Literature review on Coal and Gaseous Fuels

Table of Contents
1. Properties and Handlings of Coal and Gaseous Fuels........................................................................1
1.1. Introduction to Fuels...................................................................................................................1
1.2. Coal..............................................................................................................................................1
1.2.1. Formation of Coal................................................................................................................1
1.2.2. Coal Classification................................................................................................................2
1.2.3. Properties of Coal................................................................................................................2
1.3. Gaseous Fuels..............................................................................................................................6
1.3.1. Classification of Gaseous Fuels............................................................................................6
1.3.2. Properties of Gaseous fuels.................................................................................................7
Reference..................................................................................................................................................10

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List of Table

Table 1 Calorific value of Coal....................................................................................................................3

Table 2 Approximate values of some coal properties in different rank ranges............................................5
Table 3. Calorific value of Gaseous fuels....................................................................................................7
Table 4 viscosity and density value~ for natural. Gas.................................................................................8

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1. Properties and Handlings of Coal and Gaseous Fuels

1.1. Introduction to Fuels

A fuel is a substance which when once raised to its ignition temperature continues to burn if
sufficient oxygen or air is available. It is a substance which, when burnt on coming in contact
and reacting with oxygen or air, produces heat. Thus, the substances classified as fuel must
necessarily contain one or several of the combustible elements: - carbon, hydrogen, Sulphur, etc.
In the process of combustion, the chemical energy of fuel is converted into heat energy. The
working substance of the energy conversion device or prime-mover (which converts the natural
resources of energy into power or electricity) is called fuel. The most common fuel is fossil fuels
such as Coal, petrol, diesel or natural gas in the case of steam power plants, I.C. Engines, gas
turbines, and hydro-electric power plants. Fuels can be classified into two thus are primary fuels
and secondary fuels.
i. Primary Fuels: - Primary fuels are fuels that are found in nature and can be extracted
without any sort of energy conversion or transformation process. Examples of primary
fuel includes: - coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
ii. Secondary Fuels: - Secondary fuels are derived from primary fuels through some sort of
distillation process. Examples of Secondary fuel includes: - coke, gasoline, coal gas.

1.2. Coal
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock composed mostly of carbon and
hydrocarbons. It is composed of complex mixtures of organic and inorganic compounds. Coal is
a non-renewable energy source because it takes millions of years to create.

1.2.1. Formation of Coal

Coal originated from vegetable matter which grew millions of years ago. Trees and plants falling
in to water decayed and later produce peat bogs. The energy in coal comes from the energy
stored by plants that lived hundreds of millions of years ago, when the earth was partly covered
with swampy forests. For millions of years, a layer of dead plants at the bottom of the swamps
was covered by layers of water and dirt, trapping the energy of the dead plants. The heat and
pressure from the top layers helped the plant remains turn into what we today call coal.

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1.2.2. Coal Classification

Coal classification can be depending on the amounts and types of carbon it contains and on the
amount of heat energy it can produce. It is classified into three major type or ranks lignite,
bituminous, and anthracite.
1. Lignite Coal: - is the lowest rank of coal with the lowest energy content. Lignite coal
deposits tend to be relatively young coal deposits that were not subjected to extreme heat
or pressure. Lignite is crumbly and has high moisture content. Lignite is mainly burned at
power plants to generate electricity. Lignite coal has the following characteristics:-
 Lignite is an intermediate stage in the process of coal
 Its calorific value is about 5000 kcal/kg
 Due to the presence of high volatile content, it burns with long smoky flame.
2. Bituminous Coal: - contains 45-86 percent carbon, and has two to three times the
heating value of lignite. Bituminous coal was formed under high heat and pressure.
Bituminous coal is used to generate electricity and is an important fuel and raw material
for the steel and iron industries. Bituminous coal is further sub-classified on the basis of
its carbon content into three types as:
i. Sub- bituminous coal,
ii. Bituminous coal and
iii. Semi-bituminous coal.
3. Anthracite Coal: - contains 86-97 percent carbon, and has a heating value slightly higher
than bituminous coal. Anthracite coal has the following characteristics:-
 Anthracite is the superior grade of coal.
 Its volatile, moisture and ash contents are very less.
 Its calorific value is about 8500 kcal/kg

1.2.3. Properties of Coal

The properties of coal fuels are
a. Calorific value

The calorific value of a fuel is amount of heat liberated by its complete combustion. Calorific
value of coal is defined as the quantity of heat given out by burning one unit weight of coal in a
calorimeter. Calorific value is a measure of the amount of heat released after combustion of the

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fuel. The heat transferred when the products of complete combustion of a sample of fuel are
cooled to the initial temperature of air and fuel. It is normally determined in a standard test in a
bomb calorimeter, where a coal sample of known mass is burnt with pure oxygen supply
completely in a stainless steel bomb or vessel surrounded by a known mass of water and the rise
in water temperature is noted. The calorific value of coal varies considerably depending on the
ash, moisture content and the type of coal.
There are two different types of heating values are.
1. Higher heating value (HHV):- assumes that the water vapor in the products
condenses and thus includes the latent heat of vaporization of the water vapor
formed by combustion.
2. Lower heating value (LHV):- assumes that the water vapor formed by combustion
leaves the vapor itself.
LHV= HHV – MWhfg

Table 1 Calorific value of Coal.

S. No. Solid fuels (Coal) Calorific Value Composition

1 Lignite 5,000 kcal/kg C = 67%, H = 5%, O = 20%, ash = 8%
2 Bituminous 7,600 kcal/kg C = 83%, H = 5.5%, O = 5%, ash = 6.5%
3 Anthracite 8,500 kcal/kg C = 90%, H = 3%, O = 20%, ash = 5%

b. Sulphur content

Sulphur content in a coal is combustible and generates some energy by its oxidation to SO2 and
it is a major source of atmospheric pollution. Typical range is 0.5 to 0.8% normally.
Sulphur contents on coal
 Affects clinkering and slagging tendencies.
 Corrodes chimney and other equipment such as air heaters and economizers.
 Limits exit flue gas temperature.
c. Ash content

Ash is the non-combustible or not burn residue formed from the inorganic or mineral
components of the coal. Typical range is 5 to 40%
Disadvantages ash content in coal.

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 Reduces handling and burning capacity.

 Increases handling costs.
 Affects combustion efficiency and boiler efficiency
 Causes clinkering and slagging.
d. Water (Moisture) content

All coals contain moisture. Total moisture of a coal is comprised of surface moisture and
inherent moisture. Inherent moisture is a quality of the coal seam in its natural state of deposition
and includes only that water considered to be part of the deposit, and not that moisture which
exists as a surface addition. Surface moisture is the water from external sources, such as weather
or coal washing processes. Typical range is 0.5 to 10%
Moisture existence in coal:-
• Increases heat loss, due to evaporation and superheating of vapor
• Helps, to a limit, in binding fines.
• Aids radiation heat transfer.
e. Flash point

The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated and so flashes
momentarily when an open flame is passed over it. Flash temperature of coal and other dust is
not affected by particle size. A big difference is made by the way coal dust comes in contact with
a heat source. Thus, layered powder of coal can ignite at a much lower temperature (160°C
approx.), whereas a cloud of coal dust will need 450–650°C to ignite.

f. Storage of Coal fuel

An error in the availability and transportation of fuel necessitates storage and subsequent
handling. Stocking of coal has its own disadvantages like build-up of inventory, space
constraints, deterioration in quality and potential fire hazards. Other minor losses associated with
the storage of coal include oxidation, wind and carpet loss. A 1% oxidation of coal has the same
effect as 1% ash in coal, wind losses may account for nearly 0.5 – 1.0% of the total loss.
Material handling for coal transportation
Coal can be transported from mines and processing plants to consumers in several different
ways:

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 Conveyors, trams, and trucks move coal around mines, short distances from mines to
consumers close to the mines, or when material is to be moved frequently between
specific points.
 Trains transport of coal deliveries from mines to consumers.
 Barges transport coal on rivers and lakes.
 Ships transport coal on the Great Lakes and the oceans to consumers.
 Slurry pipelines move mixtures of crushed coal and water.
Table 2 Approximate values of some coal properties in different rank ranges

The various advantages and disadvantages of solid fuels are given below:-

Advantages

 They are easy to transport.

 They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion.
 Their cost of production is low.
 They possess moderate ignition temperature.

Disadvantages

 Their ash content is high.

 Their large proportion of heat is wasted.
 They burn with clinker formation.

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 Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily.

 Their cost of handling is high.

1.3. Gaseous Fuels

Gaseous fuel is a material used for combustion which is in the gaseous state at the standard
atmospheric temperature and pressure.

1.3.1. Classification of Gaseous Fuels

Gaseous fuels are classified into four types:
1. Natural gas,
2. Producer gas,
3. Water gas and
4. Coal gas.
1. Natural Gas: - It consists of methane (CH4) together with hydrogen, other hydrocarbons
and some impurities. Natural gas is generally associated with petroleum deposits and is
obtained from wells dug in the oil-bearing regions. It is the cheapest and most efficient of
all fuels, when properly burned; but it requires a large amount of air for its combustion,
and special burners must be used. It is used for domestic and industrial heating.
2. Producer gas: - Producer gas is made by forcing air through a bed of incandescent coal
or coke, in specially constructed furnaces. Its essential heat constituent is carbon
monoxide (CO), of which it contains about 28 to 30 per cent. But it also contains about
63 per cent of nitrogen from the air, and some carbon dioxide, which dilutes the gas very
much, and reduces its calorific intensity greatly. It is extensively used for fuel, because of
its cheapness, cleanliness, and the regularity of the temperature obtained.
3. Water gas: - When steam is blown through incandescent bed of fuel containing carbon, blue
water gas results. This gas is a composite mixture of CO, CO and H. It contains no unsaturated
hydrocarbon and burns with a blue flame. Itis used for heating. In order to make blue water gas fit
for use as a domestic lighting gas, unsaturated hydrocarbons are added and the gas is known as
carbureted water gas.
4. Coal gas: - Coal gas is obtained when it is carbonized or heated in absence of air at about
1300oC in either coke ovens or gas-making retorts. In gas making retort process coal is
fed in closed silica retorts, which are then heated to about 1300oC by burning producer

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gas and air mixture. Coal gas is a colorless gas having a characteristic odor. It is lighter
than air and burns with a long smoky flame.
1
C+ O 2 →CO +29.5 kcal
2

1.3.2. Properties of Gaseous fuels

1. Calorific value

The calorific value or heating value refers the amount of energy released when a known volume
of gas is completely combusted under specified condition and is dependent upon the composition
of the gas.it may be expressed with the quantities, KJ/mol, kcal/kg or KJ/kg.

Table 3. Calorific value of Gaseous fuels

S.No. Gaseous Fuels Calorific value Composition

1. Natural gas 520 kcal/m3 CH4 =84%, C2H6 =10%, other hydrocarbon = 5%
2. Coal gas 7,600 kcal/m3 CH4 =35%, H = 45%, CO =8%, N = 6%, CO2 =
2%, Other Hydrocarbons = 4%
3
3. Producer gas 1,300 kcal/m CO = 22.3%, H2 = 8.12%; N2 = 52.55%; CO2 =
3%
4. Water gas 2,800 kcal/m3 H2 = 51%; CO = 41%; N2 = 4%; CO2 = 4%

2. Sulphur content

The combustion of gaseous fuel small amounts of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and no ash
content. In the Union Gas system, the typical Sulphur content is 5.5 mg/m 3. This includes the 4.9
mg/m3 of Sulphur in the odorant (mercaptan) added to gas for safety reasons.

3. Moisture content

The water vapor content of natural gas in the Union Gas system is less than 80 mg/m 3, and is typically 16
to 32 mg/m3.

4. Flash point

A much higher temperature is needed to ignite gas dependably. The temperature necessary is slightly
higher for natural gas than for manufactured gases, but for safety with manufactured gaseous fuel, a
temperature of about 649oC is needed, and for natural gas, a temperature of about 760 oC is needed.

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5. Viscosity

Experimental viscosity and density data of four natural gases are presented for temperatures from
100 to 340F and pressures from 100 to 8,000 psia. A correlation is also discussed and results
reported.

Table 4 viscosity and density value~ for natural. Gas

Storage materials and Transportation of Gaseous fuel

Natural gas is usually stored underground, in large storage reservoirs. There are three main types of
underground storage: depleted gas reservoirs, aquifers, and salt caverns. In addition to underground
storage, however, natural gas can be stored as liquefied natural gas (LNG). LNG allows natural gas to be
shipped and stored in liquid form, meaning it takes up much less space than gaseous state. Gaseous fuel is
moved through pipelines as a result of a series of compressors creating pressure difference the gas flows
from an area of high pressure to an area of relatively lower pressure. Compressors are powered by electric
or natural gas fired engines that compress or squeeze incoming gas and push it out at a higher pressure.
Gaseous fuel is compressed in transmission pipelines to pressures typically ranging from 500 to 1400
pounds of pressure per square inch.

The advantages and disadvantages of gaseous fuels are given below:-

Advantages Gaseous fuels due to erase and flexibility of their applications, possess the following
advantages over solid or liquid fuels:-

a. They can be conveyed easily through pipelines to the actual place of need, thereby
eliminating manual labor in transportation.
b. They can be lighted at ease.
c. They have high heat contents and hence help us in having higher temperatures.

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d. They can be pre-heated by the heat of hot waste gases, thereby affecting economy in heat.
e. Their combustion can readily by controlled for change in demand like oxidizing or
reducing atmosphere, length flame, temperature, etc.
f. They are clean in use.
g. They do not require any special burner.
h. They burn without any shoot, or smoke and ashes.
i. They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.

Disadvantages

a. Very large storage tanks are needed.

b. They are highly inflammable, so a chance of fire hazards in their use is high.

Reference
1. The coal handbook: Towards cleaner production Volume 2: Coal utilisation(ISBN 978-1-
78242-116-0)
2. Mulcahy, D.E., 1999, Materials Handling Handbook, New York: McGraw-Hill.

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3. https://www.mechanicaltutorial.com/power-plant-objective-type-questions-and-answers-
08
4. https://www.engineeringenotes.com/thermal-engineering/classification-of-
fuels/classification-of-fuels-solid-liquid-and-gaseous-fuels-thermal-engineering/51406
5. https://personal.ems.psu.edu/~radovic/Chapter7.pdf
6. The viscosity of natural gases anthony l. Lee mario h. Gonzalez junior members aime
bertram e. Eakin

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