Energy Technology

Definitions and measures

Definitions
 Proximate analysis of a fuel indicate the moisture, volatile matter, fixed
carbon and ash contents in terms of % weight.
 Moisture: water expelled from the fuel by specific methods without causing
chemical changes.
 Volatile matter: Total loss in weight minus the moisture when the fuel s
heated out of contact with air to sufficiently high temperature under specific
conditions.
 Fixed carbon: the residue obtained by subtracting from 100 the sum of the
percentage by weight of moisture, volatile matter and ash. It is essentially
carbon containing minor amount of nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen and hydrogen.
 Ultimate analysis of a fuel gives its elementary composition in terms of
percentage weight of elements namely carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and sulphur, for the fuel which is free from moisture and
inorganic constituents.
Cont...
 Combustion is a chemical process in which a substance reacts rapidly with oxygen
and gives off heat. The original substance is called the fuel, and the source of
oxygen is called the oxidizer. The fuel can be a solid, liquid, or gas, although for
airplane propulsion the fuel is usually a liquid.
 The quantity of heat evolved by combustion of unit quantity of fuel is its calorific
value or heating value.
 Gross calorific value at constant volume is the quantity of heat liberated by
combusting the fuel at constant volume in oxygen saturated with water vapor,
the original material and final products of combustion being at a reference
temperature of 25 C and the water obtained from the fuel being in the liquid
state.
 Gross calorific value at constant pressure is similar to the former expression
except the combustion takes place at constant pressure.
The liquid fuels are burnt at constant volume and gaseous fuels are burnt at constant
pressure.
Cont...
 Net calorific value (CN) at constant volume is the quantity of heat evolved
when unit quantity of fuel is burnt at constant volume in oxygen saturated
with water vapor, the original material and final products of combustion
being at reference temperature.
Net calorific value for solid and liquid fuels

Where CN and CG is Net and Gross calorific value in kcal/kg and H is % of

hydrogen of coal (including moisture and hydration)
Net calorific value for gaseous fuels:

where CN and CG is Net and Gross calorific value in kcal/Nm3, V is % volume

of hydrogen of the gaseous fuel
 Net calorific value is always less than gross calorific value.
Cont...
 Flash point and fire point:
 Flash point is the minimum temperature at which the fuel gives enough vapors
causing a flash in the atmosphere when an external point source of fire is
brought to it.
 Fire point is the minimum temperature at which the fuel vapors produce a
continuous flame instead of just a flash in momentary contact with a fire source.
 Fire point is always higher than flash point.
 Rank of coal:
 Coal is derived from vegetable matter by a natural process giving rise ti
transition series of solid fuels.
 First peat is formed, which progressively converted into lignite, bituminous coal
and anthracite.
 The process of conversion of lignite to anthracite is known as metamorphism or
coalification.
 The position of coal in metamorphism series is its rank or degree of
metamorphism or degree of maturity.
Cont...
 Gasification and carbonization of coal:
 Gasification is the process of converting solid and liquid fuels into gaseous
fuels.
 Carbonization of coal is the process carried out by heating it out of contact
with air to a sufficiently high temperature, so that the coal undergoes
decomposition and yield a residue which is richer in carbon content than
the original fuel.
 Caking and coking:
 Coals which are capable of producing a lump or cake from a powdery state
by the carbonization process are called caking coals and the phenomenon
is known as caking of coal.
 When carbonization is carried out in commercial coke ovens at about 1000
C and resultant lumpy products is sufficiently hard and strong as judged by
standard test , the solid product is called as coke and the process is known
as coking of coal.
Basis for reporting results of analysis

 The following bases are used especially for solid fuels which are
extremely heterogeneous substances:
1. Run of mine (ROM): when data are expressed on this coal as a whole
2. As received: during handling of coal, it changes its content of moisture and
mineral matter, therefor data analyzed at the receiver end is expressed as
as-received.
3. Air dried: coal when analyzed after air drying
4. Dry: effect of moisture when removed from the analytical data it is
expressed as dry coal.
5. Dry and mineral matter free (d.m.m.f.): when effect of mineral matter
and moisture is excluded it is called as dry and mineral free coal.
6. Dry and ash free (d.a.f.): Since it is difficult to determine the mineral
matter content therefor dry and ash free basis is often used instead of
d.m.m.f.
7. Moist mineral matter free or mineral free
Cracking and orsat analysis
 Cracking: it is thermal decomposition process carried out with or without
catalyst n which larger molecules break down into smaller ones with
rearrangements os atoms and groups.
 When cracking is performed in the presence of hydrogen and suitable
catalyst, the process is called hydrocracking.
 Orsat analysis: the composition of gaseous fuel may be determined by
analysis in a standard apparatus as orsat apparatus.
 It reports the percentage of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen and
oxygen.
 The data of orsat analysis are always on dry basis.
 Flue gas: it is a gaseous product of combustion of fuels in ovens and
furnaces. When combustion is complete it consist of carbon dioxide, water
vapors, nitrogen and excess oxygen.