1.

Cold Air Standard Assumption - the specific heats of the air are held
constant at values found at 25 °C.

2. Air Standard Assumption -

3. Thermal Efficiency - the extent of the energy conversion from heat to

work. The thermal efficiency is the ratio of the net work of the cycle to the
heat added. (e=Wnet/Qa)
4. Otto Cycle - The air-standard Otto cycle is an ideal cycle that assumes
heat addition occurs instantaneously while the piston is at top dead center.
It consists of four internally reversible processes.
1-2. Isentropic compression
2-3. Constant volume heat addition
3-4. Isentropic expansion
4-1. Constant volume heat rejection
5. Diesel Cycle - The air-standard Diesel cycle is an ideal cycle that
assumes heat addition occurs during a constant-pressure process that
starts with the piston at top dead center.
1-2. Isentropic compression
2-3. Constant pressure heat addition
3-4. Isentropic expansion
4-1. Constant volume heat rejection
6. Dual Cycle - An air-standard cycle that can be made to approximate the
pressure variations more closely is the air-standard dual cycle.
1-2. Isentropic compression
2-3. Constant volume heat addition
3-4. Constant pressure heat addition
4-5. Isentropic expansion
5-1. Constant volume heat rejection
7. Displacement Volume - the volume displaced by the piston as it moves
between top dead center (tdc) and bottom dead center (bdc).
8. Clearance Volume - The minimum volume formed in the cylinder when
the piston is at TDC is called the clearance volume
9. Percent Clearance - ratio of clearance volume and displacement volume
(V2/V1-V2)
10. Compression Ratio - The compression ratio r is defined as the volume at
bottom dead center divided by the volume at top dead center.
11. Isentropic Compression Ratio -
12. Mean Effective Pressure - A parameter used to describe the
performance of reciprocating piston engines. It is a fictitious pressure that,
if it acted on the piston during the entire power stroke, would produce the
same amount of net work as that produced during the actual cycle.

13. Brayton Cycle - was first proposed by George Brayton for use in the
reciprocating oil-burning engine that he developed around 1870.
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection
14. Back Work Ratio - The fraction of the turbine work used to drive the
compressor is called the back work ratio. (Compressor work/turbine work)
15. Isentropic Efficiency - a measure of the deviation of actual processes
from the corresponding idealized ones.
16. Compressor Efficiency - the isentropic efficiency of a compressor is
defined as the ratio of the work input required to raise the pressure of a
gas to a specified value in an isentropic manner to the actual work input.

17. Turbine Efficiency - isentropic efficiency of a turbine is defined as the

ratio of the actual work output of the turbine to the work output that would
be achieved if the process between the inlet state and the exit pressure
were isentropic.

In society, fuels are divided into fossil fuels and biofuels, renewable fuels and
non-renewable fuels, or carbon neutral and non-carbon neutral fuels.

18. Fossil Fuels - Fossil fuels primarily consist of natural gas,

crude-oil-derived fuels, and coal. Non-renewable. Fossil fuels are made
from decomposing plants and animals. These fuels are found in the
Earth's crust and contain carbon and hydrogen, which can be burned for
energy.
19. Biofuels - liquid, solid, or gaseous fuel produced by conversion of
biomass such as bioethanol from sugar cane or corn, charcoal or
woodchips, and biogas from anaerobic decomposition of wastes.
20. Renewable Fuel - fuels produced from renewable resources. Examples
include: biofuels and Hydrogen fuel.
21. Non-renewable Fuel - Non-renewable energy comes from sources that
will run out or will not be replenished in our lifetimes—or even in many,
many lifetimes. Most non-renewable energy sources are fossil fuels: coal,
petroleum, and natural gas.
22. Carbon Neutral Fuel - Carbon-neutral fuel is fuel which produces no
net-greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint.
23. Non-carbon Neutral Fuel - produces greenhouse emissions.
24. Methane - produced by waste digesters and landfills.
25. Methanogenic Bacteria - Methane is created in landfills by methanogenic
bacteria. Methanogenic bacteria decompose these organic materials to
produce primarily carbon dioxide and methane.
26. Biodigester - a system that biologically digests organic material, either
anaerobic (without oxygen ) or aerobically (with oxygen).
27. Ethane (C2H6) - Ethane is the second simplest alkane followed by
methane. It contains 2 carbon atoms and 6 hydrogen atoms. So the
formula for ethane is C2H6. mainly used to produce ethylene, a feedstock
to make plastics.
28. Liquified Petroleum Gas - produced at natural gas-processing plants
consists of ethane, propane, and butane. LPG produced from crude oil at
refineries also includes refinery gases such as ethylene, propylene, and
butylene. LPG is stored in tanks under pressure as a liquid and is a gas at
atmospheric pressure. At 38°C, the maximum vapor pressure is 208 kPa
for commercial LPG.
29. Natural Gas - is a mixture of hydrocarbons and small quantities of various
non-hydrocarbons existing in the gaseous phase or in solution with crude
oil
30. Syngas - (synthetic gas, historically called producer gas or town gas) is
created by passing a less than stoichiometric amount of air or oxygen
through a hot bed of coal or biomass particles. This is a process called
gasification and is accomplished in a gasifier, where input air is restricted
so that the main output is hydrogen and carbon monoxide along with
nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
31. Carbon Monoxide - Carbon monoxide (CO) is an odorless, colorless gas
formed by the incomplete combustion of fuels.
32. Hydrogen - is manufactured by reforming natural gas, partial oxidation of
liquid hydrocarbons, or extraction from syngas. For example, natural gas
can be converted to H2, CO, and CO2 by a reaction with steam over a
catalyst at 800°C–900°C. A further shift of CO and H2O to H2 and CO2 is
then carried out, and the gas is cooled and scrubbed to remove CO2.
33. Fractional Distillation - the separation of a mixture into its component
parts, or fractions.
34. Gasifier - where gasification takes place
35. Particulate Scrubber - a scrubber in which a liquid is mixed with the gas
to collect solids. In particulate scrubbers, the liquid is dispersed into the
gas as a spray, and the liquid droplets are the main collectors for the solid
particles.
36. Heating Value - is the heat release per unit mass when the fuel, initially at
25°C, reacts completely with oxygen, and the products are returned to
25°C.
37. Higher Heating Value - when the water in the combustion products is
condensed
38. Lower Heating Value - when the water in the combustion products is not
condensed.
39. Latent Heat of Vaporization - the thermal energy required for a liquid to
vaporize to a gas or the amount that is released when a gas condenses to
a liquid.
40. Volumetric Analysis - this method involves measurement of the volume
of a solution whose concentration is known and applied to determine the
concentration of the analyte. In other words, measuring the volume of a
second substance that combines with the first in known proportions is
known as Volumetric analysis or titration.
41. Density - mass per unit volume
42. Autoignition Temperature - is the lowest temperature required to initiate
self-sustained combustion in a standard container in atmospheric air in the
absence of a spark or flame.
43. Flash Point - indication of the maximum temperature at which a liquid fuel
can be stored and handled without serious fire hazard. Flash point is the
minimum temperature at which fuel will rapidly catch fire when exposed to
an open flame located above a mixture.
44. Ultimate Analysis - is an analysis of the composition of fuel which gives
on mass basis, the relative amounts of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur,
ash and moisture.
45. Cracking - in petroleum refining, the process by which heavy
hydrocarbon molecules are broken up into lighter molecules by means of
heat and usually pressure and sometimes catalysts. Cracking is the most
important process for the commercial production of gasoline and diesel
fuel.
46. Thermal Cracking - a process in which hydrocarbons present in crude
oil are subject to high heat and temperature to break the molecular bonds
and breaking down long-chained, higher-boiling hydrocarbons into
shorter-chained, lower-boiling hydrocarbons.
47. Hydrogenation - a chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen and
another compound or element, usually in the presence of a catalyst such
as nickel, palladium or platinum. The process is commonly employed to
reduce or saturate organic compounds. Hydrogenation is used to solidify,
preserve or purify many products, raw materials, or ingredients. Ammonia,
fuels (hydrocarbons), alcohols, pharmaceuticals, margarine, polyols,
various polymers and chemicals (hydrogen chloride and hydrogen
peroxide) are products treated using a hydrogenation process.
48. Aliphatic Hydrocarbon - any chemical compound belonging to the
organic class in which the atoms are connected by single, double, or triple
bonds to form nonaromatic structures. Have open chains. ( 3 types:
alkanes, alkenes and alkynes).
49. Alkanes (paraffins) – single bond. (ex. methane, ethane, propane, butane,
naphthenes, etc.) - are saturated hydrocarbons and are composed of
carbon and hydrogen atoms connected by single bonds (C–C or C–H
 bonds). They are saturated because no more hydrogen can be added to
the molecule, unlike alkenes or alkynes. (CnH2n+2)

Cycloalkanes (naphthenes) are alkanes that have one or more carbon ring
structures in their molecular structure. (CnH2n)
50. Alkenes (olefins) – (ex. ethene, propene, etc.) - double bond. also have
the formula CnH2n, but two neighboring carbon atoms share a pair of
electrons forming a double bond. The location of the double bond is
indicated by a prefix.
Diolefins have two double bonds and have the general formula
CnH2n–2. Their names end with the letters “diene”—for example, hexadiene.
51. Alkynes – (ex. ethyne, propyne, butyne, etc.) - triple bond. They can
appear as intermediate species in the fuel-rich zone due to incomplete
combustion. The triple bond is relatively strong, hard to oxidize, and can
lead to the formation of soot particles. (CnH2n-2)
52. Aromatic Hydrocarbon – (ex. benzene, naphthalene, etc.) - polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), can be formed in the refining process and
can also be formed during incomplete combustion in the fuel rich zone.
PAHs are viewed as a building block for soot particles.
53. Specific Gravity - the density of the fuel divided by the density of water at
the same temperature.
54. Viscosity - a measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow.
55. Distillation Curve - The distillation curve is a graphical depiction of the
boiling temperature of a fluid mixture plotted against the volume fraction
distilled.
56. Sulfur Content - Fuel sulfur content is the sulfur content of the fuel as a
percentage of its mass. Sulfur is considered an undesirable contaminant
because, when burned, it generates sulfur oxides.
57. Octane Number - (ON) indicates the ability of a fuel to resist engine knock
(onset of autoignition), an abnormal combustion phenomenon in a spark
ignition engine.
The higher an octane number, the more stable the fuel.
58. Cetane Number - (CN) indicates the tendency of a fuel to autoignite when
undergoing compression ignition.
A fuel with a high cetane number autoignites easily, resulting in a short ignition
delay, the time between fuel injection and autoignition. The cetane number of a
fuel correlates inversely with its octane number.
59. Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) - Volatility is measured by Reid vapor
pressure, which is the equilibrium pressure exerted by vapor over liquid at
37.8°C and is expressed in units of pounds per square inch (psi) absolute.
If the RVP is too high, too much of the gasoline will evaporate before reaching
the engine, causing vapor lock.
60. Fuel Grade Number -

61. Automotive Gasoline - a carefully selected blend of alkanes (paraffins),

alkenes (olefins), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), and aromatics, which varies
slightly at different refineries and is blended slightly differently depending
on geographic region and season of the year.
62. Diesel Fuel - a mixture of C10 to C15 hydrocarbons with a higher boiling
point range than gasoline. Grade 1-D (No. 1 diesel) is a light distillate fuel
for applications requiring higher volatility for rapidly fluctuating loads and
speeds, such as in light trucks and busses. Grade 2-D (No. 2 diesel) is a
middle distillate fuel for high-speed engines. Grade 4-D is a heavy distillate
fuel used in low-speed industrial and marine diesels.
63. Gas Turbine Fuel - not limited by antiknock or ignition delay requirements
and have a wide range of boiling points. Jet A aircraft fuel is similar to
kerosene and 1-D diesel fuel. Jet B fuel has a lower boiling point range
than Jet A fuel. Turbine fuels limit the amounts of trace metals such as
vanadium and lead, which tend to form deposits on turbine blades.
64. Fuel Oil (for heating) - any of various fractions obtained from the
distillation of petroleum (crude oil). It covers a wide range of petroleum
products, which have been divided into six grades. Table 2.7 shows
various properties of these grades with the omission of Grade No. 3, which
is rarely used. Grade No. 1 fuel oil is kerosene. Grade No. 2 fuel oil is
domestic fuel oil, which boils between 218 and 310°C. The heavier fuel oil
grades are specified by viscosity and are used in industrial and utility heat
and power applications. The heavier grades contain significant amounts of
ash. Preheating the oil is required for No. 6 fuel oil and may be required for
Nos. 4 and 5 fuel oils, depending on the climate. No. 6 fuel oil is a heavy
residual fuel, which consists of the remains after all distillation processes
are completed; it has high viscosity and tends to have relatively high
amounts of asphaltenes, sulfur, vanadium, and sodium.
65. Coal - a heterogeneous mineral consisting principally of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen, with lesser amounts of sulfur and nitrogen.
66. Anthracite - The highest rank of coal. It is a hard, brittle, and black
lustrous coal, often referred to as hard coal, containing a high percentage
of fixed carbon and a low percentage of volatile matter.
67. Lignite - brown coal, is a soft, brown, combustible, sedimentary rock
formed from naturally compressed peat. It has a carbon content around
25–35%, and is considered the lowest rank of coal due to its relatively low
heat content
68. Bituminous Coal - or black coal, is a type of coal containing a tar-like
substance called bitumen or asphalt.
69. Sub-bituminous Coal - a lower grade of coal that contains 35–45%
carbon. The properties of this type are between those of lignite, the lowest
grade of coal, and those of bituminous coal, the second-highest grade of
coal. Sub-bituminous coal is primarily used as a fuel for steam-electric
power generation.
70. Biomass - a range of organic materials recently produced from plants and
waste from animals that feed on plants.
71. Peat - formed from decaying woody plants, reeds, sedges, and mosses in
watery bogs and marshlands and is usually formed in northern climates.
72. Refuse-Derived Fuels - Refuse solid fuel includes municipal solid waste
(MSW) and agricultural waste.
73. Proximate Analysis [ASTM D3172] - [ASTM D3172 in the Annual Book
of ASTM Standards] determines the moisture, volatile combustible matter,
fixed carbon, and ash in a fuel sample.
74. Ultimate Analysis [ASTM D3176] - [ASTM D3176 in the Annual Book of
ASTM Standards] provides the major elemental composition of the fuel,
usually reported on a dry, ash-free basis.
75. Heating Value [ASTM D5865] - is determined in a calorimeter [ASTM
D5865 in the Annual Book of ASTM Standards]. A small sample of fuel is
placed in the calorimeter, which is pressurized with excess oxygen.
A spark ignites the sample, and the temperature rise in a surrounding
water jacket is measured.
76. Hardgrove Grindability Test [ASTM D409] - [ASTM D409 in Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 5.06] is used to determine the relative ease
of pulverization of coals.
77. Free Swelling Index [ASTM D720] - [ASTM D720 in Annual Book of
ASTM Standards, Vol. 5.06] is an indication of the caking characteristics of
coals when burned as a fuel.
78. Ash Fusion Temperature [ASTM D1857] - [ASTM D1857 in the Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 5.06] is determined by heating a ground
fuel sample at 850°C in air and then in oxygen to ensure complete
oxidation of the fuel.