Fuels and Combustion

Module 4
Gaseous Fuels

Dr. Dharmendra Kumar Bal

School of Chemical Engineering
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
 Gaseous Fuels
• Gaseous fuels are those which are burnt in gaseous state in air or oxygen to give heat for utilization in
domestic/commercial sector.
• Some important gaseous fuels are:
• Methane from coal mines
• Wood gas
• Gobar gas
• Sewage gas
• Gas from underground gasification of coal
• Natural gas
• LPG
• Refinery gas
• Producer gas
• Water gas
• Blast furnace gas
• LD converter (BOF) gas (Linz-Donawitz)
• Coal gas from coal gasification processes
• Coke oven gas
• Oil gas from oil gasification processes
 Gaseous Fuels
And two more important gaseous fuels namely

 Hydrogen gas.

 Acetylene gas.

These finds wide use in metal cutting, welding etc.

Rich gas (C.V> 4000 kcal/m3)

Ex. Hydrocarbon gas, coal gas

Lean gas (C.V< 1500 kcal/m3)

Ex. blast furnace gas, producer gas

 Classification of Gaseous Fuels
• Based on the mode of occurrence and the method of production, gaseous fuel is
classified as follows.
• Fuel gas from nature
Example: Natural gas, Methane from coal mines
• Fuel gas from solid fuels
Example: producer gas, water gas, coal gas, blast furnace gas
• Fuel gas from petroleum
Example: Refinery gases, LPG
• Fuel gas made by fermentation of organic wastes.
Gaseous Fuels
Thermal output of a gaseous
fuel depends upon the “Wobbe
Index”. It is defined as
C.V/(sp.gr)1/2
Wobbe index relates heating
characteristics of fuel gasses.
It does not relate to flame
temperatures, heat transfer
coefficients or temperature
gradients.
Upper and lower Wobbe index
corresponds to upper heating
value (GCV) and lower heating
value (NCV) respectively.
 Gaseous Fuels
The rapidity of combustion of gaseous fuel depends upon its flame speed.
Flame speed or weaver flame speed factor is expressed on a arbitrary scale in which
hydrogen is assumed to have a factor of 100 arbitrarily.
Three groups of gases based on flame speed are
High flame speed gases:
C.V=4000-5000 kcal/m3
Weaver flame speed factor 32-45
Low flame speed gases:
C.V=7500-10000 kcal/m3
Weaver flame speed factor 13-25
Intermediate flame speed gases:
C.V=5000-7500 kcal/m3
Weaver flame speed factor 25-32
 Methane from Coal Mines
Methane is associated with coal in mines as it adsorbs the methane formed
during coalification process.

Composition of methane gas:

CH4 = 93-99%

C2H6 = 0.3%

CO2 = 0-4%

N2 =2-6%
 Wood Gas
It is obtained either by carbonization of wood in metal retorts or by gasification of wood.
Wood gas is also produced by gasification of logs, chips etc.
Typical wood gas composition and properties :
N2 = 47%
CO = 29%
H2 = 14.5%
CO2 = 6%
CH4 = 2.5 %
CmHn = 0.7%
O2 = 0.3%
C.V =1660 kcal/m3, Sp. Gravity = 0.85
 Wood Gas

About 50% of the wood gas is consumed in gas producer while the rest

50% is used in thermal power plant.

India does not have commercial generation facility for wood gas.
 Gobar Gas
It is obtained by fermentation of gobar (dung) in absence of air.

The gas consists mainly CH4 and CO2

After extraction of gobar gas the residue becomes rich in nutrients

and odourless, used as fertilizer.

Gobar gas burns with blue flame without smell.

 Composition and properties of Gobar Gas
Methane = 60%
CO2 = 30%
H2 = 9.5%
N2 = 0.5%
H2S, O2 trace
Ignition temperature = 650oC
Octane rating = 110
C.V = 5400 kcal/m3
Yield = 0.036 m3/kg dung (winter)
= 0.09 m3/kg dung (summer)
 Gobar Gas Production
 Digester is a masonry wall below the ground 3-6 m
height (deep), 1-6 m diameter.
 Two slanting cement pipes for feeding and outlet .
 Cattle dung mixed with water in 4:5 proportion.
 The temperature in digester is maintained at 30-40oC.
In initial stage pH is 6 (acid forming stage) and CO2 is
produced.
 The pH value increases to 8 in 2-3 weeks time.
 Volatile acids and nitrogen compounds are digested
and methane is formed.
 Gas holder is mild steel drum kept on the mouth of
well. It is connected with central guide pipe, gives up
and down movement to drum.
 This gas can be used for kitchen/gas lamp within a
distance of 30 m.
 Utilization of Gobar Gas Plant Products
Two products of gobar gas plant are fuel gas and manure.
 Fuel gas: presence of substantial quantity of methane (55-60%) makes it a
very suitable fuel gas. Even diesel engine can run on gobar gas.
 Manure: The outlet slurry from the plant which is rich in nitrogen and humus
can be applied directly to the land by mixing with irrigation water. The
residual slurry, used as a manure contains
N2 = 1.8-2.4%
P2O5 = 1-1.2%
K2O = 0.6-0.8%
Gobar gas being more efficient, it enables recovery of 20% more heat than by
burning an equivalent amount of dung directly.
 Sewage gas
It is produced during sewage disposal by way of anaerobic decomposition of organic wastes
(by suitable bacteria)
It is methane rich gas which can be used as a town gas component if available in commercial
quantity.
Composition and properties of sewage gas:
CH4 = 58.5-76.5%
CO2 = 30-41%
N2 = 3-8%
H2 = 0-4.5%
O2 = 0-1.8%
H2S = 0.1%
C.V = 5700-7400 kcal/m3 , Sp. Gravity = 0.7-0.85
Higher H2S in sewage gas makes its use difficult in gas engines or boilers without
purification.
Coal Gas from Underground Gasification of Coal
 Coal in the underground mines can be gasified in situ even without mining it out of the
crust of the earth. This is termed as underground gasification of coal
 The gas thus produced is called coal gas from underground gasification of coal.
Composition and properties of Coal gas from underground gasification of coal:
CO = 10.7%
H2 = 8.4%
CH4 = 1.8%
N2 = 67.4%
CO2 = 10.5%
CmHn = 0.3%
O2 = 0.9%
C.V = 820 kcal/m3, Sp. Gravity = 0.95
Principle of Underground Coal Gasification
 Principle of Underground Coal Gasification
• Bituminous, sub-bituminous and mature brown coal deposits are suitable for
underground gasification using air and oxygen as gasifying medium.
• Deep vertical channels (boreholes) are made side by side in the ground
(where coal deposits are there) both for supplying the gasifying medium
(air/oxygen) and for taking out product gas.
• Link is made under ground between inlet of gasifying medium and outlet for
product gas.
• Air is passed through one borehole and the product gas is taken out from the
other.
Uses:
The gas produced is used as a fuel and also in the manufacture of synthesis gas
for ammonia, methanol and liquid fuels.
 Coal Gas (Town Gas or Illumination Gas)
• It is obtained when coal is heated in the absence of air at 1300oC in coke
ovens.
• In this process coal is fed in closed silica coke ovens, which are heated to
about 1300oC by burning producer gas and air mixture.
Coal  Coke + Coal gas
• The coal gas coming out from the coke ovens is first scrubbed by passing
through a hydraulic main.
• Any remaining tar and ammonia present in the gas are removed by scrubbing
with water in the scrubber.
• The cooled gas then scrubbed with creosote oil, which dissolves benzol,
napthalene.
 Coal Gas (Town Gas or Illumination Gas)
• The gas is freed from H2S by passing it over moist ferric oxide, contained in a purifier.
2Fe2O3+ 3H2S Fe2S3 (S) +3H2O
• When the iron oxide of the purifier is exhausted it is taken out from the purifier and
exposed to air, it oxidised to ferric oxide.
2 Fe2S3 + 3O2 2Fe2O3+ 6H2S
• The purified coal gas is finally stored over water in gas holder.
 Composition and Properties of Coal Gas
CH4 = 32%
CO = 7%
H2 = 4%
N2 = 4%
C2H4 = 3%
C2H2 = 2%
CO2 = 1%
CmHn = 4%
C.V = 4900 kcal/m3
Uses:
Used as a fuel.
Used in metallurgical operations for proving reducing environment.
Domestic and commercial illumination.
 Oil Gas
Composition and properties of oil gas:
H2 = 50-55%
CH4 = 25-30%
CO = 10-12%
CO2 = 3%
C.V = 4500-5400 kcal/m3
Uses : laboratory gas

It is obtained by cracking of kerosene oil

C12H26 CH4+C2H2+C2H4+C2H6+C3H8+C
 Oil Gas

Retort is heated to red hot and kerosene oil is allowed to fall drop wise on the bottom of red hot retort.
The kerosene oil decompose into lower hydrocarbon gases like methane, ethane, ethylene etc.
The gaseous mixture emerging out of the retort pass through scrubbing hydraulic main.
The oil gas is stored over water in gas holder.
The yield of gas is about 40-45%.
 Refinery Gas
It is obtained from petroleum refining industry during operation like distillation and cracking
Composition and properties of refinery gas:
Propane + Propene = 40-55%
Butane + Butene = 30%
Ethane + Ethylene = 8-12%
Methane = 8-10%
Hydrogen = 6-8%
Hydrogen sulphide = 1.35%
C.V = 20,500 kcal/m3
Sp. Gravity = 1.35
Application :
Refinery gas are best utilized in the production of, Chemicals, Fertilizers, Plastics
 Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
LPG is a mixture of Butane (80%) and propane (20%).

Two grades of LPG:

One whose chief component is propane and other whose chief component is butane. LPG containing majorly butane 80%
is safer to handle with storage pressure up to 3 atm, can be used for domestic purpose.
Lighter grade LPG contains
90% Propane; 8% Butane; 2% Ethane
The heavier grade LPG
8-90% Butane; 2-8% Propane; 2% Ethane
It is generally used in industrial heating.
Type GCV Sp.gr Theoretical air requirement

Butane dominated 30,700 2 30.9

Propane dominated 24,000 1.5 24
 Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
LPG also used as fuel for internal combustion engines.

LPG is a odourless gas. Some odorants like mercaptan is added with the LPG cylinder for using domestically as cooking gas
for detecting easily the smell in the case of leakage through the cylinder connection

Almost half of the LPG production in India is done by using natural gas and rest from petroleum refineries.

LPG is highly volatile liquid, which expands 247 times its volume as vapour.

1 Lit of LPG liquid = 247 lit of vapour

Advantages of LPG over the gaseous fuels:

• High efficiency and heating rate. C.V is roughly 3 times that of natural gas and 7 times that of other gases (like coal gas)

• Need little care for maintenance purpose.

• Cleanliness in storage, handling and use

• Comparatively less of health hazards

 Producer Gas
 Producer gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide
and nitrogen and associated with H2 and CO2. It
is prepared by passing air mixed with little
steam.
 Air and steam are passed through red hot coal
or coke bed maintained about 1100oC in a
special reactor called gas producer.
 It consists of steel producer with 3 m diameter
and 4 m height. The vessel lined with refractory
bricks.
 It provided cup and cone feeder at the top and
provided with side opening for producer gas
outlet.
 Producer Gas
 The producer gas production reaction can be
divided into four zones:
 Ash zone: Lowest zone, consisting mainly ash.
The temperature of supplied air and steam
increased as they pass through this zone.
 Combustion zone: next to ash zone, it is known
as oxidation zone. Here the carbon burned and
form CO and CO2. The temperature of this zone
is 1100oC
 C+ O2 CO2+ 97 kcal
 C+ ½ O2 CO + 29.8 kcal
 Producer Gas
 Reduction zone: Here CO2 and steam combined with hot coke and liberates free hydrogen
and CO.
 CO2+ C 2CO
 C + H2O CO+ H2 -29 kcal
 C+ 2H2O CO2+2H2 -19 kcal
 CO+ H2O CO2 + H2
 All these reactions are endothermic reactions. So, the temperature of the reduction
zone is about 1000oC. If no steam is supplied the temperature of the bed is increases.
 Drying zone: In this zone (400oC-800oC) the down coming coal is heated by the out going
gases. Since as the gases gives the sensible heat to the coal.
 Gaseous Fuels
Calculate the Wobbe index of natural gas comprising of 89% CH4, 8% C2H6, 2%
C3H8, 1% C4H10 by volume. The calorific values (kcal/m3) of the constituents are
as given below.
CH4 = 9500, C2H6 = 16644 , C3H8 =23688 , C4H10 = 30714

Answer: Wobbe Index”. It is defined as WI= C.V/(sp.gr)1/2

Ans:
Wobbe Index = 13350 kcal/m3
Producer Gas
Factors affecting the composition of producer gas
Nature of fuel: high volatile bituminous coal gives a
richer gas, containing small proportion of methane.
Tar vapor also enriches the gas when it is used hot.
Coke gives a gas free tar vapor.
Operating temperature: low temperature favours
high production of CO2. High temperature favours
high production of CO.
Effect of steam: water in the coal feed or steam in
the air blast increases the proportion of H2 and CO in
the gas, thus raising its C.V.
If excess steam is added, the temperature of
gasification is reduced, more CO is formed and C.V of
the gas decreased.
If steam is not used, there are chances of clinker
formation.
Producer Gas
Impurities in raw producer gas and their effects

Steam: it lowers the flame temperature of the producer gas.

Tar: it must be removed by dust catchers, cyclones, electrostatic precipitators etc, otherwise
would foul and choke the gas mains.

Sulphur: it should be removed to prevent corrosion and atmospheric pollution.

Ammonia: more ammonia present in producer gas than in the coal gas, because thermal
cracking is prevented by the lower temperature and by steaming which causes endothermic
water gas reaction
 Various Efficiency Expression for Producer Gas
(i) Cold gas efficiency:
(Potential heat of gas/total heat of gasified fuel) x 100

(or) Gas yield x (C.V of gas/C.V of coal) x 100

Where, Gas yield = (carbon gasified/carbon in dry gas) x 100

(ii) Hot gas efficiency:

(total heat of gas/total heat of gasified fuel) x 100

(iii) Comprehensive efficiency:

[(heat of gas + heat in surplus steam)/(heat of fuel + total heat of makeup steam + thermal equivalent of energy
consumed)] x 100

(iv) Gasification efficiency:

(Carbon content of gas /carbon content of fuel) x 100

08-09-2020 Module 4: Gaseous Fuels 32

Water Gas Production
It is a mixture of CO and H2 with little amount of non
combustible gases CO2 and N2.

It is made by passing alternatively steam and little air

through the bed of red hot coke or coal maintained at
900-1000oC.

The supplied steam reacts with red hot coke or coal at

900-1000oC to form CO and H2. The reaction is
endothermic. So the temperature of bed falls.

C+H2O CO+H2 -29 kcal

Water Gas Production
In order to increase the coal bed temperature to 1000oC, the steam supply is temporarily
cut off and air is passed to the bed. The following exothermic reaction occurs.

C+ O2 CO2 + 92 kcal

2C + O2 2CO + 59 kcal

These reactions again raises the bed temperature about 1000oC.

• The cycles of steam and air supply passed alternatively to maintain the proper
temperature.
Water Gas Composition:
H2 = 48-51%
Uses: Used to produce
CO = 40-42%
hydrogen gas Used as a fuel
N2 = 3-6%
in furnaces
CO2 = 3-5%
CH4 = 0.1-0.5%
C.V = 2500-2800 kcal/m3
Natural Gas
Natural Gas Composition
Sweet and Foul Natural Gas :
Compressed and Liquified NaturalGas
• Compressed natural gas (CNG) is a fossil fuel
substitute for gasoline (petrol), diesel, or
propane/LPG. Although its combustion does produce
greenhouse gases, it is a more environmentally clean
alternative to those fuels, and it is much safer than
other fuels in the event of a spill (natural gas is lighter
than air, and disperses quickly when released).
• CNG may also be mixed with biogas, produced from
landfills or wastewater, which doesn't increase the
concentration of carbon in the atmosphere.
• CNG is made by compressing natural gas, to less than
1% of the volume it occupies at STP. It is stored and
distributed in hard containers at a pressure of 200–
248 bar (2900–3600 psi), usually in cylindrical or
spherical shapes.
Compressed and Liquified NaturalGas
• LNG is natural gas that has been super

cooled to minus 260 °F for easier storage

and shipping.

• LNG is a clear, odorless, colorless,

noncorrosive and non-toxic liquid.

• LNG takes up 1/600th of the space –

simplifying storage and transportation.

Features and Advantages of Gaseous Fuel
• Absence of mineral impurities
• Consistency in quality
• Convenience and efficiency in use.
Advantages:
• Least amount of handling
• Simplest burners systems
• Burner systems require least maintenance
• Environmental benefits: lowest GHG and other emissions
Classification of gaseous fuels
Fuels naturally found in nature
• Natural gas
•Methane from coal mines Fuel gases made from
solid fuel
• Gases derived from coal
• Gases derived from waste and biomass
•From other industrial processes Gases made from
petroleum
• Liquefied Petroleum gas (LPG)
• Refinery gases
•Gases from oil gasification Gases from some
fermentation
The Lurgi process
This is a single stage, fixed-bed
process gasifying a range of coarse
or granular fuels.
A Lurgi generator consists of three
main parts:
1. Charging box (top)
2. Shaft (middle)
3. ash receiver (bottom)
Lurgi Process
• The shaft is water-jacketted.
• Solid ash is removed by a rotating grate.
• A mixture of superheated steam, 450 to 500 °C and oxygen is used as gasifying medium.
C + 2H ↔ CH4 ; ΔH = - 20,840 kcal
• High pressure at 30 °C favours the methanation reaction.
• Further reaction to methane is promoted by a nickel catalyst at temperatures of about
250-350℃: CO + 3H2 → CH4+ H2O
• The sulfur present in the coal can be removed by the presence of limestone as follows:
H2 + S→ H2S
• H2S + CaCO3 → CaS +H2O +CO2
Winkler process
• It is of fluidized bed type.
• The generator is a brick-lined cylindrical shaft.
• Gasification medium – mixture of oxygen and steam.
• Bed temperature – 800 to 950 °C & space above bed attains a temp of
1000°C.
• At this temp tar and gaseous HC converts to CO and Hydrogen.
• Product gas composition CO – 44.4 % H2 – 36.0 % CH4 – 1.6 % CO2 – 15.7 %
N2 – 2.3 % Calorific value – 2,600 kcal/Nm3
• Sp. Gr. – 0.70 (air = 1)
• This process is suitable for a wide range of solid fuels having medium to high
reactivity. Example –Lignite, Low temp coke, Char from coal and lignite, High
volatile bituminous coal.
Winkler process

https://slideplayer.com/slide/1722457/
Gaseous Fuels
Problem 1: Calculate the Wobbe index of natural gas comprising of 89% CH4, 8%
C2H6, 2% C3H8, 1% C4H10 by volume. The calorific values (kcal/m3) of the
constituents are as given below.
CH4 = 9500, C2H6 = 16644 , C3H8 =23688 , C4H10 = 30714
Wobbe Index”. It is defined as WI= C.V/(sp.gr)1/2
Mathematical Problem
Problem 2: Calculate the CV and Wobble index of a fuel gas having the following composition, per cent by vol:
methane 86.0, ethane 10.0, propane 3.0 and butane 1.0. Substance CV (kcal/Nm3 ) Methane 9,500 Ethane
16,644 Propane 23,688 Butane 30,714
Ans:

Average Calorific Value (Gross) = (9500×0.86) + (16644×0.10) + (23688×0.03) + (30714×0.01) =

10852.18
kcal/Nm3

Average molecular weight of gas = (16×0.86) + (30×0.10) + (44×0.03) + (58×0.01) = 18.66

Average molecular weight of air = (32×0.21) + (28×0.79) = 29

Specific gravity of natural gas = 18.66/29 = 0.6434

Wobbe Index = C.V/(sp.gr)1/2 = 10852.18/ (0.6434)1/2 = 13529.335 kcal/ Nm3

Mathematical Problem
Problem 3:
The following results were obtained from a producer gas generation.

Gas Yield = 3500 Nm3/ton of coke

C.V of coke = 6000 kcal/kg

C.V of gas = 1200 kcal/Nm3

Calculate the cold gas efficiency of the producer gas generation.

Ans:

Gas Yield = (3500/1000) kcal/ Nm3 = 3.5 Nm3 /kg of coke

Cold gas efficiency = ((Gas yield × CV of gas)/ CV of coke) × 100 = ((3.5× 1200)/6000) ×100 = 70%
Mathematical Problem
Problem 4:
The following results were obtained from a producer gas generation.

Gas Yield = 5000 Nm3/ton of coke

C.V of coke = 7200 kcal/kg

C.V of gas = 1300 kcal/Nm3

Calculate the cold gas efficiency of the producer gas generation.

Ans:

Gas Yield = (5000/1000) kcal/ Nm3 = 5 Nm3 /kg of coke

Cold gas efficiency = ((Gas yield × CV of gas)/ CV of coke) × 100 = ((5× 1300)/7200) ×100 = 90.27%
Mathematical Problem
Problem 5
The product gas analysis as 8% CO2, 16.3% H2, 20.6% CO, 1% CH4 and 54.1 % N2. Calculate cold gas efficiency of the
producer in percentage. Data: C.V of gas 27195 kcal/kmol; C.V of coal 7489.4 kcal/kg. 5 kmol of carbon gets gasified from
coal.
Ans: For the calculation of gas yield, use 100 kg coal ‘as charged’ basis

Molecular Weight of product gas = (0.08 x 44)+ (0.163 x 2) + (0.206 x 28) + (0.01 x 16) + (0.541 x 28) = 24.922 g/mol =
24.922 kg/kmol

So CV of gas = (27195/24.922) = 1091.2046 kcal/kg = 27195 kcal/kmol

Carbon in gas = (8+ 20.6+ 1) = 29.6 kmol per 100 kmol dry gas

Yield of dry gas = (100/29.6) x 5 kmol = 16.89 kmol per 100 kg of coal = 0.1689 kmol/kg of coal

(i) Cold gas efficiency:

Gas yield x (C.V of gas/C.V of coal) x 100 = 0.1689 x (27195 /7489.4) x 100 = 61.3298 %

Where, Gas yield = (carbon gasified/carbon in dry gas) x 100;

Mathematical Problem