Fuel is a substance which reacts easily with oxygen in a selfsustaining

exothermic reaction.Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons derived from plants

and animals that died millions of years ago which geological forces
acted upon to form fuels that we use today .The three main types of
fossil fuels are petroleum, natural gas
and coal
Importance of fuel

Fuel is of immense importance in our modern world for various reasons. It plays a
crucial role in our daily lives, economies, and industries. Here are some key aspects
highlighting the importance of fuel:

1. Energy Source: Fuel serves as a primary source of energy for various applications,
including transportation (cars, airplanes, ships), electricity generation (coal,
natural gas, oil), heating, and cooking. It provides the power needed to run
machinery and equipment in industries and agriculture.
2. Mobility and Transportation: Fuel is essential for mobility and transportation,
allowing people and goods to move efficiently over short and long distances.
Without fuel, modern transportation systems would come to a standstill,
impacting economies and daily life significantly.
3. Economic Growth: A stable and affordable fuel supply is crucial for economic
growth. Industries rely on fuel to power their operations, and fluctuations in fuel
prices can have a direct impact on production costs, inflation, and economic
stability.
4. Electricity Generation: Many power plants use fossil fuels like coal, natural gas,
and oil to generate electricity. Reliable electricity generation is essential for
homes, businesses, and critical infrastructure such as hospitals and schools.
5. Heating and Cooling: Fuels like natural gas, heating oil, and propane are vital for
heating homes and buildings in cold climates and for cooling them in hot weather
through air conditioning systems.
6. Agriculture: Agriculture heavily depends on fuel for operations like planting,
harvesting, irrigation, and transportation of crops and livestock. This ensures a
stable food supply for growing populations.
7. Industrial Processes: Fuel is integral to various industrial processes, including
manufacturing, mining, and construction. It provides the energy needed for
machinery and equipment used in these sectors.
Types of Fuels
 Solid Fuels : Solid fuel is a type of fuel characterized by its physical state, which is
solid rather than liquid or gas. It is typically used for various heating and combustion
purposes.(Coal, Charcoal, Wood)
 Liquid Fuels : Liquid fuels are fuels that exist in a liquid state at standard atmospheric
conditions .Petrol(Gasoline), Diesel, Kerosene, Furnace Oil
 Gaseous Fuels : Gaseous fuels are fuels that exist in a gaseous state at standard
atmospheric conditions. Natural Gas, Biogas(CH4-CO2), Hydrogen
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (Propane-Butane)
 Conventional : Conventional fuels refer to traditional energy sources that have been
widely used for a long time. Diesel, Petrol, Kerosene, Furnace Oil, Jet Fuels
 Alternative : Alternative fuels are energy sources that are used as substitutes for
conventional fossil fuels. Natural Gas, Ethanol (E85, 15% Gasoline), Biogas,Bio
diesel (B20, 20% Vegetable Oil), Hydrogen
 Non-Conventional : Non-conventional fuels are a broad category that encompasses
any fuel source that deviates from the traditional or conventional sources like fossil
fuels. Nuclear Fuels (Uranium - U235, Plutonium - Pu239)
Bi-Fuel and Dual Fuel:
 Bi-Fuel : More than one fuel, but one at a time (eg. Petrol/NG)
 Dual Fuel : Two fuels, both at a time eg. (Diesel + NG)

Coal
Coal is a carbon-containing rock formed by the debris from the decay of

ferns, vines, trees and other plants which flourished in swamps millions of years ago Over
time, the debris became buried and the actions of bacteria, heat and pressure transformed
the debris first into peat (a precursor of coal) and then into the various types of coal
(coalification) as we know them today. Coal is classified as a nonrenewable energy source
because it takes millions of years to form .The type and quality of a coal deposit is
determined by the temperature and pressure and by the length of time in formation.The rank
of the coal is based on the degree of change undergone by a coal as it matures. There are four
types of coal: lignite, sub-bituminous, bituminous and anthracite.
 Lower rank lignite and sub-bituminous coals are typically softer, friable
materials with a dull, earthy appearance. They are characterized by high
moisture levels and low carbon content, and therefore has low energy or heat
value
 Higher rank bituminous coals are generally harder and stronger and often
have a black, vitreous luster. They contain more carbon, have lower moisture
content, and produce more energy. Anthracite is at the top of the rank scale
and has a correspondingly higher carbon and energy content and a lower level
of moisture
 Analysis process
The composition of a coal is usually reported in terms of its proximate
analysis and its ultimate analysis:
The proximate analysis consists of four items:
ofixed carbon,
ovolatile matter,
omoisture
oand ash, all on a weight percent basis
Proximate analysis requires less equipment and easier to perform
The ultimate analysis provides an element-by-element composition of
the coal's organic fraction, namely:
ocarbon,
ohydrogen,
ooxygen
oand sulfur, all on a weight percent basis
Some short question ans
Flash Point is the minimum temperature of a liquid fuel at which sufficient
vapor is produced to form a flammable mixture with air. However, an
externally ignited flame may not sustain.
Fire Point is the minimum temperature at which sufficient vapor is
produced to form a flammable mixture with air which sustains when
externally ignited (e.g., spark or fire).
Flash Point and Fire Point temperatures are more important from fuel
storage viewpoint.
SIT : Self ignition temperature (SIT) is the temperature at which a
flammable mixture of fuel with automatically ignite without any external
spark or fire. 257oC for gasoline and 316oC for diesel.
 AFratio : It is the proportion of air to fuel in a mixture. Air fuel ratios can be
expressed in terms of mass or volume ratios. Actually, the Oxygen
molecules of Air, which is 21% by volume and 23.3% by mass, takes part in
combustion reaction. About 3.76 (79/21) moles of Nitrogen is associated
with each mole of Oxygen in air.
AFratiomass = AFratiovolume x (Mair/Mfuel); M = Molecular Weight
Chemically correct AFratio is called ‘Stoichiometric AFratio’. It has
theoretically just sufficient oxygen available to completely burn the fuel.
An Air-fuel mixture can be Rich (Afratio ↓) or Lean (Afratio ↑) in fuel.
The range of AF ratio (lean to rich) which can burn is called “Flamability
limit”, e.g., flammability limits of 1.4 -7.6% by volume for Octane, 5-15% by
volume for natural gas.

Math
2

2nd slide
External Combustion Engines : An external combustion
engine is a reciprocating heat engine where a working fluid,
contained internally, is heated by combustion in an external
source, through the engine wall or a heat exchanger. Here the
product of combustion is not the working fluid inside the engine.
The combustion of fuel in presence of air occurs outside the
engine, only the heat produced is transported inside the engine,
having its own working fluid.
• Example – Steam engines, Stirling engines.
• Products of Combustion: Burnt gases – CO2, CO, H2O, SO2
and N2.
• Working Fluid: Liquid/Gas which transports or stores energy.
 Internal Combustion Engines : Here either the
combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine, or theproducts of
combustion works as the working fluid.
 Example – Petrol Engine, Diesel engine, Gas Turbine.
Internal combustion engines can be of Positive
Displacement type or Roto-Dynamic type
 Positive Displacement Machines : Working fluid is
handled in batches, eg. Petrol or Diesel engines.
 Roto-dynamic Machines : Working fluid is handledcontinuously, eg.
Gas Turbine

Difference between internal and external combustion

engine
Internal combustion engines (ICE) and external combustion engines (ECE) are two
distinct types of engines used for various applications. Here are the key
differences between them:

1. Combustion Location:

 Internal Combustion Engine (ICE): In an ICE, the combustion of fuel (typically

gasoline or diesel) occurs inside the engine's cylinders. The fuel and air mixture is
ignited by a spark plug (in the case of gasoline engines) or by compression (in
diesel engines) within the engine's cylinders.
 External Combustion Engine (ECE): In an ECE, the combustion of fuel takes place
outside the engine. The engine is heated externally, and the heat is transferred to
a working fluid (usually water or steam), which then expands and drives the
engine's components.

2. Working Fluid:

 ICE: The working fluid in an internal combustion engine is the air-fuel mixture that
is combusted directly within the engine's cylinders.
 ECE: The working fluid in an external combustion engine is a separate fluid
(usually water or steam) that is heated externally and then used to produce
mechanical work.
 3. Efficiency:

 ICE: Internal combustion engines are known for their relatively high power-to-
weight ratios and quick response times. However, they tend to have lower thermal
efficiencies compared to external combustion engines.
 ECE: External combustion engines can achieve higher thermal efficiencies because
they allow for more precise control of the heat source and working fluid. This
makes them more efficient in certain applications, such as power generation.

4. Applications:

 ICE: Internal combustion engines are commonly used in automobiles, motorcycles,

airplanes, and small to medium-sized power equipment like lawnmowers and
chainsaws.
 ECE: External combustion engines, such as steam engines, are often used in large-
scale power generation, locomotives, and some marine applications.

5. Emissions:

 ICE: Internal combustion engines are associated with emissions of pollutants such
as carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter,
contributing to air pollution and climate change.
 ECE: External combustion engines, when using clean fuels and efficient
combustion processes, can produce lower emissions and are sometimes favored
for their environmental benefits.

6. Complexity:

 ICE: Internal combustion engines tend to be more compact and less complex in
terms of their design and operation compared to external combustion engines.
 ECE: External combustion engines can be more complex due to the additional
components required for the external heat source and heat transfer processes.
 Development of Internal Combustion Engines
The development of internal combustion engines (ICE) has been a fascinating journey
marked by key milestones and innovations over several centuries. Here's a brief
overview of the major stages in the development of internal combustion engines:

1. Early Concepts (Late 17th Century - Early 19th Century): The development of internal
combustion engines began with the work of inventors and scientists like Christian
Huygens, Denis Papin, and John Barber. They conceptualized various engine designs
powered by the explosive force of gases, but practical implementation was limited due
to the lack of suitable technology.
2. Gunpowder Engines (Late 18th Century): Early experiments included gunpowder
engines, where gunpowder was ignited in a confined space to produce mechanical
work. However, these engines were inefficient and posed safety risks.
3. Steam Engines (Late 18th Century - Early 19th Century): The early 19th century saw
significant progress with the development of steam engines, often considered external
combustion engines. Steam engines became widely used for industrial and
transportation purposes, but they had limitations in terms of efficiency and power-to-
weight ratios.
4. Hippolyte Carnot's Theory (1824): Sadi Carnot's father, Hippolyte Carnot, developed
the theory of the ideal heat engine, laying the groundwork for understanding
thermodynamics and the potential for improving engine efficiency.
5. Étienne Lenoir's Engine (1860): Étienne Lenoir, a Belgian inventor, developed one of
the earliest practical internal combustion engines powered by coal gas. This engine was
known as the Lenoir engine and marked the first commercial use of internal combustion
technology.
6. Nikolaus Otto's Four-Stroke Engine (1876): Nikolaus Otto, a German engineer, is
credited with inventing the first practical four-stroke internal combustion engine, known
as the Otto engine. It used a piston-cylinder arrangement and the four-stroke cycle
(intake, compression, power, exhaust) that is still the basis for most gasoline engines
today.
7. Gottlieb Daimler and Carl Benz (Late 19th Century): Daimler and Benz, both German
engineers, made significant contributions to the development of internal combustion
engines. Daimler's work resulted in the creation of the first high-speed gasoline engine,
while Benz is credited with building the first automobile powered by an internal
combustion engine.
8. Rudolf Diesel's Diesel Engine (1892): Rudolf Diesel, a German engineer, patented the
diesel engine, which operates on the principle of high compression ignition. Diesel
engines are known for their efficiency and are widely used in various applications.
9. Henry Ford and Mass Production (Early 20th Century): Henry Ford's use of the
internal combustion engine in the Model T revolutionized the automotive industry. His
assembly line techniques made automobiles affordable and accessible to the masses.

The Four Stroke Cycle

The four strokes refer to intake, compression, combustion (power), and exhaust
strokes that occur during two crankshaft rotations per working cycle of the
Gasoline engine and Diesel engine. In a four-stroke cycle, the piston completes
four separate strokes which comprise a single thermodynamic cycle. A stroke
refers to the full travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either direction.
 INTAKE/SUCTION: this stroke of the piston begins at top dead center. The
piston descends from the top of the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder,
increasing the volume of the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air is forced by
atmospheric (or greater) pressure into the cylinder through the intake port.
Intake (charge) consists of air-fuel mixture for SI and air only for CI engines
 COMPRESSION: with both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston returns
to the top of the cylinder compressing the air or fuel-air mixture into the
cylinder head.
 POWER: this is the start of the second revolution of the cycle. While the piston
is close to Top Dead Centre, the compressed air–fuel mixture in a gasoline
engine is ignited, by a spark plug in gasoline engines, or which ignites due to
the heat generated by compression in a diesel engine.The resulting pressure
from the combustion of the compressed fuel-air mixture forces the piston back
down toward bottom dead center.
 EXHAUST: during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top dead
center while the exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent fuel-air
mixture through the exhaust valve(s).
SWEPT / DISPLACEMENT VOLUME : Vd = 𝜋/4(B2)S × N
COMPRESSION RATIO : (Max. Volume/Min. Volume), (Vc+Vd)/Vc
8-11 for SI engines, 16-24 for CI engines
CRANK-PISTON LINK : Connecting Rod/Crank Radius (r/a) ratio
range: 3 (small) – 10 (large)
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY : Ratio of actual mass flow rate of air to the
calculated mass flow rate, sucked by the engine (70 -90%).
Clearance volume math
Suppose clearance volume of the cylinder is Vc. Displacement volume ;Vd is 124.9cc.

Compression ratio Cr =9.8:1

It can be written (Vc +Vd) /Vc =9.8

or Vc +Vd =9.8Vc

or 8.8Vc=Vd

or Vc =Vd /8.8=124.9/8.8=14.193 cc.

Ans: clearance volume of the cylinder is 14.193 cc.

Calculation of Engine Displacement Volume
OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
SPARK-IGNITION (SI) ENGINES

Ideal Otto or, SI cycle consists of four internally

reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant-volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection
DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES

Ideal Diesel or, CI cycle consists of four

internally reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection
GAS TURBINES
Brayton or Joule Cycle was developed in 1870.
First successful gas turbine : 1903 - Aegidius Elling of Norway built it using
both rotary compressors and turbines - the first gas turbine with excess
power.
In the gas turbine, there is a continuous flow of the working fluid. This
working fluid is initially compressed in the compressor. It is then heated in
the combustion chamber. Finally, it goes through the turbine. The turbine
converts the energy of the gas into mechanical work. Part of this work is
used to drive the compressor(back power). The remaining part is known as
the net work of the gas turbine.
Back Power = Power required to drive the compressor (40-80%), Back
work ratio = Pc/Pt
Pressure ratio = PCompressor / PInlet = PTurbine / PExhaust (ranging 5-20)
Efficiency = 20-40%
Advantages of gas turbines:
Very high power-to-weight ratio (5-10 kW/kg), compared to reciprocating engines(<1 kW/kg);
Smaller than most reciprocating engines of the same power rating.
Moves in one direction only, with far less vibration than a reciprocating engine.
Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines.
Low operating pressures; High operation speeds.
Low lubricating oil cost and consumption.

Disadvantages of gas turbines:

Cost is much greater than for a similar-sized reciprocating engine since the materials must be
stronger and more heat resistant.
Machining operations are also more complex; Usually less efficient than reciprocating
engines, especially at idle.
Delayed response to changes in power settings.
BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR GAS-TURBINE ENGINES

Brayton cycle is made up of four internally reversible

processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression(in a compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection

1) Turbojet Engine
Turbojet engines were the first type of gas turbine engine invented. And even
though they look completely different than the reciprocating engine in your car or
plane, they operate using the same theory: intake, compression, power,
exhaust.

How Does A Turbojet Work?

Turbojets work by passing air through 5 primary sections of the engine:

Step 1: Air Intake

The air intake is essentially a tube in front of the engine. The air intake may
look simple, but it's incredibly important. The intake's job is to smoothly
direct air into the compressor blades. At low speeds, it needs to minimize
the loss of airflow into the engine, and at supersonic speeds, it needs to
slow the airflow below Mach 1 (the air flowing into a turbojet needs to be
subsonic, regardless of how fast the airplane is flying).

Step 2: Compressor
The compressor is driven by the turbine in the rear of the engine, and its
job is to compress the incoming air, significantly increasing the air's
pressure. The compressor is a series of 'fans', each with smaller and
smaller blades. As air passes through each compressor stage, it gets more
compressed.

Step 3: Combustion Chamber

Next up is the combustion chamber, where the magic really starts
happening. The high pressure air is combined with fuel, and the mixture is
ignited. As the fuel/air mixture burns, it continues through the engine
toward the turbine. Turbojets run very lean, with approximately 50 parts air
to every 1 part of fuel (most reciprocating engines run anywhere from 6-to-
1 to 18-to-1). One of the main reasons turbines run this lean is that extra
airflow is needed to keep a turbojet cool.

Step 4: Turbine
The turbine is another series of 'fans', which work like a windmill, absorbing
energy from the high speed air passing through it. The turbine blades are
connected to and turn a shaft, which is also connected to the compressor
blades at the front of the engine. The turbjet's 'circle of life' is almost
complete.

Step 5: Exhaust (aka "I'm outta here!")

The high speed burned fuel/air mixture exits the engine through an exhaust
nozzle. As the high speed air exits the rear of the engine, it produces
thrust, and pushes the airplane (or whatever it's attached to) forward.
Turbojet takeaway:

 Pros:
 Relatively simple design
 Capable of very high speeds
 Takes up little space
Cons:
 High fuel consumption
 Loud
 Poor performance at slow speed

TURBOFAN JET
Turbofan engine is based on the principle that using same turbine power a large
volume of relatively slower moving air produces more thrust than a small volume
of fast moving air. Here a large fan driven by the turbine blows a considerable
amount of air through a duct surrounding the engine. Turbofans combine the hot
air jet with bypassed air from a fan, also driven by the turbine. The use of bypass
air creates a quieter engine with greater boost at low speeds, making it a popular
choice for commercial airplanes. Typical bypass ratio is about 5:1. Turbo fan
engines are more efficient than the turbo jet engines and most widely used in
aircraft propulsion
Turbofan takeaway:

 Pros:
 Fuel efficient
 Quieter than turbojets
 They look awesome
Cons:
 Heavier than turbojets
 Larger frontal area than turbojets
 Inefficient at very high altitudes

Turboprop Engine
Propellers are more efficient than jet engines, but they are limited to low altitude
and low speed operation. For such uses the propellers are larger and most of the
turbine is used to drive the large propeller along with the compressor. C-130
Hercules is a turboprop aircraft. Turboprop engines are driven almost entirely by a
propeller mounted in front of the engine, deriving only 10 percent of their thrust
from the exhaust jet. Typical bypass ratio is about 100:1.
Turboprop takeaway:

 Pros:
 Very fuel efficient
 Most efficient at mid-range speed between 250-400 knots
 Most efficient at mid-range altitudes of 18,000-30,000 feet
Cons:
 Limited forward airspeed
 Gearing systems are heavy and can break down