Q5. Explain the construction, working, Definition :
Advantages and Applications of Li- ion Fuel cells are the galvanic cells in which
battery chemical energy of fuel is directly
converted into electrical energy
Diagram: In fuel cells the reactants (fuel) are
continuously supplied to the cell and at the
same time the products are removed from the
cell as soon as it is formed in the cell. The
energy will be liberated as long as the
reactants are supplied
The Li – ion battery is rechargeable battery

best suited to mobile devices that require
small size, light weight and high
performance.
Construction:
Anode: Lithium intercalatable graphite
Cathode: Lithium metal oxides (Li-MO2)
Electolyte: Lithium salt such as LiPF6
dissolved solvents like propylene, or ethylene The Anode is made up of platinum-Rubidium
carbonates, alloy and cathode is made up of platinum. A
Separator: Microporous polypropylene or membrane is inserted adjacent to the Cathode
polyethylene on inner side to minimize diffusion of
Li ion battery develops a potential of 3.6V Methanol into the Cathode there by reducing
the Concentration of Methanol near the
Chemical reactions: Cathode. In the absence of the membrane,
Anode : Lix-C6 Li+ + 6C + e- Methanol diffuses through the electrolyte into
Cathode: Li+ + e - + MO2 Li-MO2 the cathode and undergoes oxidation.
LiC6 + MO2 6C + LiMO2 Sulphuric acid is the electrolyte in this cell.
Methanol containing some Sulphuric acid is
Advantages: The advantages are passed at anode electrode. Pure oxygen is
1.Light weight, rechargeable battery. passed through the cathode electrode.
2.Low maintenance. An advantage of using H2SO4 as electrolyte
3.Low self discharge rate. is that CO2 is formed as one of the product
4.Environment friendly. which can be removed easily.
This cell produces a potential of 1.20V.
Applications: Lithium Ion battery is used in
1. Electric power trains, Heavy Industry, Anode : CH3OH + H2O → CO2 + 6H+ + 6e-
2. Emergency medical lighting etc., Cathode : 3/2O2 + 6H+ + 6e- → 3H2O
3. Cell phone, note PC, portable LCD TVs, CH3OH + 3/2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
portable CD player, Digital cameras, Applications:
The methanol-oxygen fuel cell is used in
1. Military applications and
2. Large scale power production.

GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY 2021-22
MODULE: 2. CORROSION & METAL FINISHING
Q1. Define corrosion. Explain the electrochemical theory of corrosion.

Definition: Corrosion is a process of destruction or deteriation or loss of metal by the
surrounding environment through chemical or electrochemical (redox) reactions.
Ex. Fe+ O2+ H2O Fe2O3. 3H2O (rust)
Diagram:
Fe 2e- + Fe2+ 2OH- e-+o2+H2O
Rust
Anode Cathode
IRON BAR
When a metal like Iron is exposed to aqueous environment ( Oxygen and moisture), a large no of
galvanic cells are formed, Consisting of anode and Cathode.
At anode: Oxidation of metal takes place, where Fe2+ ions are formed with the liberation of
electrons, and hence corrosion takes place.
Anode: Oxidation: M Mn2+ + 2e-
Ex. Fe Fe2+ + 2e-
At Cathode: Reduction reaction takes place, the liberated electron at anode is moves towards
cathode and undergoes reduction reaction where it reacts with water and oxygen to form OH- ion.
Reduction Reduction:
2e- +H2O +1/2 O2 2OH-
The Fe2+ ions and OH- ions defuse towards each other and forms corrosion product (Ferrous
hydroxide).
Fe2+ + 2OH- Fe(OH)2 (insoluble)
This Ferric hydroxide further undergo oxidation in presence of oxygen to form Rust
Fe(OH)2+H2O+½O2 (Fe2O3. 3H2O) Rust
During Corrosion The Oxidation takes at a single step.
Fe Fe2+ + 2e-
The Cathodic reactions will takes place in two ways,i.e.,
1. Leberation of Hydrogen 2. Absorption of Oxygen.
1. Leberation of Hydrogen:
i) In Acidic media: 2e- +2H+ H2
ii) In Alkaline media: 2e- 2H2O 2OH- + H2
2. Absorption of Oxygen:
i) In Acidic media: 2e- +O2+ 4H+ 2H2O
-
ii) In Alkaline media: 4e +O2+2H2O 4OH-
Dr.Ashok SD., M.Sc.,(M.Phil).,Ph.D., Associate Professor Page 1

Q2. Explain the Following factors affect the rate of corrosion.

1. Nature of corrosion product
2. PH of the medium
3. Temperature.
4. Ratio of anodic and Cathodic areas,
Nature of corrosion product:

When a metal is exposed to the environment the corrosion product is formed.
The corrosion product deposited is insoluble, stable uniform and non-porous, it acts like
barrier between the metal and corrosion atmosphere, which prevents further corrosion.
If the corrosion product is soluble, unstable non-uniform and porous, rate of corrosion is fast
and continuous
Eg: Aluminium, Titanium and chromium form a protective film of metal oxide on surface and
prevents further corrosion where as in Zinc, Iron and Magnesium corrosion product formed do
not form protective film and corrosion continuous.
2. pH of the medium:
At Acidic:PH 2-4:
The rate of corrosion is very high, This is because the liberation of hydrogen at cathode and
increases the anodic reaction.(But exception for Al, Zn shows faster in alkaline medium.)
At Basic:PH 10-13:
The rate of corrosion is slow down, this is because the formation of a thin layer of metal
hydroxide on the metal surface & acts as barrier between the fresh metal atoms.
At neutral: PH 7:
The rate of corrosion is moderate.
3. Temperature:
Corrosion is a electrochemical reaction called redox reaction, In general rate of chemical reaction
increases with increase in temperature. Corrosion is one such chemical reaction.
At Higher temp: The ionic conductivity of the corrosion medium is high, As a result the
movement ion is high results in higher the rate of corrosion.
At Lower temp: The ionic conductivity of the corrosion medium is low, As a result the
movement ion is slowdown results in lesser the rate of corrosion..
5. Ratio of Anodic and Cathodic areas.
Fe Cu Cu Fe
u
Anode Cathode Cathode Anode
Example :1 Example :2
The rate of corrosion depends on the size of anodic and cathodic area.
Ex.1: If metal forms small anodic region and larger cathodic region then corrosion is faster and
intensive at anodic region. This is because, The oxidation takes place at anode and the electrons
are liberated. Larger the area of cathode the released electrons is consumed at larger rate results in
intense corrosion.
Ex.2: When anode area is larger the electrons liberated at anode is rapidly, But the cathodic area is

smaller hence which receives very slowly & less electrons, results in slow down the release of
electrons at anodic region as a result the rate of corrosion is slow down.
Hence the smaller the anodic region and larger the cathodic region the rate of corrosion is
very high and vice versa.
Other example: Broken coating of Tin (larger cathodic area) on iron surface (smaller anodic area)
Q3. Explain the Differential metal Corrosion (galvanic corrosion) with example.
When two dissimilar metals are in contact with each other and expose to corrosive environment
Differential metal corrosion takes place. The two metals differ in their electrode potential. The
metal with lower electrode potential acts as anode, the metal with higher electrode potential acts
as cathode. The potential difference between two metals is a driving force for corrosion. Here
anode undergoes corrosion and cathode undergoes reduction reaction.
1. Fe Cu 2. Cu Ag
Anode Cathode Anode Cathode

Eg: 1.When iron is in contact with copper.
Eg: 2.When Copper is in contact with Silver.
The Iron has lower electrode potential when compared to copper. Hence iron acts as anode &
undergo oxidation and Cathode undergoes reduction.
Chemical reactions:
Anode: Oxidation: Ex. Fe Fe2+ 2e-
-
Cathode: Reduction: 2e +H2O+1/2O2 2OH-
Overall Redox reaction:Fe2++2OH- Fe(OH)2
Other examples:1. Steel screws in copper sheet 2. Steel screws with copper washer
3. Nut and bolts made of different metals.
Q4. Explain the water line corrosion (Differential aeration) with example.
This is due to differential oxygen concentration
Eg: Water storage tank
When a steel tank partially filled with water for a long time, the inner portion of the tank below
the water line is exposed only to dissolved oxygen whereas the portion above waterline is
exposed to more oxygen. Thus the portion below the water acts as anode and undergoes
corrosion. The upper portion acts as cathode and it is unaffected.
Waterlne Corrosion:
Water Portion of the metal

line contact with more oxygen
(Cathode)
Iron vessel Portion of the metal

containing water
contact with less oxygen
Corrosive liquid
(Anode)

Chemical reactions:
Cathode: Reduction: 2e-+H2O+1/2O2 2OH-
Other example: Ships remain partially immersed in sea water for a long time undergo waterline
corrosion.
Q5. Explain the Pitting corrosion (Differential aeration) with example.

Less oxygenated area acts as
Dust
particle Anode Fe Fe2++2e-
IRON More oxygenated area

BAR/SHEET Cathode
e-+O2+H2O OH-
When a small dust particle gets deposited on metal surface, region below the dust particle is
exposed to less oxygen when compared to remaining part of the metal. Therefore region below
dust particle acts as anode and undergoes corrosion and forms a pit. Here formation of small
anodic area and large cathodic area results in intense corrosion below the dust particle.
Chemical reactions:
Cathode: Reduction: 2e-+H2O+1/2O2 2OH-
Q6. Explain the Anodic protection of metal by Galvanization process.
Galvanization:Definition: It is a process of coating of Zinc (cathode) on the surface of base

metal like iron or its alloy (anode).

Galvanization process involves following steps:

1. The surface of the is washed with organic solvents to remove organic matter, oil, grease etc..
2. Then it is washed with dilute H2SO4 to remove Rust, etc., This process is called as pickling
process.
3. Then it is well washed with water to remove salts.
4. Finally the surface of the metal It is air dried by passing hot air.
5.The metal sheet is immersed in a flux(ZnCl2+NH4Cl)to give adhesive property to the surface of
the metal.
5. Then it is dipped in molten zinc, maintained at 430-4500 C .
6. The Excess of zinc on surface is removed by passing a pair of hot rollers, which removes
excess of zinc and produces thin coating.
Application: Galvanized materials are used in fencing wire, buckets, bolts, nuts, nails, screw etc.
Q9. Explain the Cathodic protection by Sacrificial anode method.
Cathodic protection: Sacrifical anodic method:

In this method the metal or an alloy buried inside the soil is protected from corrosion by
converting the metal completely into cathodic and no part of the metal is allowed to act as
anode.
S O I L
Mg
Iron pipe Anode
Casthode
1. The metal structure to be Protected is connected to the metal whose electrode potential value
is less .Eg: Mg, Al, Zn etc or more active metal.
2. The metal structure acts as cathode.
3. The active metal acts as anode.
4. This active metals undergo corrosion, protecting the metal structure
4. Since the anodic metals is sacrificed to protect the metal structure, hence the it is called as
Sacrificial anode.
5. The Exhausted sacrificial anodes are replaced new one when it is required.
Eg: Mg block connected to buried pipe tank in water or soil underground oil storage tank.

Q10. Explain the Cathodic protection by Impressed current method.
b) Impressed current method:

Rectifier
S O I L
Inert
Iron Tank Anode
(Graphite)
1.The metal structure to be Protected is connected to the metal Inert material ex. Graphite.
2. Apply direct current larger than the corrosion Current
3. The metal to be Protected is made s cathode by connecting it to cathode of external source of
current
4. The inert material ex. Graphite is made as Anode by connecting electric source.
5. Metal structure being cathode does not undergo corrosion.
6.Anode being inert remains unaffected,
Eg: Platinum, graphite, silicon, iron are used
as anodes.
Assignments:
Q1. Define Corrosion. Explain the electrochemical theory of corrosion.
Q2. Explain the Following factors affect the rate of corrosion.
a. Nature of corrosion product b. PH of the medium
c. Ratio of anodic and cathodic areas, d. Temperature.
Q3. Explain the Differential metal Corrosion (galvanic corrosion) with example.
Q4. Explain the water line corrosion (Differential aeration) with example.
Q5. Explain the Pitting corrosion (Differential aeration) with example.
Q6. Explain the Anodic protection of metal by Galvanization process.
Q7. Explain the Cathodic protection by Sacrificial anode method.
Q8. Explain the protection by Impressed current method.

GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY, BENGALURU 2018-19
METAL FINISHING
Definition: Metal finishing is a surface phenomenon, “The process may be defined as the
deposition of a thin layer of noble metal on base metal to modify the surface properties of a
metal”.
Important techniques of metal finishing are: 1.Electroplating. 2. Electro less plating.
Q1. Define metal finishing? Explain the Technological importance of metal finishing
1. Increase in corrosion resistance

2. increase in the Wear and tear resistance
3. Increase in Thermal and Electrical resistance
4. Increase in Hardness of the surface.
5. Thermal and Optical reflectivity. (e.g., brightness or color)
6. To increase the Solderability
7. In the manufacture of printed circuit board. etc.
Q2. Define Electroplating and electro less plating Give examples.
Electroplating: Definition: Electroplating is defined as “The process coating or plating or

deposition of thin layer of superior/alloy/Nobel/ceramic material over base metal by passing an
electric current”. Ex. Coating of Cu on Fe, coating of Au on Cu, coating of Ag on Cu Etc.
Electro less Plating: Definition: Electro less plating is a technique of deposition of

superior/noble metal from its salt solution on a catalytically active surface by using suitable
Reducing agent and without passing electrical energy.
Metal ions + Reducing agent Metal + Oxidized product.
Q2. Give the differences between Electoplating & Electrolessplating

Sl.no Property Electroplating Electroless plating
1 Driving force Electrical energy is required. Electrical energy is not required
(Autocatalytic redox reaction)
2 Anodic reaction. M n+
M + ne- R Ox + ne-
3 Cathodic reaction Mn+ + e- M Mn+ + e- M
4 Anode Pure metal or alloy Reducing agent in Solution
5 Cathode The metal/Article to be plated The metal to be plated surface treated with
reaqgents and make surface catalytically active
Coating is contaminated with reducing agent.
Nature of deposit Coating is pure Coating is contaminated with impurities

6
7 Applicability Only to conductors Conductors and non conductors
Dr.Ashok SD., M.Sc.,(M.Phil).,Ph.D., Assistant Professor Page 1

Q3. Explain the Electroplating process of CHROMIUM:
Surface preparation:
The object is taken for plating process is cleaned, by the following methods,
* The surface of the metal is washed with organic solvent to remove grease & oil.
* Then clean with NaOH & followed by 1:1 H2SO4 to remove rust loosely bound material,
* Wash with distilled water, finally dry to room temperature and taken for plating process.
Sl. Particulars Sulphate bath (Acidic) Sulphamate bath (Basic)

No (Decorative chromium) (Hard chromium)
01 Bath 250g chromic acid +2.5g H2SO4 /Lt 250g chromic acid +2.5g H2SO4 /Lt.
composition + 4.5 g Oxalic acid
02 PH 5-6 8-9
03 Temperature 40-50o C 45-55o C
04 Anode (Insoluble anodes Pb-Sn alloy + (Insoluble anodes Pb-Sn alloy +

PbO2 PbO2
05 Cathode Any metal or material or article to be Any metal or material or article to be

plate plate
06 Current 20-40 mA/cm2 25-55 mA/cm2

density
07 Current 8-12% 10-15%

efficiency.
08 Organic Phenol sulphonic acid, Aromatic Phenol sulphonic acid, Aromatic
additivces sulphonates, Alkyl sulphonates, etc. sulphonates, Alkyl sulphonates, etc.
Note; Chromium anodes are not used in Cr plating because chromium metal passivates
strongly in acid sulphate medium. Chromium on dissolution gives Cr3+ ions, Larger
concentration of Cr3+ ions forms a black deposit of Chromium on cathode.

Q7. Explain the Electroplating of COPPER ON PCB’s(Basic Bath) & Give applications.
Surface prepation:
The object is taken for plating process is cleaned, by the following methods,
* The surface of the metal is washed with organic solvent to remove grease & oil.
* Then clean with NaOH & followed by 1:1 H2SO4 to remove rust loosely bound material,
* Finally dry to room temperature and taken for plating process.
Process:
Conducting salt : Copper sulphate
Reducing agent : Formaldehyde 8gm/dm3, Sodium hydroxide
PH : 11
Temparature : 25-35oC
Buffer solution : Rochelle salt
Complexing agent : EDTA gm/dm3
Chemical reactions :
Cathode: (Redn Rxn.) : Cu2+ + 2e- 2Cu
Anode:(Oxdn. Rxn.) : 2H-CHO+4OH- 2H-COO- + 2H2O + H2 +2e-
Overall.: Redox Rxn. 2H-CHO + 4OH- + Cu2+ 2HCOO- + 2H2O + H2 + 2Cu
Applications:
1. Plating on non conductors.
2. Producing through hole connections.
3. Printed circuit boards.
4.Decorative plating on plastics.
Assignments:
Q1. Define metal finishing? Explain the Technological importance of metal finishing
Q2. Define Electroplating and electro less plating Give examples.
Q3. Give the differences between Electroplating & Electrolessplating
Q5. Explain the Electroplating process of CHROMIUM
Q7. Explain the Electroless plating process of COPPER ON PCB’s (Basic Bath)

GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY, BENGALURU
MODULE-3. FUELS & SOLAR ENERGY CO-3

F (Syllabus): Fuels: Introduction, Classification, Calorific value – gross and net calorific values, Determination of
calorific value of fuel using Bomb calorimeter, numerical problems. Cracking: introduction, fluidized catalytic cracking,
Synthesis of petrol by Fishcher – Tropsch process, Reformation of petrol, Octane and cetane numbers. Gasoline and diesel
knocking and their mechanism, antiknocking agents, power alcohol, biodiesel.
Solar Energy: Introduction, utilization and conversion, photovoltaic cells- construction and working. Design of PV
cells: modules, panels & arrays. Advantages & disadvantages of PV cells. Production of solar grade silicon: union carbide
process, purification of silicon (zone refining), doping of silicon –diffusion technique (n & p types).
Course objectives
After Completion of this module the student shall be able to:
• Differentiate the different types of Fuels, definitions (fuel, calorific value) and synthesis of the petrol by Hydrocarbons.
• Analyze the replacement of a non-renewable source by a renewable source.
• Interpret how to improve the calorific value of a fuel.
Explain the construction, synthesis and application of Solar energy.
Q.Define Fuel, Calorific Value , Gross calorific value, and Net Calorific value.
Fuel: is a carbonaceous combustible substance, which on combustion liberates a large amount of
energy in the form of heat. CH(Fuel) + O2 Δ CO2 + H2O + Energy + Light.
Calorific value: of a fuel is defined as “ the amount of heat liberated when a unit mass or a unit
volume of the fuel is burnt completely in presence of air or oxygen.’’
Gross Calorific value or Higher calorific value: (GCV): It is defined as the “ the amount of heat
liberated when a unit mass or a unit volume of the fuel is burnt completely in air or oxygen and the products of
combustion are cooled to ambient temperature.” i.e., GCV= NCV+Latent heat of Steam.
Net Calorific value or Lower calorific value: (NCV)
It is defined as “ the amount of heat liberated when a unit mass or a unit volume of the fuel is burnt
completely in air or oxygen and the products of combustion are allowed to escape.”
i.e., NCV= GCV- 0.09% H2 X Latent heat of Steam.
i.e., NCV= GCV- 0.09% H2 X 2454 kj/kg.
Q2. Determination of Calorific Value of a Solid Fuel - Bomb Calorimeter
Construction: The bomb calorimeter is consists of an Thick cylindrical steel vessel called bomb. with
an airtight screw with an inlet for oxygen. The bomb is fitted with a platinum crucible with a
magnesium wire. The ends of the wire is connected to the external source of 6V battery.
The bomb is immersed in a rectangular vessel called calorimeter containing water, which is
constantly stirred for uniform temperature. A Beckmann thermometer is placed to record temp.
Dr.Ashok.S.D., M.Sc.,(M.Phil).,Ph.D., AssociateProfessor Page 1

Professor
Working: A Previously weighed fuel is made into a pellet and taken in the crucible. The oxygen is
passed through the bomb at a pressure of 25-30 atm. A known mass of water is taken inside the
calorimeter and is closed with the lid record the initial temperature of water.
Pass the electric current through battery, The fuel starts to burn(ignite) The heat released is absorbed
by water.The temperature of water rises. Record the final temperature of water.
Calculation: M = mass of fuel,
W = mass of water
w = water equivalent of calorimeter
t1 = initial temperature of water
t2 = final temperature of water
Δs = specific heat of water = 4.187 kj/kg/K
GCV ( solid fuel) = (W+w)  (t2-t1)  ΔS
M
NCV (solid fuel) = G.C.V. - (0.09  % of H)  latent heat
Q. Define Cracking. Explain the fluidized bed catalytic Cracking.

Definition: Cracking is defined as “ It is a process of breaking of High molecular mass OR high
boiling hydrocarbons in to lower molecular mass or Low boiling Hydrocarbons inpresence of
Temp.Pr.& Cat Ex. C14H30 Temp.550oC C7 H16 + C7H14
( heavy oil) Catalyst Al2O3 + SiO2 smaller fragments.
NormalPressure
Fluidized bed Catalytic Cracking: To fractionating Column
Fluegas ( low boiling/ lower Mol.Mass
Oxygen hydrocarbon fuels)
ddd ddd
Catalyst Catalytic
Regeneration cccc
Converter
Chamber. Al2O3+SiO2
Heated to 550oC
C55555550o5
ddd 50oC
ddd
Process conditions: Feed stock heated to 3000C

Feed Stock : Gas Oil or Heavy oil fractions.
Catalyst used : Al2O3 + SiO2 (fluidized)
Temperature : 550oC
Pressure : Normal pressure
Products Yield : 106 gallons /day
Temp.5500C
Process reactions: Ex. C14H30 Cat. Al2O3+SiO2 C7 H16 + C7H14
(Heavy oil) smaller fragments.
Process: The finely powdered catalyst Al2O3 + SiO2 is mixed with preheated (3000C) heavy oil or
feed stock is fed in to the fluidized bed catalytic converter containing finely powdered catalyst.& it is
continuously agitated by heavy oil vapors gas streams so that the catalyst is handled like a fluid
system This also results in good contact between catalyst surface and the heavy oil. The temperature
of the converter is maintained to about 5500c. The heavy oil undergoes cracking. The temperature falls
to about 5200C. The cracked product is sent in to the fractionating column to give petrol.

Professor
Q. Write a short note on Bio Diesel and Power alcohol.

Bio diesel: is source of energy which is renewable oxygenated alternative fuel made from variety of
vegetable oils such as soyabean,corn etc.,
Bio diesel is produced by trans-esterification of vegetable oil or animal fat and alcohol is heated to
about 5000C in presence of sodium hydroxide catalyst. Monoalkyl esters of fatty acids is called bio
diesel & glycerol is obtained.
CH2-COO-R CH2-OH
o
CH -COO-R + CH3OH 500 C / NaOH 3CH3-COO-Rx + CH -OH
CH2-COO-R alcohol Biodiesel CH2-OH
Advantages:
1.It is biodegradable 2. It has high cetane number 3.It is renewable
4. It is noxious,non toxic 5. It is Produced from waste vegetable oil etc.,
Power Alcohol:
Power Alcohol: It is a homogenius mixture of 1: 4 by volume of absolute alcohol + Petrol.in
addition to this benzene+ether is added as blending agents to make homogeneous mixture is called
Power alcohol.
Advantages of power alcohol:. Alcohol is obtained from molasses, Agri. Product, hence renewable
1. Power output is high.(Because high Octane no.) 2. Does not release CO, causes less pollution.
3. No starting difficulties. 4. Biodegradable. 5. Air required for complete combustion is less.
QSN. Write a short Note on Octane Number, Cetane Number.
Octane Number:
Definition: It is defined as “ the percentage by volume of isooctane present in a mixture of isooctane
and n – heptane which has the same knocking characteristic as the petrol under test.”
Octane Number = Volume of iso octane X 100

Iso octane +n-heptane
Cetane Number:
Definition: It is defined as “ the percentage by volume of n-cetane present in a mixture of n-cetane
and - methyl naphthalene which has the same knocking characteristic as the diesel under test.”
Cetane No. = volume of n-cetane X100

n-Cetane + Methyl naphthalene
Note: The resistance to knocking offered by diesels is expressed in terms of cetane number

Professor
Numericals: Dec. 2017-Ist Sem.

1. 0.6 g of Coal sample (Carbon 90%,H2 3% and Ash 7%) was subjected to combustion in a bomb
calorimeter. Mass of water taken in the calorimeter was 2000g and the water equivalent of calorimeter
was 400g. The rise in temperature was 30C. Calculate the Gross and Net calorific value of the sample.
Given, Specific heat of water is 4.187 KJ/Kg/0C and Latent heat of Steam is 2454Kj/Kg.
Solution:
Mass of coal M = 0.6× 10-3 Kg
Mass of water W = 2000 × 10-3Kg
Water equivalent w= 400 ×10-3Kg
Rise in Temperatur T2-T1 = 3oC Rise in Temp=Final temp.- Initial temp.= T2-T1
Specific heat of water S= 4.187 KJ K-1
Percent Hydrogen H2 = 3
WKT,
GCV = (W+w) (T2-T1) ∆S ……………..1Mark
M
= (2000 +400) 10-3  3  4.187 ……………….1Mark
0.6  10 -3
= (2400) 10-3  3  4.187

0.6 10-3
= 50244 kJ kg-1 ………………………1 MARK
NCV (solid fuel) = G.C.V. - (0.09  % of H2)  latent heat ………1Mark

= 50244 - (0.09  3)  2454
= 50244– (662.58) ……………1Mark
= 49581.42 kJ kg -1 ………………...1Mark
June-July-2016-IInd Sem.
2. 0.75 g of Coal sample containing 2%,Hydrogen, When burnt in a bomb calorimeter. Increased the
temperature of 2.7 Kg water from 27.2oC to 29.7oC. If water equivalent of calorimeter is 1.2 Kg.
Calculate the Gross and Net calorific value of the sample. Given, Specific heat of water is 4.187
KJ/Kg/0C and Latent heat of Steam is 2454Kj/Kg.
Solution:
Mass of coal = 0.75× 10-3 Kg
Water equivalent cal. = 1.2 Kg
Mass of water = 2.7 Kg
Rise in Temperatur = (T2-T1)oC = 29.7-27.2 = 2.5oC
Specific heat of water = 4.187 KJ K-1
Percent Hydrogen =2
WKT, GCV = (W+w) (T2-T1) ∆S ………..1Mark
M
= (1.2+ 2.7)  2.5  4.187
0.75  10-3
= (3.9)  2.5  4.187
0.75 10-3
= 54431 kJ kg-1
NCV (solid fuel) = G.C.V. - (0.09  % of H2)  latent heat
= 54431 - (0.09  2)  2454
= 54431– (441.72) = 53989.28 kJ kg-1
Professor
Jan.2016-I Sem. (CBCS)

calorimeter. Mass of water taken in the calorimeter was 3500g and the water equivalent of calorimeter
was 750g. The rise in temperature was 3.20C. Calculate the Gross and Net calorific value of the
sample. Given, Specific heat of water is 4.187 KJ/Kg/0C and Latent heat of Steam is 2454Kj/Kg.
Solution:
Water equivalent cal. = 3500 × 10-3Kg
Mass of water = 750 ×10-3Kg
Rise in Temperatur = 3.2oC
Percent Hydrogen =6
WKT, GCV = (W+w) (T2-T1) ∆S ……………..1Mark
M
= (3500 + 750) 10-3  3.2  4.187
0.75  10-3
= (4250) 10-3  3  4.187
0.75 10-3
= 75924.3 kJ kg-1
= 75924.3- (0.09  6)  2454
= 75924.3– (1325.16)
= 74599.14 kJ kg-1
June-july-2015-II Sem.
4. On burning 1.15g of a coal sample in a bomb calorimeter, the temperature of 3.5kg of water in the
calorimeter increased from 26.50C to 28.50C. Water equivalent of calorimeter is 325g. Specific heat
of water is 4.187KJ/Kg/ 0C and latent heat of steam is 2458J/g. If the fuel contains 4% hydrogen,
calculate its gross and net calorific values.
Solution:
Mass of coal = 1.15g × 10-3 Kg
Water equivalent cal. = 325 g × 10-3 Kg =0.325 Kg
Rise in Temperatur = (T2-T1) = (28.5-26.5)= 2oC
Percent Hydrogen =4
M
= (3.5 +0.325)  2  4.187
1.15  10-3
= (3.825)  3  4.187
1.15 10-3
= 27852.65 kJ kg-1
= 27852.65- (0.09  4)  2458
= 27852.65– (884.88)
= 26967.77 kJ kg-1

Professor
Jan-2015-I Sem.
4. On burning 0.76 × 10-3 Kg of a solid fuel in a bomb calorimeter, the temperature of 2.5 kg of water
in the calorimeter increased from 250C to 280C. Water equivalent of calorimeter and the latent heat of
steam are 0.486 Kg and 2457 KJ/kg respectively. Calculate its gross and net calorific values. Given
that, The Specific heat of water is 4.187KJ/Kg/ 0C. and the hydrogen is 2.5%.
Solution:
Mass of coal = 0.76 × 10-3 Kg
Rise in Temperatur = (T2-T1) = (28-25)= 3oC
Percent Hydrogen = 2.5
M
= (2.5 +0.486)  3  4.187
0.76  10-3
= (2.986)  3  4.187
0.76 10-3
= 49351.5 kJ kg-1
= 49351.5- (0.09  2.5)  2457
= 49351.5– (552.83)
= 48792.67 kJ kg-1
Jan-2016.
0.7 g of Chemical fuel containing 5% hydrogen, when burnt in a bomb calorimeter raises the
temperature of water from 291K to 295 K (291-273=180C) . The weight of water is 1.3 Kg and water
equivalent of calorimeter is 0.35 Kg. The specific heat of water is 4.187Kj/Kg/0C). The latent heat of
steam is 2454Kj/Kg. Calculate the GCV and NCV of fuel.
Solution:
Rise in Temperatur = (T2-T1)oC = 295-291= 4oC
Percent Hydrogen =5
M
= (1.3 + 0.35)  4  4.187
0.7  10-3
= (1.65)  4  4.187
0.7 10-3
= 39477.42 kJ kg-1
= 39477.42 - (0.09  5)  2454
= 39477.42 – (1104.3)
= 38373.12 KJ/Kg

Professor
Model Question paper (CBCS) with effect from 2015-16

calorimeter. Mass of water taken in the calorimeter was 2500 cm3 and the water equivalent of cal. was
650 cm3. The rise in temperature was 3.20C. Calculate the Gross and Net calorific value of the sample.
Given, Specific heat of water is 4.187 KJ/Kg/0C and Latent heat of Steam is 2.457Kj/g.
Solution:
Water equivalent cal. = 650g 10-3 Kg = 0.650 Kg
-3
Mass of water = 2500 g 10 Kg = 2.5Kg
Rise in Temperatur = (T2-T1)oC = 29.7-27.2 = 2.5oC
Percent Hydrogen =5
M
= (0.650+2.5)  3.2  4.187
0.85  10-3
= (3.15)  3.2  4.187
0.85 10-3
= 49652.9 kJ kg-1
= 49652.9 - (0.09  5)  2457
= 49652.9– (1105.65)
= 48547.25 kJ kg-1

Professor
SOLAR ENERGY
Q. Define Photovoltaic cell. Explain the construction and working of PVC?
Give applications.
It works on the basic principles of physical process.
Definition: PVC is a semiconductor device consisting of a large area of p-n junction diode, when
sunlight falls on it, which converts the sunlight (Solar) energy into electrical energy.
It is capable of generating electrical energy this conversion is called Photovoltaic effect.
Diagram:
Construction:
It is composed of a thin wafer consisting of an ultra thin layer of 250-350 mm. Phosphorous doped
n-type silicon on top of which a layer of Boron doped n-type silicon to form p-n junction. A metallic
grid is placed such a way that the light ray fall on the semiconductor between the grid lines. A several
hundred nanometer Silicon nitride coated Antireflective material is placed between the gridlines,
which increases the amount of light transmitted to the semiconductor. The cell is connected to the
electrical source.
Working:
When sunlight strikes on pv cell, a part of light Particle (Photon) contain energy, is absorbed by the
cell. The electron- hole pair are generated by the absorption of the radiation. Therefore the electrons
are drifted to and collected at the p- type and the holes are drifted to and collected at the n- type end.
When these two ends are electrically connected through an external circuit. The freed electrons (-) can
only return to the positively changed holes (+) by flowing through this external circuit, thus generating
current.
Application Advantages of PV cells:
1. Low operating cost.
2. No pollution.
3. Energy source is vast essentially infinite.
4. No wear, tear, corrode.
5. They can operate at ambient temperature.
6. High reliability.
7. Quick installation.
Disadvantages:
1. Installation cost is more.
2. Energy can be produce only in day time.
3. Sunlight is a diffuse source i.e it is a low density energy.
4. Solar energy production is relatively inefficient approximately 22%.

Professor
LUBRICANTS:
Lubricants are the substances when interposed between moving parts of machinery makes the surface
slippery and reduce friction as well as prevent cohesion.
Classification of lubricants:
Lubricants are broadly classified as follows:
1. Solid lubricants Ex: - Soap stone, graphite, talc, chalk, mice etc.,
2. Semi-solid lubricants Ex: - Greases, Vaseline etc.,
3. Liquid lubricants Ex: - Vegetable oils, Mineral oils, Blended oils, synthetic oils (Silicones)
4. Emulsions Ex: - Oil-in water type (Cutting emulsion), Water-in oil type (cooling liquids).
Properties of lubricants:
1. Drop Point: It is defined as the temperature at which the grease transfers from semi liquid state to
the liquid state. The drop point determines the maximum temperature up to which a grease acts as a
satisfactory lubricant.
Determination of Drop point
The grease sample is taken in a metal cup having a small opening at the bottom. That is enclosed in
a glass case having lid. A thermometer is inserted into the cup just above the surface of the grease.
The entire assembly is kept in a glass beaker containing water, which is also provided with a
thermometer and a stirrer. The water in a beaker is slowly heated at a rate of 1 0C per minute. As the
temperature increases, the grease sample melts at a particular temperature, the temperature is recorded
when the first drop of melted grease emerges out and falls down through the opening of the metal cup.
This temperature is called as the drop point of the grease sample.

Professor
2. Flash Point: It is defined as the minimum temperature at which the lubricant gives off sufficient
vapor to ignite when a flame of standard dimension is brought near the surface of the lubricant.
Determination of flash point of a lubricant using Pensky-Marten’s apparatus
Principle:
A known mass of grease/oil sample is heated in the brass cup of the apparatus along with stirring. An
ignition source is directed into the cup at regular intervals with simultaneous interruption of stirring
until a flash that spreads throughout the inside of the cup is noticed. The corresponding temperature is
the flash point of the given grease sample.
Construction and Working:

The Pensky-Marten’s apparatus consists of a brass oil cup with a circular marking for oil level
indication. A lid to cover the oil cup with sliding shutters with ports, a stirrer to stir the oil, a dipping
wick holder, oil cup holder made up of cast iron (air bath) and electric heater.
Working:
1. The oil is taken in the brass cup up to the mark

2. Close the lid of the cup by inserting a thermometer and stirrer in the oil.
3. The brass cup is enclosed in the air cup
4. Heat the oil by using electrical heater at a slow steady rate of 20C per minute along with
continuous Stirring of oil by the stirrer.
5. When the oil reaches to a temperature of 15-170C, a flame is introduced on the surface of the
oil by opening the shutter of the apparatus periodically at every half minutes.
6. A flash is observed when a particular temperature is reached. Record the temperature when
first flash occurs in the brass cup. This temperature is called Flash point of the given
oil/grease sample.

Professor
3. Viscosity:
Viscosity is the property of a liquid of fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to its own flow.
Absolute viscosity: “The tangential force per unit area required to maintain a unit velocity gradient
between two parallel planes in the fluid unit distance apart”. Unit of absolute viscosity Ƞ (eta) are
poise or millipoise.
Effect of Viscosity on properties of lubricants
Viscosity is the main determinant of the operating characteristics of the lubricant
(i) If the viscosity of oil is too low: A liquid oil film cannot be maintained between two moving
surfaces.
(ii) If the viscosity is too high: Excessive friction will result.
Viscosity Index
The rate at which the viscosity of an oil changes with temperature is measured by arbitrary scale,
known as the Viscosity-index.
• If the Viscosity of an oil falls rapidly as the temperature is raised, it has a low viscosity- index.
• If the viscosity of an oil is only slightly affected on raising the temperature , its viscosity-index
is high
Determination of Viscosity Index
Viscosity index is average slope of the viscosity temperature curve of a lubricating oil between 100°F
and 210°F .
The oil under examination is compared with two standard oils having the same viscosoity at 210°F as
the oil under test.
They are Paraffinic- base oil (V.I= 100) and naphthanic-base oil (V. I=0).
𝑉𝑙−𝑉𝑥
Viscosity index = 𝑉𝑙−𝑉𝐻
Where, VL = Viscosity at 100°F of naphthanic-base oil standard which has the same viscosity at
210°F as that of the oil under test.
VX = Viscosity of the oil under test
VH = Viscosity at 100°F of Paraffinic- base oil standard which has the same viscosity at
210°F as that of the oil under test.
Applications of lubricants: Lubricants are used in

Professor
1. Automotive engine oils for internal combustion engines

2. Spindle oils where highly loaded spindles operate at high speeds.
3. Refrigeration oils in refrigeration systems
4. Circulating oils for turbines and Hydraulic systems.
5. Gear oils.
6. High speed cutting tools to enable good lubrication and cooling the tool.
7. Lubricating oils used in electrical transformers.
8. Machinery running at high pressures at low speeds like lathes, tractors, rollers
9. Delicate equipment like watches, clocks and scientific equipment.
Refractories:
“Refractories are the materials that can with stand high temperature without softening or
suffering a deformation in its shape”.
Refractories are inorganic, nonmetallic, porous and heterogeneous materials composed of thermally
stable mineral aggregates,
The principal raw materials used in the production of refractories are normally the oxides of silicon,
aluminum, magnesium, calcium and zirconium.
There are some non-oxide refractories like carbides, nitrides, borides, silicates and graphite.
The refractories are to resist-heat loss, abrasive and corrosive action of molten mass. Refractories are
the essential materials in metallurgy and chemical industries they are most widely used for the
construction of the lining of the furnaces, converters, kilns etc.,
Classification of Refractories:
1. Acid refractories:
It contains acidic materials and they are not attacked by acidic materials but easily attacked by
basic materials.
Ex: - Alumina, silica, and fire clay refractories.
1. Basic refractories:
It contains basic materials and they are not attacked by basic materials but easily attacked by
acidic materials.
Ex: - magnesite and dolomite refractories.
2. Neutral refractories:
It contains weakly acidic and weakly basic materials.
Ex: - Graphite, Zirconia, Carborandum refractories.
Properties of Refractories:
1. Refractoriness:
It is the ability of a refractory material to withstand the heat without undergoing deformation
and softening under the operating temperature. Since the refractories are made up of mixture

Professor
of metallic oxides it will not process sharp fusion temperature. The refractoriness is expressed
in terms of pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE). A good refractory should have much higher
softening temperature than the operating temperature of the furnace in which it is used.
2. Chemical inertness:
A refractory should be chemically inert and should not react with the fusible products, furnace
gases etc., used in the furnaces. It is desirable to use an acidic refractory in contact with
acidic product in the furnace and vice-versa.
3. Thermal expansion:
A refractory material should have least possible thermal expansion, because the expansion of a
refractory decreases the furnace capacity as well as repeated expansion and contraction leads to
break down of the refractory.
4. Thermal conductivity:
In general the refractory should have low thermal conductivity to reduce the heat loss by radiation
from the furnace to the outside in order to maintain high temperature inside the furnace.
5. Porosity:
It is the important property of a refractory all refractories contains pores. The porosity is defined as
the ratio of pores volume to the total volume of the refractory brick. If the refractory is highly
porous the molten charge, slags and gases may enter the depth of the pores and react with the
refractory material and decreases the life span of the refractory. Hence a good refractory should
have low porosity.
6. Thermal spalling:
It is defined as the breaking, cracking, or peeling off of a refractory brick in the furnace at high
temperature. At high temperature the refractories bricks undergoes uneven expansion and
contraction leading to internal stress and strain in the refractory bricks leading to the spalling. The
thermal spalling can be decreased by avoiding sudden changes in the temperature of the furnace.
7. Electrical Conductivity:
A good refractory should have low electrical conductivity except
graphite. Electrical conductivity decreases rapidly with increase in temperature.
Manufacture of Refractories
The steps involved in the manufacturing of the refractory are.
1. Crushing:
The raw materials in the form of large lumps are crushed to about 25 mm sized particles.
2. Grinding:

Professor
The crushed particles are finely grinded to 200 mesh size by using suitable grinding machines.
3. Screening:
The unwanted materials present in the raw materials are separated by settling, Magnetic
separation or by chemical methods. The screening step is Important to produce good refractories.
4. Storing:
The purified material is stored in proper storage containers.
5. Mixing:
Mixing process is carried out for the uniform distribution of material throughout the mass.
6. Moulding:
Moulding is done by manually or mechanically by application of high pressure. Manual
moulding produces the refectories of low density and low strength, whereas the mechanical
moulding produces refractories of high density and strength. The density and strength of
the refractory can be increased by creating vacuum in the mould during mechanical moulding
process.
7. Drying:
The moulded refractories are dried slowly to remove the moisture content from the
refractories. This is usually done by using tunnel driers where the refractories are dried by
passing steam.
8. Firing:
The refractory bricks are fired to stabilize and strengthen their structures. The firing is carried
out at very higher temperature as their usage temperature in tunnel kilns or shaft kilns or
Rotary kilns. Generally the refractory bricks are heated to 1500 to 20000C.

Professor
MODULE-4
POLYMERS, AND WATER TECHNOLOGY
Q1. What are Polymers,
Polymers are macromolecules having high molecular mass made up of repeated union of a large
number of monomers. The molecular mass of polymer is high and it is ranging from 10,000 to
1,00,000. Example: Polythene, Poly vinyl Chloride, Nylon 6, Nylon 66.
Q8. Explain the Synthesis, properties and application of Polyurethane
Polyurethane are high polymeric material with repeated linkage of –NHCOO- groups
Synthesis: When an alkyl isocynate is heated with diols/triols/polyols in presence of tertiary amine
catalyst undergoes addition polymerisation, the OH group migrates and adds to nitrogen atom. To
form Polyurathenes
Chemical reaction: It is a Rearrangament addition polymerisation reaction
Di-isocyanate Glycerol Polyurethane
Properties: Polyurethane are

1. Excellent abrasive resistance. 2. Good stretching property. 3. Translucent OR opaque
4. High tensile strength. Resistance to water, organic solvents, oil and corrosive chemicals.
Applications / Uses: Polyurethane is used in the manufacture of,

1. Gymnasium dance floors. 2. Soles for shoes & Chapples.3. Swim suits, Foundation garments
4. Gaskets,seals, Tyres, Industrial wheels. 5. Cusions for furniture’s and automobiles.
Q12. What are Polymer Composites. Explain the Synthesis, properties and application of
Kevlar fibre (Polymer Composites)
Polymer composites are the combination of two or more distinct components to form a new class
of material suitable for structural applications is referred to as Composite materials.
Polymer composites are made up of two components, Matrix it is a thermostat material such as
epoxy resin or polyamide. and Fibre it is a glass, or a carbon fibre, polyethylene or Kevlar.
Kevlar Fibre: it is a aromatic polyamide (IUPAC name–Poly (para-phenylene terephthalamide).

Synthesis: When terephthaloyl chloride is heated with para phenylene diamine undergoes
condensation polymerisation with the elimination of HCl to form Kevlar

Professor
Chemical reaction:
Terephthaloyl chloride P-Phenylene diamine KEVLAR
Properties: Kevlar shows 1. Crystalline, light weight and non-flammable.

2. High tensile and modulus than fibre glass
3. Good stiffness and high abrasion resistance.
Applications: Kevlar is used as,

1. Puncture resistant bicycle Tyres.
2. Bridge structures and bullet proof vests.
3. Light weight boat hulls, aircrafts panels and race cars
Q13. What are Conducting Polymers. Explain the synthesis application and Mechanism of
Conduction in Polyaniline
Conducting polymers are organic polymers which conduct electricity; such compounds may have
metallic conductivity or can be semiconductors.
Conducting polymers are prepared by doping technique with an oxidizing or a reducing agent into
organic polymers consisting of alternative double and single carbon – carbon bonds.
Chemical reactions:
OR

Professor
Synthesis:
1. When Aniline is heated with Ammonium per oxy disulphate (oxidizing agent), aniline
undergoes oxidation to form base form of aniline.
2. The Base form of aniline is treated with aqueous HCl, Undergoes protonation to form current
carrying species (+ve) in the polymer backbone. The +ve charges are compensated by the
anions(Cl-) of the doping agent giving the corresponding (Emeraldiene salt).
3. Polyaniline exists in several different oxidation states of which only emaraldine salt (Reduced
form aniline) is having conducting properties.
Applications: Conducting poly aniline is used as,

1. Electrode material for commercial rechargeable batteries.
2. Conductive tracks on PCB.
3. Light emitting diodes.
4. Film membranes for gas separation.
5. Information storage devices.
6. Electro chromic display windows
Humidity sensors, Gas sensor, Radia
Photoconductive polymers:
photoconductivity, the increase in the electrical conductivity of certain materials when they are
exposed to light of sufficient energy.
Photoconductive polymers absorb electromagnetic radiation and produce an increase of electrical

conductivity. Photoconductive polymers have been used in a wide variety of technical applications
such as Xerography (electrophotography) and laser printing.
Some polymers are illuminated with light of suitable frequency acts as conductor such polymers
are known as photo conductive polymers.
The conductivity in such polymers is due to the formation of free charge carriers i.e. formation of
electron-holes by the absorption of radiations and subsequent transfer of these charge carriers to
electrodes.
Poly vinyl carbonate (PVK) is an important example of photoconductive polymers. In dark the PVK
behaves as an insulator, but however it becomes conductive when exposed to UV radiations. When
such polymers are incorporated by sensitizing dyes or electron acceptors, the photo conductivity can
also be observed under visible and IR radiations.
Applications:
1. Used in Xerox-copying devices
2. Used in laser printing devices
3. Other duplicating devices.

Professor
WATER TECHNOLOGY
Introduction: Water is the most abundant and useful compound on the earth. It covers nearly
72% of the earth’s surface. Water gets evaporated continuously from ocean, rivers, and lakes which
goes into the atmosphere as clouds and comes down to the earth’s surface in the form of rain. During
the course of it’s downward journey...
Almost all water on earth, 97.2% is locked in the oceans, 2.1% from ice & glaciers.’
The fresh water available in lakes, rivers & underground amounts only to 0.6%. And the remaining
0.1% is in the brine wells & salty water.
▪ Water is the most widely used chemical compound on earth.
▪ It is one among the three essentials of life i.e. air, water & food
▪ Water occupies 2nd position in the order of priority.
▪ It is not only essential for human beings, but also for plants & animals.
▪ Human body contains about 65.0% by weight of water in the form of blood and other body
fluids. *The average intake of water per day by an individual is about 2.5 liters.
Q. What are the Impurities Present in Water
1. Dissolved gasses:
Presence of CO2, NH3, Sulphur such as Hydrogen sulphide etc.in water Impart foul smell
2. Suspended Matter / Impurities:
These are the insoluble matter in suspension which imparts turbidity, colour and odour to water.
a) Inorganic Impurities: Clay, Silica, Sand, Fe2O3, MnO2 etc.
b) Organic impurities : Decayed Plants leaf, Dead animals bacterias, algae, protozoa,
3. Microscopic matter:
The presence of microorganisms and pathogenic bacteria in water causes “Water borne diseases”.
4. Dissolved salts: Carbonates, Bicarbonates, Chlorides, Nitrates, Sulphates of Sodium, Calcium,
Magnesium, Potassium, etc. present in water cause “hardness”.
5. Colloidal impurities:
Organic wastes like emulsified oil, dyes, ether, finely divided clay, proteins, amino acids, Clay, Fe
(OH)2 etc. produce turbidity.

Professor
Q. Explain the Softening of Water by Ion exchange method.

Ion-exchange or Deionization or Demineralization
Process: Recently ion-exchange resins have been used to remove all minerals from water. It is a
process by which ions held on a porous, essentially insoluble solid are exchanged for ions in solution
that is brought in contact with it.
Ion-exchange Resin – An ion-exchange resin is a crosslinked organic polymer network having some
ionisable group. It may be of two types depending upon the nature of the ionizable group.
(i) Cation Exchange Resin or Cation Exchanger - Such resins have - SO3H, -- COOH or -OH
(phenolic) group as the ionizable group. Since these resins exchange the cationic portion of minerals
by their hydrogen atom, they are known as cation exchangers.
(ii) Anion Exchange Resin or Anion Exchanger – These resins have -NH2, -NHCH3, -N(CH3)2 or -OH
group. They exchange the anionic portion of the minerals and they are known as anion exchanger.
Uses of Ion-exchange Resin – Water treatment by ion-exchange resin includes softening deionization
and de-alkalization of water. Therefore, hard water can be converted into soft water by making use of
ion-exchange resins.
Process: In this process first we passed hard water through cation exchange column, which removes
all the cations (like Ca+2, Mg+2 etc.) as a result from it and equivalent amount of H+ ions are released
from this column to water.
Thus,
2RH+ + Ca+2 R2Ca+2 + 2H+
+ +2
2RH + Mg R2Mg+2 + 2H+
After this process, hard water is passed through anion exchange column, which removes all the anions
(like SO4-2, Cl- etc.) from it, and equivalent amount of OH- ions are released from this column to
water. Thus,
R'OH-2 +Cl-2 R'Cl-+ OH-

2R'OH- + SO2-4 R'2 SO2-4 + 2OH-
- 2-
2R'OH + CO 3 R'2 CO2-3 + 2OH-
H+ and OH - ions get combined to produce water molecule
H+ + OH- + H2O

Professor
The water coming out from the exchanger is free from cations as well as anions. Ion-free water is
known as a deionized or demineralized water.
Q. Define COD. Explain the Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand ofWaste water sample.
Definition: Amount of oxygen or mg of Oxygen is required for the complete oxidation of

organic and Inorganic impurities present in water sample with a strong acidified oxidizing
agent like potassium dichromate.It is represented in mg of Oxygen/dm-3 or ppm of Oxygen.
(CHONS) + ( O ) K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 CO2 + H2O + NO3 - + SO4-2
Procedure: Pipetted out 25ml of waste water sample in to a clean conical flask, add 10 ml of K2Cr2O7
solution followed by 10 ml of 1:1 H2SO4. Add 1g of Ag2SO4 and 1g of HgSO4. reflux the reaction
mixture for two hours. Cool and titrate against standard ferrous ammonium sulphate solution using
ferroin as indicator till the bluish green colour turns to reddish brown.
Note down the volume of FAS consumed., Va.
Perform a blank titration in the same way without using waste water. Note down the volume of Std.
FAS consumed. i.e.,Vb.
Calculation:
We know that, N1V1 = N2V2
(WWS) Std.FAS
N1= N2V2 Volume of K2Cr2O7 required for the sample = V2= Vb – Va ml
V1
We know that, Mass/lt = Normality X Equivalent mass
COD of the sample = N2V2 X 8 8= Equivalent mass of Oxygen.
V1
Therefore, COD/ lts of the sample = N2 X ( Vb-Va) X 8 × 1000
V1
Q. Define Reverse Osmosis? How drinking water ed by “Reverse osmosis” process.

Professor
Reverse Osmosis:
Definition: It is a phenomenon of “The movement of water (solvent) molecule from more
concentration to a less concentration through semi permeable membrane under high pressure”
Process: Series of porous tubes are arranged in parallel and lined inside the tubes with a thin film of
semipermiable mambrene (cellulose acetate).Brackish or Sea water is pumped in to the tubes under
25atm pressure. The Water(Solvent ) molecules of brackish water perculates through the
semipermeable mambrene and collected as fresh water.
1. The flow of water is mainly depends on the applied pr.& Nature of the SPM (cellulose acetate).
2. The flow of Brackish water Pressure is maintained < 25 atm. Pressure .inorder to protect the
semipermeable mambrene otherwise it may repture.
3. The production of fresh water is increased by installing more no. of tubes. The freshwater & Brine
soln. is drawn from the respective outlets.
Advantages: 1.The process simple &contineous2.Involves no phase changes.3.Need only low energy.
Disadvantages: In large scale cannot be produced. Only applicable in pilot plant scale.
NUMERICALS:
1.25cm3 of an industrial effluent when subjected to COD test required 22.5 cm3 of 0.50N
K2Cr2O7 for complete oxidation. Calculate the COD of the effluent of the sample.
Solution: N1(water sample) = ?

V1(water sample) = 25 cm3
N2(K2Cr2O7) = 0.5 N
V2(K2Cr2O7 )= 22.5 cm3
COD of waste water/ lt. = N2V2* 8 * 1000

V1
= 0.5 * 22.5 * 8 * 1000 = 3600 mg of oxygen
25
2. 25cm3of waste water sample was mixed with 25 ml of K2Cr2O7 , acidified & refluxed. The
unreacted K2Cr2O7 acidified required 8.2 ml of FAS. In a blank titration 25 ml of K2Cr2O7
acidified required 16.4 ml of same 0.2 N FAS. Calculate the COD of the waste water sample.
N1(water sample) = ?
N2(FAS) = 0.2 N
V2 (FAS) = ( Vb-Va)Where,
Vb = 16.4 ml blank titre valueogf FAS , Va = 8.2 ml actual vol. of FAS
COD of waste water/ lt. = N2 *(Vb-Va) * 8 *1000

V1
= 0.2 ( 16.4-8.2) * 8 * 1000 = 524.8 mg / lt.
25

Professor
3. 25cm3 of an industrial effluent when subjected to COD test required 8.3 cm3 of 0.001 M
K2Cr2O7 for complete oxidation. Calculate the COD of the effluent of the sample. (The
equivalent mass of K2Cr2O7 = 49 )
Solution: 1Molarity(K2Cr2O7) = 6 Normality (K2Cr2O7)
0.001 Molarity(K2Cr2 = 6 * 0.001 Normality (K2Cr2O7)
N2(K2Cr2O7) = 6 * 0.001 N
V2(K2Cr2O7) = 8.3 cm3
WKT,
COD of waste water/ lt. = N2 *V2 * 8 *1000
V1
= 6 * 0.001 * 8.3 * 8 *1000 = 15.976 mg of Oxygen / lt.
25
3. In COD experiment, 30 cm3 of an effluent sample required 9.8 cm3 of 0.001 M of K2Cr2O7
for oxidation. Calculate the COD of the sample.
Solution:
1Molarity(K2Cr2O7) = 6 Normality (K2Cr2O7)
0.001 Molarity(K2Cr2O7) = 6 * 0.001 Normality (K2Cr2O7)
N2(K2Cr2O7) = 6 * 0.001 N
V2(K2Cr2O7) = 9.8 cm3
WKT,
COD of waste water/ lt. = N2 *V2 * 8 *1000
V1
= 6 * 0.001 * 9.8 * 8 *1000 = 18.816 mg of Oxygen / lt.
25
4. In COD experiment, 27.5cm3 and 13.2 cm3 of 0.05N FAS solution are required for blank and
sample titration respectively. The volume of the test sample used is 25 cm3. Calculate the COD of the
sample solution.
N2(FAS) = 0.05 N
V2 (FAS) = ( Vb-Va)Where,
Vb = 27.5 ml blank titre valueogf FAS , Va = 13.2 ml
COD of waste water/ lt. = N2 *(Vb-Va) * 8 *1000

V1
= 0.05 ( 27.5-13.2) * 8 * 1000
25
= 228.8 mg of Oxygen / lt.

Professor
SEWAGE TREATMENT: The Domestic sewage water contains Biological impurities, Pathogenic
bacteria Colorful smell. The discharge of sewage water into river, lakes, sea the water gets
contaminated & damages the following effects.1. The oxygen conc. level decreases & damages the aquatic life.2.
Color & Smell affect Quality of water.3. Pathogenic bacteria cause water borne diseases.
The sewage water treatment is a process to remove the impurities such as, suspended & floating,
Organic compounds, Ammonium salts, Phosphates, Pathogenic bacteria etc. This process is carried
out in three stages.1. Primary treatment 2. Secondary treatment 3. Tertiary treatment
PRIMARY TREATMENT Coagulants

(Potash alum)
Steel Silt or
Sewage water Grit Skimming
Sedime
screen or
Bar mesh removal Tank ntation
Tank
Sand, Broken glasses etc.
Compressed air Sediments
The sewage water is passed through steel mesh, where the floating or suspended matter is removed.
Then it passes through the velocity grid separator where the velocity of SW is reduced, due to
gravity force sand, broken glass etc. settle down. At this stage the SW is pumped in to the skimming
tank and pass compressed air, the oil, grease etc. is converted in to soapy foam it is skimmed off.
Finally, the SW is treated with coagulating agent in a sedimentation tank. by adding Potash alum.
The finely charged particles reacts with anion & cation of coagulant & settles at the bottom of the
sedimentation tank.
Q. Explain the Secondary treatment of Sewage water by Activated sludge process.
Oxygen/Air
Activated Sludge Oxygen of Air

Secondary treatment water Sewage water Sedimen
Org.matter+O2 CO2
N+O2 NO2 -tation Tank
P+O2 P2O3
S+O2 SO2
Sludge
Process: The Secondary treatment involves aerobic biological oxidation under constant agitation.
The sewage water from primary treatment is mixed with calculated amount of previous batch sludge,
and sent in to the aeration tank. The oxygen of air is passed in to the tank under high pressure, the
impurities like Org. matteroxidizes to CO2& N2 to NO2, NO3. finally reacts with bases to form
corresponding salts. Now the sewage water is pumped in to the sedimentation tank, and allowed to
settle for several hours. Where the sludge is settle at the bottom of the tank, which can be recycled as
activated sludge.
NOTE: The sludge obtained from the previous batch is known as activated sludg because it
contains a large number of aerobic bacteria & micro organisms.Which enhance the aerobic oxidation,
Therefore it is called as activated sludge.

Professor
Tertiary treatment
The sewage water from secondary treatment is further purified in tertiary treatment.
The following stages involved, they are 1.Removal of phosphate.(PO4-) & NH4+
2.Coagulation &Sedimentation.3.Filtration 4.Degassification(NH3 stripping)5.Disinfection
Ca3(OH)2NH3 Potash alum Hot water Chlorine (PH 6.5)

PH 10-11 K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3 .24H2O) To kill Pathogenic
bacteria
Tank Degassifier Chlorination

Coagulation Sand filter
PO43-& NH4+
Tank (NH3,CO2 ,H2S) Disinfection
Ca3(PO4)2
. Al(OH)3 Solids Purified water Std.’s of BOD,

White gelatinous ppt NH4+,PO43-< 1 ppmOdourless& high clarity
The sewage water from secondary treatment is taken for tertiary treatment.
• The phosphate & ammonium salts are removed by adding calcium hydroxide.
• The fine suspended particles are removed by adding coagulant ( potash alum)
• The traces of suspended matter is removed by sand bed filtration.
• NH3,CO2,H2S,etc. gases are removed by trickling hot water in degassifier
• Finally the water is treated with Chlorine Cl2 + H2O HOCl + H+ + Cl-
• The unionized HOCl attacks the bacteria’s cells & kill them. At this stage the water obtained is
the following std.
BOD,Salts of NH4+,PO43-etc.<1 ppm, High clarity, free from odour & it is equal to Drinking water
std.

Professor
GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY 2021
INSTRUMENTAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS & NANO MATERIALS
Q. Explain theory, instrumentation and applications of Colorimetry?

Theory: The concentration of a colored compound in a solution is determined by measuring the absorbance.
Beer’s Law:
Beers law states that “When a Monochromatic beam of light is passes thorough a colored solution, the intensity of the
transmitted ray of light is decreases with the increasing in concentration of a solution. kI = -dI/I
Lamberts law:
“When a Monochromatic beam of light is passes thorough a colored solution, the intensity of the transmitted ray of light
is decreases with the increasing in the thickness of the solution” A= log Io/It = Kl.
Instrumentation: Components of the colorimeter:

a) Light Source: The Hydrogen tungsten lamp is used to measure the wavelength in the visible UV range (320-700 nm).
b) Monochromator: It consists of an entrance slit, prism and absorption for wave length selections.
c) Lens: Lenses to focus correct light from the source through the filter and cuvette to the detector.
d) Sample Cuvette: It is a glass transparent, clean and no scratches sample holder for accurate reading. The optical
path of the cuvette is 1 cm.
e) Photosensitive detectors: Detects signal and converting light energy to electrical energy. Measured devices like
Galvanometer, ammeter, digital read out.
Working
• Calibrate the instrument (using the solvent alone)
• Determine the absorbance values of several standard solutions containing a solute at known concentrations.
• Choose the light filter or LED that gives the highest absorbance values.
• Plot the data to obtain a graph of absorbance versus concentration.
• Record the absorbance of the test solution, and
• Use the graph to find the concentration of the solute in the test solution.
Calibration Plot:
Applications:
1. Used in quantitative analysis for metal ions, organic compounds.
2. Used in photometric titration
3. Determination of composition of the colored complex.
[Dr. Ashok.S.D. M.Sc., Ph D., Associate Professor.] Page 1

Q. Describe the theory, instrumentation and applications of Potentiometery?
Theory: The principle involved in the potentiometry is “when the pair of electrodes is placed in the sample
solution it shows the potential difference by the addition of the titrant or by the change in the
concentration of the ions”.
Diagram:
.Instrumentation.
• Potentiometer consists of a reference electrode, an indicator electrode & a potential measuring device.
• The indicator electrode responds rapidly to the changes in the concentration of the analyte i.e.
• The solution under study. A simple arrangement of Potentiometric titration is as shown in diagram.
Working:The reference electrode is the electrode which consists of its own potential value and it is stable when
dipped into the sample solution.The salt bridge is used to prevent the interference of the analyte solution with
the reference solution. Analyte solution is the sample solution whose potential is to be measured. The indicator
electrode is the electrode which responds to the changes in the potential of the analyte solution.
The electromotive force of the complete cell is given by the following equation:
Ecell = Ereference + Eindicator + Ejunction
where Ereference is the electromotive force of the reference electrode; Eindicator is the electromotive force of the
indicator electrode; Ejunction is the electromotive force at the junction of the liquid.
Applications:
1. Analysis of pollutants in water
2. Drug analysis in pharmaceutical industry
3. Food industry for analysis of quality
4. Used in quantitative and qualitative analyses

Q. Describe the theory, instrumentation and applications of conductometry

Theory: Conductometry is the measurement of the electrical conductivity of a solution. The conductance
is defined as the current flow through the conductor. In other words, it is defined as the reciprocal of the
resistance. The unit for the conductance is Seimens (S) which is the reciprocal of Ohm's (Ω−1). This
method is mainly used for the determination of the physico-chemical properties of the compounds. Principle of
the conductometric titrations theory states that for dilutions that are infinite, ions act independently and in the
process contribute toward conductance of the solution. The principle behind this theory states that anions and
cations have different conductance values.
Instrumentation
Conductometer consists of a conductivity cell & a conductance measuring device. The cell has 2 platinum
electrodes placed at unit distance apart. The assembly responds rapidly to the changes in the concentration of
the analyte. The simple arrangement of conductometric titration is represented as follows.
Working:
Measurement of conductance can be employed to determine the end point in acid-base titrations. In conduct
metric titrations there is a sudden increase in conductance of the solution at equivalence point. The principle
underlying conductometric titrations is the substitutions of ions by other ions of different mobility. Therefore,
the conductance of a solution depends on the number and mobility of ions. The equivalence point is determined
graphically by plotting conductance (ordinate) against titer values (abscissa). From the equivalence point the
concentration of analyte can be determined.
Applications
1) Mixture of acids can be titrated more accurately.
2) Colored solutions can be titrated.
3) Very weak acids such as H3PO3, phenol, which cannot be titrated potentiometrically in aqua solutions, can be
titrated conduct metric.
Explain the experimental procedure for the conductometric estimation of acid mixture
Using Conductometer. (Strong acid and a weak acid with strong base)?
The Measurement of conductance of the solution at the equivalence point. The conductance of a solution
depends on the number and mobility of ions. The equivalence point is determined graphically by plotting
conductance (ordinate) against titre values (abscissa).
PROCEDURE:
Pipette out 25cm3 of the given acid mixture into a clean 100cm3 beaker. Dip the conductivity cell in the solution
and note down the conductance of the solution i.e., when the volume of NaOH added is zero. Now add standard
NaOH solution from a burette in increments of 0. 5cm3. after each addition, stir the solution gently when the
reading is constant, note down the conductance. As the titration proceeds, the conductance first gradually

decreases and then rises slowly and finally rises sharply. Continue titration until the conductance is more or less
the same as it was in the beginning. Plot a graph of conductance on Y-axis versus volume of NaOH on X- axis to
get three straight lines. The point of intersection of the first and second lines gives the volume of sodium
hydroxide needed to neutralize only hydrochloric acid.
The point of intersection of the second and third straight lines gives the volume of NaOH required to neutralize
both HCl and CH3COOH (after drawing a perpendicular to X-axis).
Estimation of HCl :
Volume of NaOH required to neutralize HCl = V1 cm3
Normality of HCl = Normality x Volume of NaOH
50
3
Therefore, the weight of HCl g/ dm = Normality of HCl x Eq. Wt of HCl(36.5)
Estimation of CH3COOH :
Volume of NaOH required to neutralize CH3COOH = (V2-V1) cm3
Normality of CH3COOH = Normality x Volume of NaOH
50
3
Therefore, The weight of CH3COOH g/dm = Normality of CH3COOH x Eq.Wt of CH3COOH (60.05)
Conductometric titration involving strong acid v/s strong base?
Conductometric titration involving weak acid v/s strong base?

NANO MATERIALS
What are nanomaterials?

Nano scale materials are defined as a set of substances where at least one dimension is less than approximately
100 nanometers. A nanometer is one billionth of a meter, or 10-9 m approximately 100,000 times smaller than
the diameter of a human hair. Nano materials are of interest because at this scale unique optical, magnetic,
electrical, and other properties emerge. These emergent properties have the potential for great impacts in
electronics, medicine, and other fields.
Synthesis of Nano materials Bottom up approach

There are two general approaches to the synthesis of nano materials and the fabrication of nano
structures are bottom- up approach and Top-down approach. Principle of Bottom-up approach is to assemble
basic units into larger structure using chemicals or physical forces at the nano scale. Bottom approach starts
with smaller components which arrange themselves into more complex assemblies.
Q10. Expalin the synthesis of nano materials by sol-gel method? Give any two advantages.
• Sol-gel technique is an important bottom-up approach for the synthesis of nano materials.
• Sols and gels are types of colloids. A sol is solid particle dispersed in a medium and a gel is a
continuous network of particles with pores filled with liquid. Starting materials for nano material
preparation are called precursors. In sol-gel synthesis metal salt or metal alkoxide is used as
precursor.
1. A sol is prepared by dissolving precursors (metal alkoxide) in a solvent like alcohol. Sol is further converted
into a gel by hydrolysis and condensation of precursors.
2. Hydrolysis and condensation reactions are initiated by addition of an acid or base catalyst. Hydrolysis and
condensation reactions is given below
Hydrolysis: M – O – R + H2O → M – OH + R– OH
Condensation: M–OH + M–OH → M – O – M + R – OH

Gel on aging for a known period of time finally nanoscale clusters of metal hydroxides obtained.

1. Drying of the gel, where water and other volatile liquids are removed from the gel network.
2. Calcination of the dehydrated gel at temperature up to 8000C. Resulting in the formation of oxide which is
resistant to rehydration. Then obtained sample is heat treated to get desired nano particles.
Advantages of sol-gel process are

a) Nano materials of high purity can be obtained.
b) Samples can be prepared at lower temperatures.c) Easy to control synthesis parameters to control physical
characteristics like shape and shape of resulting materials.
Q10. Expalin the synthesis of nano materials by Solution Combustion method? Give any
two advantages.

Introduction:
This is a term that has entered into the general and scientific vocabulary only recently but has been used at least
as early as 1974 by Taniguchi. Nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary science and technology and encompasses
physical, chemical, biological, engineering and electronic processes. Nanomaterials are cornerstones of
nanoscience and nanotechnology. Nanostructure science and technology is a broad and interdisciplinary area of
research and development activity that has been growing explosively worldwide in the past few years. It has the
potential for revolutionizing the ways in which materials and products are created and the range and nature of
functionalities that can be accessed. It is already having a significant commercial impact, which will assuredly
increase in the future.
What are nanomaterials?

Nanoscale materials are defined as a set of substances where at least one dimension is less than approximately
100 nanometers. A nanometer is one billionth of a meter, or 10-9 m approximately 100,000 times smaller than
the diameter of a human hair. Nanomaterials are of interest because at this scale unique optical, magnetic,
electrical, and other properties emerge. These emergent properties have the potential for great impacts in
electronics, medicine, and other fields.
Q. Write notes on Carbon Nano Tubes,Fullerenes, & Graphenes (Nanoscale material)?
Nano scale materials:

Materials made of nanoparticles are called nanoscale materials. Nanomaterials are finding the
applications in the field of medical diagnostics, health care, environmental remediation, high density data
storage etc. These have change in physiochemical properties such as band gap, melting point, magnetic
properties and specific heat and shape.
Carbon nano tubes:

A carbon nano tube is a tubular structure made up of carbon atoms, having diameter of nanometer order but
length in micrometers. They are also called as bucky tubes –they posses extraordinary strength and electrical
and thermal properties. Carbon nano tubes are related to fullerenes and is regarded as another allotrope of
carbon. Fullerenes are spherical and carbon nano tubes are cylindrical.
Types of carbon nanotubes
1. Single walled nanotubes(SWNT’s)

Which is of diameter approximately 1nm and with tube length several million times longer
The structure of SWNT’s is imagined to be a wrapping of one atom thick layer of graphite into a cylindrical
shape.
2. Multi Walled nanotubes (MWNT’s)
Consists of multiple rolled layers carbon – sheets of graphite are arranged in concentric cylindrical form.

Synthesis of carbon nano tubes:
The Carbon Nano Tubes are synthesized by Chemical vapour deposition method.
Process:
The Hydro Carbon vapours are passed over a heated catalyst like Fe, Co, Ni, or Pt in tubular furnace, Under
High temperature to about of 600 -1200˚C in presence of Inert gas, The Hydro Carbon decomposes in to
Carbon and Hydrogen.
The Carbon nano tubes grow on the catalyst surface and are collected after cooling the furnace.
Usually methane, ethylene, acetylene and CO gases are used as precursors for carbon nano tubes.
Properties of carbon nano tubes:
Nano tubes are cylindrical carbon molecules exhibits physical and chemical properties , which are valuable
for nanotechnology, electronics, optics and material science and technology.
Carbon nano tubes exhibit high electrical conductivity and also high thermal conductivity. They have low
density and very high mechanical strength.
These can emit electrons when subjected to a high electric field .Due to this property they are used in field
emission X-ray tubes.
Single wall nano tubes are used in solar panels and these are used to store hydrogen to be used as a fuel
source.
Single wall carbon nano tubes are efficiently absorb radiation in the near IR range (700- 1100 nm) and
convert it to heat. This property is used in cancer thermotherapy to selectively kill cancer cells.

Nano scale materials:

Materials made of nano particles are called nanoscale materials. Nano materials are finding the applications in
the field of medical diagnostics, health care, environmental remediation, high density data storage etc. These
have change in physiochemical properties such as band gap, melting point, magnetic properties and specific
heat and shape.
Fullerenes:
• A fullerene composed of carbon atoms, in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube and many other
shapes. Spherical fullerenes are also called bucky balls, they resemble the balls used in football (soccer).
• The allotrope of Carbon is Carbon-60 molecule with 60 atoms arranged spherically. called fullerene.
• The discovery of fullerenes greatly expanded the number of known carbon allotropes. Minute quantities
of the fullerenes in the form of C60, C70, C76, C82 and C84 etc carbon atoms arranged spherically.
Production of fullerenes: Fullerenes are produced by creating an electric arc between carbon or graphite
electrodes in an inert gas atmosphere. Electric arc liberates a black powder in the form of Soot. 10% of the Soot
is made up of C60. The fullerenes in the soot are then extracted by solvent like toluene. Then the Solvent is
removed, A solid mixture of C60 with small amounts of fullerenes is obtained, The Particle size of about 2 nm.
Characteristics: Fullerenes are

• Characteristic of C60 molecule is its high symmetry with 120 symmetry operations. Each carbon bond
with three other carbon atoms using sp2 hybridization
• Stable, breaking the balls above 1000oC, temperature & quite reactive as they possess π electrons.
• Insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in many other solvents and more soluble in Organic solvents.
• Non toxic but some of their derivatives are toxic.
Applications: Fullerenes are used in

• Micro electrical systems and in nanotechnology.
• They acts as magnetic, superconductors, serve as a lubricant, or absorb light.
• Medical applications, superconductors and fibre optics
• It is used as lubricants, adhesives, charge transfer complexes, cosmetics, catalyst etc.

Graphenes
Graphene is an allotrope (form) of carbon consisting of a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a
hexagonal lattice.
Properties:
It is allotropes of carbon in the form of a plane of sp2 bonded atoms with the molecular bond length of 0.142
nanometers. Layers of grapheme stacked on top of each other form graphite with an interplanar spacing of
0.335nanometers. The separate layers of grapheme in graphite are held together by vander waals forces. It is the
lightest material and the strongest compound discovered. It is the best conductor of heat at room temperature
and an excellent conductor of electricity. It is an extremely diverse material and can be combined with other
elements to produce different materials with various superior properties.
Applications: Graphenes are widely used in,

Touch Screen, Transistor, Computer Chips, Batteries, Energy generation, Super Capacitors, Solar Cells etc.

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GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY, BENGALURU.

MODULE-1: ELECTRODE POTENTIAL AND CELLS. CO-1

Dr.Ashok S D. M.Sc., Ph.D.,Associate Professor Page 1

Dr.Ashok S D. M.Sc., Ph.D.,Associate Professor Page 2

Q1. Derive Nernst’s equation for the

Substitute the value of K in equation (3),

Substitute the values of equ (1) and (2) in the

-nFE = -nFE0+ RT ln [M]- RT ln[Mn+] ---(4)

Divide the equation (4) by –nF, weget

Dr.Ashok S D. M.Sc., Ph.D.,Associate Professor Page 3

Construction: Q3. Explain the following terms.

Dr.Ashok S D. M.Sc., Ph.D.,Associate Professor Page 4

Dr.Ashok S D. M.Sc., Ph.D.,Associate Professor Page 5

Dr.Ashok S D. M.Sc., Ph.D.,Associate Professor Page 7

Energy storage system 3. Electrolyte: Which provides medium for

Dr.Ashok S D. M.Sc., Ph.D.,Associate Professor Page 8

The Li – ion battery is rechargeable battery

Dr.Ashok S D. M.Sc., Ph.D.,Associate Professor Page 9

MODULE: 2. CORROSION & METAL FINISHING

Q1. Define corrosion. Explain the electrochemical theory of corrosion.

Dr.Ashok SD., M.Sc.,(M.Phil).,Ph.D., Associate Professor Page 1

Q2. Explain the Following factors affect the rate of corrosion.

Nature of corrosion product:

5. Ratio of Anodic and Cathodic areas.

Dr.Ashok SD., M.Sc.,(M.Phil).,Ph.D., Associate Professor Page 2

Anode Cathode Anode Cathode

Water Portion of the metal

Iron vessel Portion of the metal

Dr.Ashok SD., M.Sc.,(M.Phil).,Ph.D., Associate Professor Page 3

Q5. Explain the Pitting corrosion (Differential aeration) with example.

IRON More oxygenated area

Galvanization:Definition: It is a process of coating of Zinc (cathode) on the surface of base

Dr.Ashok SD., M.Sc.,(M.Phil).,Ph.D., Associate Professor Page 4

Galvanization process involves following steps:

Q9. Explain the Cathodic protection by Sacrificial anode method.

Cathodic protection: Sacrifical anodic method:

Dr.Ashok SD., M.Sc.,(M.Phil).,Ph.D., Associate Professor Page 5

Q10. Explain the Cathodic protection by Impressed current method.

b) Impressed current method:

Dr.Ashok SD., M.Sc.,(M.Phil).,Ph.D., Associate Professor Page 6

1. Increase in corrosion resistance

Q2. Define Electroplating and electro less plating Give examples.

Electroplating: Definition: Electroplating is defined as “The process coating or plating or

Electro less Plating: Definition: Electro less plating is a technique of deposition of

Q2. Give the differences between Electoplating & Electrolessplating

3 Cathodic reaction Mn+ + e- M Mn+ + e- M

4 Anode Pure metal or alloy Reducing agent in Solution

Nature of deposit Coating is pure Coating is contaminated with impurities

7 Applicability Only to conductors Conductors and non conductors

Dr.Ashok SD., M.Sc.,(M.Phil).,Ph.D., Assistant Professor Page 1

Q3. Explain the Electroplating process of CHROMIUM:

Sl. Particulars Sulphate bath (Acidic) Sulphamate bath (Basic)

03 Temperature 40-50o C 45-55o C

04 Anode (Insoluble anodes Pb-Sn alloy + (Insoluble anodes Pb-Sn alloy +

05 Cathode Any metal or material or article to be Any metal or material or article to be

06 Current 20-40 mA/cm2 25-55 mA/cm2

07 Current 8-12% 10-15%

Dr.Ashok SD., M.Sc.,(M.Phil).,Ph.D., Assistant Professor Page 2

Dr.Ashok SD., M.Sc.,(M.Phil).,Ph.D., Assistant Professor Page 3

MODULE-3. FUELS & SOLAR ENERGY CO-3

Q2. Determination of Calorific Value of a Solid Fuel - Bomb Calorimeter

Dr.Ashok.S.D., M.Sc.,(M.Phil).,Ph.D., AssociateProfessor Page 1

Q. Define Cracking. Explain the fluidized bed catalytic Cracking.

Process conditions: Feed stock heated to 3000C

COD of waste water/ lt. = N2 (Vb-Va) 8 *1000

COD of waste water/ lt. = N2 (Vb-Va) 8 *1000