Gasification

PROCESS
Gasification is a process for converting carbonaceous materials to a combustible or
synthetic gas (e.g., H2, CO, CO2, CH4).In general, gasification involves the reaction
of carbon with air, oxygen, steam, carbon dioxide, or a mixture of these gases at
1,300°F or higher to produce a gaseous product that can be used to provide electric
power and heat or as a raw material for the synthesis of chemicals, liquid fuels, or
other gaseous fuels such as hydrogen.

HYDROGENERATION
In a gasification process the feedstock is hydrogenated. This means hydrogen is
added to the system directly or indirectly or the feedstock is pyrolyzed to remove
carbon to produce a product with a higher hydrogen-to-carbon ratio than the
feedstock. These processes may be carried out separately or simultaneously. The
more hydrogen that is added or the more carbon removed, the lower the overall
efficiency of the synthetic gas production process. In an indirect hydrogenation
process, steam is used as a hydrogen source and hydrogen is produced within the
gasification reactor.

Direct Hydrogeneration : catalyst accelerates the gasification reactions, resulting

in the formation of hydrogen and CO, at relatively low temperatures.

Indirect Hydrogeneration :known as air or oxygen blown gasification, depending

on whether air or oxygen is used as the oxidant source. If heat is also provided
indirectly, air or oxygen is not used to combust some of the feedstock in the gasifier
This results in an increase in the reactor temperature to the desired gasification
reaction temperatures, which is a process referred to as steam reforming.

QUALITY OF PRODUCT GAS PARAMETERS

• Feedstock composition
• Feedstock preparation and particle size
• Reactor heating rate
• Residence time
• Plant configuration such as:
Feed system - dry or slurry
Feedstock-reactant flow geometry
Mineral removal system - dry ash or slag
Heat generation and transfer method — direct or indirect

Depending on the gasifier system configuration, operating conditions, and

gasification agent Four types of synthetic gas can be produced:

• Low heating-value gas (3.5 to 10 MJ/m or 100 to 270 Btu/ft3) can be used as gas
turbine fuel in an IGCC system, as boiler fuel for steam production, and as fuel for
smelting and iron or reduction applications. However, because of its high nitrogen
content and low heating value, it is not well suited as a natural gas replacement or
for chemical synthesis.
Use of low heating- value gas for fuel cell applications also increases gas upgrading
and processing costs, including compression costs if high pressure fuel cells are used.

• Medium heating-value gas (10 to 20 MJ/m3 or 270 to 540 Btu/ft3 ) can be used
as fuel gas for gas turbines in IGCC applications, for substitute natural gas (SNG) in
combination with methanation process, for hydrogen production, for fuel cell feed,
and for chemical and fuel synthesis.

•High heating-value gas (20 to 35 MJ/m or 540 to 940 Btu/ft )

• SNG (over 35 MJ/m3 or 940 Btu/ft )

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMBUSTION AND GASIFICATION

combustion are to thermally destruct the feed material and to generate heat. In
contrast, the objective of gasification is to convert the feed material into more
valuable, environmentally friendly intermediate products that can be used for a
variety of purposes.

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ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROLS
Following the gasification step, the raw syngas is quenched directly with water or
cool recycled gas. Particulates may also be removed using hot filters. Indirect
cooling through heat exchangers may follow syngas quenching before any entrained
particulates is removed. Syngas is then further processed to remove sulfur
compounds such as H2S, COS, and NH3. Conventional treatment technologies, with
sulfur removal efficiencies of up to 99%, are utilized in the natural gas and petroleum
industries.

The same conventional technologies can be used to recover sulfur as high-purity

liquid byproduct from raw syngas. When direct water quenching is used, some
particulates are captured by water and must be filtered. The particulate scrubber
water and syngas condensates contain some water-soluble gases such as NH3, HCN,
HCl, and H2S. These streams are usually recycled to the gasifier or scrubber after
entrained solids are removed. A small portion of the water is purged from the system
to prevent accumulation of dissolved salts. The purged water is then processed in a
conventional wastewater treatment system.

solid byproduct of the high-temperature gasification process is slag, a glass-like

material. It mainly consists of the inorganic materials in the gasifier feed that are not
vaporized.

The primary solid byproduct of combustion processes is bottom ash, which primarily
consists of mineral matter and minor amounts of unreacted carbon.

FEEDSTOCK PROCEEDS THROUGH A GASIFICATION REACTOR OR

GASIFIER

Drying
As the feedstock is heated and its temperature increases, water is the first constituent
to evolve.
Moist feedstock + Heat =Dry feedstock + H2O
Devolatilization
As the temperature of the dry feedstock increases, pyrolysis takes place and the
feedstock is converted to char.
Dry feedstock + Heat =Char + Volatiles

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Gasification
Gasification is the result of chemical reactions between carbon in the char and steam,
carbon dioxide, and hydrogen in the gasifier vessel
Combustion
The thermal energy that derives gasification reactions must be provided directly, by
combusting some of the char or dry feedstock and in some cases the volatiles within
the gasifier, or indirectly, by combusting some of the feedstock, char, or clean syngas
separately and transferring the required heat to the gasifier.

gasification reactors

Several types of gasifiers are currently available for commercial use: counter-current
fixed bed, co-current fixed bed, fluidized bed, entrained flow, plasma, and free
radical.

Main gasifier types

1-Counter-current fixed bed ("up draft") gasifier

A fixed bed of carbonaceous fuel (e.g. coal or biomass) through which the
"gasification agent" (steam, oxygen and/or air) flows in counter-current
configuration. The ash is either removed in the dry condition or as a slag. The

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slagging gasifiers have a lower ratio of steam to carbon, achieving temperatures
higher than the ash fusion temperature. The nature of the gasifier means that the fuel
must have high mechanical strength and must ideally be non-caking so that it will
form a permeable bed, although recent developments have reduced these restrictions
to some extent The throughput for this type of gasifier is relatively low. Thermal
efficiency is high as the temperatures in the gas exit are relatively low. However,
this means that tar and methane production is significant at typical operation
temperatures, so product gas must be extensively cleaned before use. The tar can be
recycled to the reactor.
In the gasification of fine, undensified biomass such as rice hulls, it is necessary to
blow air into the reactor by means of a fan. This creates very high gasification
temperature, as high as 1000 C. Above the gasification zone, a bed of fine and hot
char is formed, and as the gas is blow forced through this bed, most complex
hydrocarbons are broken down into simple components of hydrogen and carbon
monoxide.
2-Co-current fixed bed ("down draft") gasifier
Similar to the counter-current type, but the gasification agent gas flows in co-current
configuration with the fuel (downwards, hence the name "down draft gasifier"). Heat
needs to be added to the upper part of the bed, either by combusting small amounts
of the fuel or from external heat sources. The produced gas leaves the gasifier at a
high temperature, and most of this heat is often transferred to the gasification agent
added in the top of the bed, resulting in an energy efficiency on level with the
counter-current type. Since all tars must pass through a hot bed of char in this
configuration, tar levels are much lower than the counter-current type.
3-Fluidized bed reactor
The fuel is fluidized in oxygen and steam or air. The ash is removed dry or as heavy
agglomerates that defluidize. The temperatures are relatively low in dry ash gasifiers,
so the fuel must be highly reactive; low-grade coals are particularly suitable. The
agglomerating gasifiers have slightly higher temperatures, and are suitable for higher
rank coals. Fuel throughput is higher than for the fixed bed, but not as high as for
the entrained flow gasifier. The conversion efficiency can be rather low due
to elutriation of carbonaceous material. Recycle or subsequent combustion of solids
can be used to increase conversion. Fluidized bed gasifiers are most useful for fuels
that form highly corrosive ash that would damage the walls of slagging gasifiers.
Biomass fuels generally contain high levels of corrosive ash.

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4-Entrained flow gasifier
A dry pulverized solid, an atomized liquid fuel or a fuel slurry is gasified with
oxygen (much less frequent: air) in co-current flow. The gasification reactions take
place in a dense cloud of very fine particles. Most coals are suitable for this type of
gasifier because of the high operating temperatures and because the coal particles
are well separated from one another.
The high temperatures and pressures also mean that a higher throughput can be
achieved, however thermal efficiency is somewhat lower as the gas must be cooled
before it can be cleaned with existing technology. The high temperatures also mean
that tar and methane are not present in the product gas; however the oxygen
requirement is higher than for the other types of gasifiers. All entrained flow
gasifiers remove the major part of the ash as a slag as the operating temperature is
well above the ash fusion temperature.
A smaller fraction of the ash is produced either as a very fine dry fly ash or as a black
colored fly ash slurry. Some fuels, in particular certain types of biomasses, can form
slag that is corrosive for ceramic inner walls that serve to protect the gasifier outer
wall. However some entrained flow type of gasifiers do not possess a ceramic inner
wall but have an inner water or steam cooled wall covered with partially solidified
slag. These types of gasifiers do not suffer from corrosive slags.
Some fuels have ashes with very high ash fusion temperatures. In this case mostly
limestone is mixed with the fuel prior to gasification. Addition of a little limestone
will usually suffice for the lowering the fusion temperatures. The fuel particles must
be much smaller than for other types of gasifiers. This means the fuel must be
pulverized, which requires somewhat more energy than for the other types of
gasifiers. By far the most energy consumption related to entrained flow gasification
is not the milling of the fuel but the production of oxygen used for the gasification.

PLASMA GASIFICATION
is an extreme thermal process using plasma which converts organic matter into
a syngas (synthesis gas) which is primarily made up of hydrogen and carbon
monoxide. A plasma torch powered by an electric arc, is used to ionize gas
and catalyze organic matter into syngas with slag

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PROCESS
Small plasma torches typically use an inert gas such as argon where larger torches
require nitrogen. The electrodes vary
from copper or tungsten to hafnium or zirconium, along with various other alloys.
A strong electric current under high voltage passes between the two electrodes as
an electric arc. Pressurized inert gas is ionized passing through the plasma created
by the arc. The torch's temperature ranges from 4,000 to 25,000 °F (2,200 to
13,900 °C). The temperature of the plasma reaction determines the structure of the
plasma and forming gas

FEEDSTOCKS
The feedstock for plasma waste treatment is most often municipal solid
waste, organic waste, or both. Feedstocks may also include biomedical
waste and hazmat materials. Content and consistency of the waste directly impacts
performance of a plasma facility. Pre-sorting and recycling useful material before
gasification provides consistency. Too much inorganic material such as metal and
construction waste increases slag production, which in turn
decreases syngas production. However, a benefit is that the slag itself is chemically
inert and safe to handle (certain materials may affect the content of the gas produced,
however.) Shredding waste before entering the main chamber helps to increase
syngas production. This creates an efficient transfer of energy which ensures more
materials are broken down.
For improved processing steam is sometimes added into the plasma gasification
process.

YIELDS

Pure highly calorific synthesis gas consists predominantly of carbon

monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2). Inorganic compounds in the waste stream are
not broken down but melted, which includes glass, ceramics, and various metals.
The high temperature and lack of oxygen prevents the formation of many toxic
compounds such as furans, dioxins, nitrogen oxides, or sulfur dioxide in the flame
itself. However, dioxins are formed during cooling of the syngas.
Metals resulting from plasma pyrolysis can be recovered from the slag and
eventually sold as a commodity. Inert slag produced from some processes is
granulated and can be used in construction. A portion of the syngas produced feeds

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on-site turbines, which power the plasma torches and thus support the feed system.
This is self-sustaining electric power

BIOMASS CHARACTERISTICS
Wood and wood waste sources can come from softwood or hardwood, and there are
significant differences in the heating values, as well as physical and chemical
properties. Because the moisture content of green biomass can be quite high and can
negatively impact the conversion of biomass to energy processes, pre-drying may be
needed. Moisture content of 10 to 20% is usually preferred.
As the moisture content of biomass increases, the efficiency of thermal conversion
process decreases

Petroleum coke can be used as either a primary or a secondary fuel in a new

grassroots plant or for co-firing in an existing coal-fired power plant. A large
percentage of petroleum coke used in power generation in the U.S. is for co-firing
in existing suspension boilers. Because coke has superior
heating value and negligible ash content, it is typically blended with coal

BIO GASIFICATION

Biomass can be converted to a synthesis gas by gasification. Biomass syngas

consists primarily of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2 ), and hydrogen
(H2)

the theoretical amount of air required (defined as the stoichiometric quantity) is 6 to

6.5 kg of air per kg of biomass. The end products are CO2 and H2O. thermo-
chemical conversion of solid biomass into gaseous fuel. The biogas produced
has a low calorific value (1000 to 1200 Kcal/Nm3 ); however, this product can be
combusted at a relatively high efficiency and with good degree of control without
emitting smoke. Typical conversion efficiencies of the gasification process are 60 to
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Current applications
Syngas can be used for heat production and for generation of mechanical and
electrical power. Like other gaseous fuels, producer gas gives greater control over
power levels when compared to solid fuels, leading to more efficient and cleaner
operation.
Syngas can also be used for further processing to liquid fuels or chemicals.

1-Heat
Gasifiers offer a flexible option for thermal applications, as they can be retrofitted
into existing gas fueled devices such as ovens, furnaces, boilers, etc., where syngas
may replace fossil fuels. Heating values of syngas are generally around 4–10 MJ/m3.
2-Electricity
Currently Industrial-scale gasification is primarily used to produce electricity from
fossil fuels such as coal, where the syngas is burned in a gas turbine. Gasification is
also used industrially in the production of electricity, ammonia and liquid fuels (oil)
using Integrated Gasification Combined Cycles (IGCC), with the possibility of
producing methane and hydrogen for fuel cells. IGCC is also a more efficient method
of CO2 capture as compared to conventional technologies. IGCC demonstration

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plants have been operating since the early 1970s and some of the plants constructed
in the 1990s are now entering commercial service.
3-Combined heat and power
In small business and building applications, where the wood source is sustainable,
250–1000 kWe and new zero carbon biomass gasification plants have been installed
in Europe that produce tar free syngas from wood and burn it in reciprocating
engines connected to a generator with heat recovery. This type of plant is often
referred to as a wood biomass CHP unit but is a plant with seven different processes:
biomass processing, fuel delivery, gasification, gas cleaning, waste disposal,
electricity generation and heat recovery.
4-Transport fuel
Diesel engines can be operated on dual fuel mode using producer gas. Diesel
substitution of over 80% at high loads and 70–80% under normal load variations can
easily be achieved. Spark ignition engines and solid oxide fuel cells can operate on
100% gasification gas. Mechanical energy from the engines may be used for e.g.
driving water pumps for irrigation or for coupling with an alternator for electrical
power generation.
While small scale gasifiers have existed for well over 100 years, there have been few
sources to obtain a ready to use machine. Small scale devices are
typically DIY projects. However, currently in the United States, several companies
offer gasifiers to operate small engines.
5-Renewable energy and fuels
In principle, gasification can proceed from just about any organic material,
including biomass and plastic waste. The resulting syngas can be combusted.
Alternatively, if the syngas is clean enough, it may be used for power production in
gas engines, gas turbines or even fuel cells, or converted efficiently to dimethyl
ether (DME) by methanol dehydration, methane via the Sabatier reaction, or diesel-
like synthetic fuel via the Fischer–Tropsch process. In many gasification processes
most of the inorganic components of the input material, such as metals and minerals,
are retained in the ash. In some gasification processes (slagging gasification) this ash
has the form of a glassy solid with low leaching properties, but the net power
production in slagging gasification is low (sometimes negative) and costs are higher.
Regardless of the final fuel form, gasification itself and subsequent processing
neither directly emits nor traps greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. Power
consumption in the gasification and syngas conversion processes may be significant

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though, and may indirectly cause CO2 emissions; in slagging and plasma gasification,
the electricity consumption may even exceed any power production from the syngas.
Combustion of syngas or derived fuels emits exactly the same amount of carbon
dioxide as would have been emitted from direct combustion of the initial fuel.
Biomass gasification and combustion could play a significant role in a renewable
energy economy, because biomass production removes the same amount of
CO2 from the atmosphere as is emitted from gasification and combustion. While
other biofuel technologies such as biogas and biodiesel are carbon neutral,
gasification in principle may run on a wider variety of input materials and can be
used to produce a wider variety of output fuels.
There are at present a few industrial scale biomass gasification plants. Since 2008 in
Svenljunga, Sweden, a biomass gasification plant generates up to 14 MWth,
supplying industries and citizens of Svenljunga with process steam and district
heating, respectively. The gasifier uses biomass fuels such as CCA or creoste
impregnated waste wood and other kinds of recycled wood to produces syngas that
is combusted on site. In 2011 a similar gasifier, using the same kinds of fuels, is
being installed at Munkfors Energy's CHP plant. The CHP plant will generate 2
MWe (electricity) and 8 MWth (district heating). Examples of demonstration projects
include:

 The 32 MW dual fluidized bed gasification of the GoBiGas project

in Gothenburg, Sweden, produced around 20 MW of substitute natural
gas from forest residues and fed it into the natural gas grid since December
2014. The plant was permanently closed due to technical and economical
problems in April 2018. Göteborg Energi had invested 175 million euro in
the plant and intensive attempts to sell the plant to new investors had failed
for a year. Those of the Renewable Energy Network Austria, including a
plant using dual fluidized bed gasification that has supplied the town
of Güssing with 2 MW of electricity, produced utilising GE
Jenbacher reciprocating gas engines and 4 MW of heat, generated from
wood chips, since 2001. The plant was decommissioned in 2015. Go Green
Gas' pilot plant in Swindon, UK has demonstrated methane production from
waste feedstocks at 50 kW. The project has prompted the construction of a
£25million commercial facility that aims to generate 22GWh per annum of
grid-quality natural gas from waste wood and refuse derived fuel, due for
completion in 2018.

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  Chemrec's pilot plant in Piteå that produced 3 MW of clean syngas from
entrained flow gasification of black liquor. The plant was closed down
permanently due to financial problems in 2016

CONTAMINANTS

The biogas generated from gasification will generally contain contaminants that
require removal. The principle contaminant classes encountered are particulates:
alkali compounds, tars, nitrogen-containing components, sulfur, and low molecular-
weight hydrocarbons (e.g., methane and ethane).

FORMATION OF TARS
Tar refers to a range of oxygenated organic constituents that are produced by the
partial reaction of the biomass feedstock. These materials can be found in the hot
gas stream as vaporized material. They tend to condense nat cooler temperatures.
Tars include a variety of oxygenated aromatics formed in the pyrolysis step of the
gasification process.
Generally, tar is considered to be organic molecules with molecular weights greater
than that of benzene (benzene’s molecular weight is 78). The actual composition of
the tar is complex and dependent on the severity of reaction conditions, including
gasification temperature and residence time in the reactor.
Tar formation is thought to occur under the following conditions:
 As the biomass feedstock is heated, it dehydratesand then volatilizes as it
thermally decomposes
 The volatilized material either can undergo further decomposition to form
permanent gases, or it can undergo dehydration, condensation, and
polymerization reactions that result in tar formation.

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 The amount of tar will also vary significantly depending on the gasifier design.
AMMONIA FORMATION
Ammonia is formed from the protein and other nitrogen containing components in
the biomass feedstock. High-protein in feedstock such as animal wastes or alfalfa
result in greater ammonia production.
Ammonia production is also higher in pressurized gasifiers due to equilibrium
considerations due to the reducing environment in those gasifiers. Acceptable levels
of ammonia in the gas stream are dictated by local regulations.
Ammonia in the product stream is undesirable because it can result in the formation
of NOX emissions when the product gas is burned. Cleanup of the ammonia is
therefore required for systems in locations with strict NOX regulations.

NOX FORMATION
NOX is also produced in some gasifiers. It is generally not present in high enough
concentrations to create problems. NOX is produced by the reaction of nitrogen. The
lower temperatures in gasification and the nature of the reactive environment limit
NOX production. Although the gasifier product itself has low levels of NOX the total
systems emissions of this product must be carefully scrutinized. The use of biogas
rather than solid biomass fuels provides the opportunity to better control the
combustion process, which can potentially result in lower NOX emissions.

SULFUR
Most biomass feedstocks contain low percentages of sulfur. In contrast, this is a
major concern for coal gasification. Sulfur in the biomass feedstock can be converted
to hydrogen sulfide or sulfur oxides during gasification.
The low concentration of sulfur in biomass offers potential advantages for some
applications. In cofiring applications, for example, the cleaner combustion gases
from biomass dilute those from coal, and the overall concentrations of sulfur per unit
of combustion gas are reduced

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ADVANTAGES

 Clean destruction of hazardous waste

 Preventing hazardous waste from reaching landfills
 Some processes are designed to recover fly ash, bottom ash, and most other
particulates, for 95% or better diversion from landfills, and no harmful
emissions of toxic waste
 Potential production of vitrified slag which could be used as construction
material
 Processing of organic waste into combustible syngas for electric
power and thermal energy
 Production of value-added products (metals) from slag
 Safe means to destroy both medical and many hazardous wastes.
 Gasification with starved combustion and rapid quenching of syngas from
elevated temperatures can avoid the production of dioxins and furans that are
common to incinerators
 Air emissions can be cleaner than landfills and some incinerators.

DISADVANTAGES
 Large initial investment costs relative to that of alternatives, including landfill
and incineration.
 Operational costs are high relative to that of incineration.
 Little or even negative net energy production.
 Wet feed stock results in less syngas production and higher energy
consumption.
 Frequent maintenance and limited plant availability.
 For some early technologies, the plasma torch plume reduced the diameter of
the sampler orifice over time, necessitating frequent maintenance.

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REFERENCES
1. Gasification Technologies A Primer for Engineers and Scientists
(John Rezaiyan Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff )

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_gasification

3.Gasification, Technologies, A Primer for Engineers and Scientists, John Rezaiyan, Nicholas Pr.
Cheremisinoff

4.Biomass Gasification, Pyrolysis, and, Torrefaction, Practical Design and Theory, Second
Edition

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