ME-263

Fundamentals of
Mechanical Engineering
 Course Details
 Contact Hour: 3.00, Credit Hour: 3.00
 Total weeks: 14, 42 Classes
 Marks Distribution:
Attendance = 15 marks (5%)
Observation = 15 (5%)
Class Test = 60 (20%)
Final Exam = 210 (70%)
Total marks = 300 (100%)
 Course Contents
 Part 1 (21 classes):
 Fuels
 Introduction to IC engines:
SI Engine & CI Engine
 Thermodynamics
 Refrigeration system &
applications
 Study of psychometry
 Air Conditioning systems &
applications
 Part 2 (21 classes):
 Fluid machinery
 Steam Generating Units with
Accessories and
Mountings(Boiler)
 Impulses & Reaction turbines
 Centrifugal and axial flow
machines
 Pump, Fan , Compressor,
Blower
 Fuels
 Fuel is any material that stores Energy that can later
be extracted to perform mechanical work in a
controlled manner.
 Most Fuels produce Energy by various other
exothermic chemical reactions and nuclear reactions.
 Most common household fuels contain the element
Carbon.
 Fuels that contain carbon and hydrogen only are called
Hydrocarbons. Few traces of sulphur are also present
in it.
 Types of Fuel
 There are mainly two types of fuel,
1. Chemical Fuel.

2. Nuclear Fuel.

Chemical Fuel: Chemical fuels are substances that release

energy by reacting with substances around them, most
notably by the process of oxidation or burning.
A good fuel releases it’s energy over a longer period of
time.
Another word for burning is Combustion ie. we
combine the element with Oxygen gas.
 Chemical Fuel
Chemical Fuels can be of two types,
1. Biofuels: Biofuel can be broadly defined as solid,
liquid, or gas fuel consisting of, or derived from
biomass. Biomass can also be used directly for
heating or power— known as biomass fuel. Biofuel
can be produced from any carbon source that can
be replenished rapidly e.g. plants. Many different
plants and plant-derived materials are used for
biofuel manufacture.
Example: Bio alcohol, biodiesel, wood etc.
 Chemical fuel
2. Fossil Fuels: Fossil Fuels are formed from Living things
millions of years ago. They are Hydrocarbons and are
Finite Fuels ie. They will run out in the future and cannot
be regenerated. There are three main Fossil Fuels:
Coal, Oil and Gas

Oil: This was Coal: This was Gas was formed in

formed by dead sea formed by the decay much the same
creatures falling to of Vegetation which way as Oil. It is
the sea-bed where was subjected to heat often collected
they were subjected and pressure over a when drilling for
to chemical change very long period of Oil.
by Bacteria. time.
 Classification of Fuel
 Fuels may be classified into the following general
terms:
1. Solid Fuel
2. Liquid Fuels
3. Gaseous Fuel
Each of these fuels may be subdivided into the
following categories-
1. Natural Fuels
2. Prepared Fuels
 Solid Fuel(Natural)
 Wood: At one time it was an extensively used fuel. It
consists of mainly carbon and hydrogen. The average
calorific value of wood is 19700 kJ/kg.
 Peat: It is a spongy humid substance and contains about
30% water. It has to be dried before use. It is the first stage
in the formation of coal. The average calorific value of peat
is 23000 kJ/kg.
 Lignite or brown coal: It is the next stage of peat in the
coal formation and an intermediate variety between
bituminous coal and peat. It contains nearly 40% moisture
and 60% of carbon. The average calorific value of lignite is
25000 kJ/kg.
 Solid Fuel
 Bituminous Coal: It represents the next stage of
lignite in the coal formation and contains very little
moisture(4-6%) and 75 to 90% of carbon. The
average calorific value of bituminous coal is 33500
kJ/kg.
 Anthracite Coal: It represents the final stage of
coal formation and contains 90% or more carbon.
The average calorific value of anthracite coal is
36000 kJ/kg.
Solid Fuel
 Solid Fuel(Prepared)
 Wood Charcoal: It is made by heating wood with a limited
supply of air to a temperature not less than 280˚C. It is a
good prepared solid fuel and used for various metallurgical
processes.
 Coke: It is produced when coal is strongly heated
continuously for 42 to 48 hours in the absence of air in
closed vessel. This process is known as carbonisation of
coal. It is black color, porous and smokeless and has a high
carbon content (85 to 90%) and higher calorific value than
coal.
 Pulverized Coal: The low grade coal with high ash content
is powdered to produce pulverised coal.
 Liquid Fuels

 The following liquid fuels are important from the subjects

point of view.
1. Petrol or gasoline: It is the lightest and most volatile liquid
fuel, mainly used for light petrol engines. It is distilled at a
temperature from 65˚-220˚C.
2. Kerosene or Paraffin oil: It is the heavier and less volatile
fuel than the petrol, and is used as heating and lighting fuel. It
is distilled from 220˚-345˚C.
3. Heavy Fuel oil: The liquid fuels distilled after petrol and
kerosene are known as heavy fuel oil. These oils are used in
diesel engines and oil fired boilers. They are distilled at a
temperature from 345˚-470˚C.
 Merits and Demerits of Liquid Fuel over
Solid Fuel
Merits Demerits
1. Higher Calorific value. 1. Higher cost
2. Lower storage capacity
required. 2. Greater risk of fire.
3. Better economy in handling. 3. Costly containers are
4. Better control of
consumption by using required for storage
valves. and transport.
5. Practically no ashes.
6. Non-deterioration in storage.
7. Non-corrosion of boiler
plants.
8. Higher efficiency.
 Gaseous Fuel
 The natural gas is, usually found in or near the petroleum
fields, under the earth’s surface. It essentially consists of
methane(CH4) together with small amounts of other
gases such as ethane(C2H6), carbon dioxide(CO2).
 The following gaseous fuels are important from subject
point of view.
1. Coal gas: It is obtained by carbonization of coal and
consists mainly of H2,CO and various hydrocarbons.
2. Producer Gas: It is obtained by the partial combustion
of coal, coke, anthracite coal or charcoal in a mixed
air-steam blast.
 Gaseous Fuel
 Water gas: It is a mixture of H2 and CO and is made
by passing steam over incandescent coke.
 Mond Gas: It is produced by passing air and a large
amount of steam over waste coal at about 650C.
 Blast Furnace Gas: It is a by-product in the
production of pig iron in the blast furnace.
 Coke oven gas: It is by-product from coke oven and
is obtained by the carbonization of bituminous coal.
Merits and Demerits of Gaseous Fuel:
 Merits:
1. The supply of fuel gas is controllable, hence the
temperature of furnace is easily and accurately
controlled.
2. The high temperature is obtained at a moderate cost by
pre-heating gas and air with heat of waste gases of
combustion.
3. They are directly used in internal combustion engine.
4. They do not produce ash or smoke.
5. They undergo complete combustion with minimum air
supply.
Merits and Demerits of Gaseous Fuel

 Demerits:
1. They are readily inflammable.
2. They require large storage capacity.
 Natural Gas

WHAT IS IT?
 Principally methane, CH , with some ethane (C H )
4 2 6
and propane (C3H8), and impurities such as CO2,
H2S, and N2.

CALORIFIC VALUE
 Approximately 1,000 Btu/cu.ft (22,500 Btu/lb)
Natural Gas: Types

 WET- contains HCS other than Methane and

ethane.
 SOUR- contains H2S, which is highly
undesirable due to corrosion, and SO2
formation upon combustion.
Merits and Demerits of Gaseous Fuel

 Demerits:
1. They are readily inflammable.
2. They require large storage capacity.
 Requirements of Good Fuel
1. A good fuel should have low ignition point.
2. It should have a high calorific value.
3. It should freely burn with a high efficiency, once
it is ignited.
4. It should not produce harmful gases.
5. It should produce least quality of smoke and
gases.
6. It should be economical, easy to store and
convenient for transportation.
Calorific value of Fuels
 Gross or Higher Calorific Value
 The amount of heat obtained by the complete combustion of
1kg of a fuel, when the products of its combustion are cooled
down to the temperature of the supplied air, is called gross or
higher calorific value of fuel.
Fuel+O2=CO2+H2O+SO2+heat+flue gas
H2O+heat= Steam
 Dulong’s formula:
HCV=33800 C+144000 H2+9270 S kJ/kg ….(1)
 If the fuel contains oxygen (02), then the formula becomes as
follows:
HCV=33800 C+144000 (H2 – O2/8) + 9270 S
kJ/kg…..(2)
 Net or Lower Calorific Value

When the heat absorbed or carried away by the product of

combustion is not recovered, and the steam formed during
combustion is not condensed, then the amount of heat
obtained per kg of fuel is known as Net or Lower Calorific
Value.
L.C.V.= H.C.V. - heat of steam formed during
combustion.
Let, ms = Mass of steam formed in kg per kg of fuel = 9 H2
L.C.V. = H.C.V. - ms x 2466 KJ/Kg
= H.C.V. - 9H2 x 2466 KJ/Kg
 Problem 1

A sample of coal has the following composition by

mass:
Carbon 75%, hydrogen 6%, oxygen 8%, nitrogen 2.5%,
Sulphur 1.5% and ash 7%.
Calculate its H.C.V and L.C.V per kg of coal.
Experimental Determination of H.C.V

There are two experimental procedures that are

important from the subject point of view for
determining the H.C.V of fuel.

1.Bomb Calorimeter
2.Boy’s Gas Calorimeter
Bomb Calorimeter
Bomb Calorimeter
Let, mf =mass of fuel sample burnt in the bomb in kg
mw = mass of water filled in the calorimeter in kg
me = Water equivalent of the apparatus in kg
t1 = Initial temperature of water and apparatus in °C
t2 = Final temperature of water and apparatus in °C
H.C.V= Higher Calorific value
We know that heat liberated by fuel= mf X H.C.V……..(i)
And heat absorbed by water and apparatus
=(mw+ me) cw (t2- t1)………….(ii)
Bomb Calorimeter
Problem 2

Calculate the H.C.V of a coal specimen from the

following data:
Mass of coal burnt = 1g
Quantity of water in calorimeter = 2.5 kg
Increase in temperature of water = 2.6°C
Water equivalent of apparatus = 390 g
If the fuel contains 6% hydrogen, calculate its H.C.V
and L.C.V.