Fucls & Combust ion

98

Fuels and Combustion

Definitions:
syStems, we need to consider.only
1. When dealing with non-reacting
internal energy. tthe sensit
internal energy and latent
consider
2. When dealing
energy.
with reacting systems, We need to
chemicalinternal
material which can be burned to release energy is called a fuel
3. Any
of hydrogen and carbon.
4. Hydrocarbon fuels are primarily consist
volatile fuel obtained is Gasoline
5. By distillation of crude oil, the most
obtained are diesel fuel
6. By distillation of crude ol, the lesS Volatile fuels
kerosene and fuel oil.

7. Achemical reaction during which a fuel is oxidized anda large energy is

released is called combustion.
8. Dry air is composed of 21 percentiañd 79 percent nitrogen by volume.
9. The ratio of Nitrogen and Oxygen is fixed.
10. Pure oxygen O2 is used as an oxidizer only is some specialized applications.
such as cutting and welding.
11. Duringa combustion process, the components which exist before the reaction
are called reactants.
12. The components which exist after the reaction are called products.

13. The fuel must be brought above its ignitiontemperature to start the combustion.
14. The minimum ignition temperatures of various substances in atmospheric air
are approximately 260° for gasoline, 400°C for carbon, 580°C for hydrogen,
610°cfor carbon monoxide, and 630°C for methane.
15. The total mass of each element is conserved duringa chemical reaction.

16. The total number of moles is not conserved during a chemical reaction.
17. The frequently used quantity in the analysis of combustion processed to
quantify the amounts of fuel and air is called the air-fuel ratio. Air fuel ratio is
the ratio of mass of air to mass of fuel.

18. The reciprocal of air-fuel ratio is fuel-air ratio.

19. Acombustion process is complete if all the carbon in the fuel burns to CO, all
the hydrogen burns to H20, and all the sulfur burns to SO2.
 Fuels &. Combustion 99

combustion is incomplete if the combustion products

A or components
contain any unburned
P0 fuel such as C, H2, CO,or OH.

Insufficient OXygen is an obvious reason for incomplete combustion.

21.
The minimum amount of air needed for the complete combustion of fuel is
22. calledthe stoichiometric or ttheoretical air.
correct amount of air, or
Thetheoretical air is also referred to as the chemical
air.
100 percent theoretical
23.

24. A
combustion process with less than the theoretical air is bound to be
Complete.
Ar The ideal combustion prOcess during which a fuel is burned completely with air
iscalled the theoretical combustion of that fuel.
The amount of air in excess of the stoichiometric amount is called exXCess air.

o Amount of air less than the stoichiometric amount are called deficiency of air.
O8. Orsat analysis-the gas sample is collected over water and is maintained
saturated at all times.

29. In Orsat analysis, a commonly device to analyze the composition of combustion

gases is the Orsat gas analyzer.
90. The combustion reaction is an exothermic reaction.

31. Exothermic reaction is areaction during which chemical energy is released in

the form of heat.

32. Enthalpy of reaction is the differernce between the enthalpy of the products at a
specified state and the enthalpy of reactants at the same state for a complete
reaction.

33. Enthalpy of combustion represents the amount of heat released during a

steady-flow combustion process when 1 kmol of fuel is burned completely at a
specified temperature and pressure.
34. Enthalpy of formation is the enthalpy of a substance at a specified state due to
its chemical composition.
35. Heating value is the amount of energy released when a fuel is burned
completely in a steady-flow process and the products are returned to the state
of the reactants.

d0. Higher heating value when H20 in the product of combustion is in liquid form.

O. LOwer heating value when H20 in the product of combustion is in vapor form.
 100 Fuels & Combustion

38. In the limiting case of no heat loss to the

surroundings,
products will reached a maximum, which is called the the
39. The entropy of a pure crystalline substance at
zero.
adiabtaetmicperatfulareme.
absolute zero
Classification of Fuels:

1. Gaseous fuels(principal component:

Hydrocarbon, Co
Example of this gas are LPG and methane. Hn)
ternperals,
2. Liquid Fuels (principal
component: Hydrocarbon, CaHm):
Example of this liquid fuel are gasoline and diesel.
3. Solid fuels (principal component: Carbon, C)
Example of this solid fuel are coal and wNOod.

Fuels & Lubricants

1. Density and
properties:
Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity = Density of fuel
Density of water
where: Density of water = 1000 kg/m = 1 kg/ li
= 62.4 Ib/ft
2. °AP Units:

°API = 141.5
SG
131.5
At 15.6°c

CN141.5
or SG At 15.60
°API + 131.5
3. °Baumé Units:

OBaume = 2140.5
SG
- 130.5
At 16.6° c

or e140.5
SGAI15.6C
Baume +130.5

4. Specific gravity with correction factors due to temperature effect:

SG = SGans.ecl1-0.0007(t2-t,)
Where: t = 15.6°C
 Fuels & Combustion 101

s Heating Value of Fuels:

Heating value of liquid fuels
an = 41,130 + 139.6 (AP), KJkg
h Heating value of solid fuels, Q
Qn= 33,820C +144,212(H - )+9,304S, KJ/kg
Higher heating value - the heating value obtained when the water in the product of
combustion is in the product of combustion is in the liquid state.
Lower Heating value the heating obtained when the water in the product of
combustion is in the vapor state.

6. Analysis of composition:
a Proximate analysis - the fuel composition gives, on mass basis, the relative
amounts of Moisture content, Volatile Matter, Fixed Carbon and Ash.

h Ultimate analysis - the fuel composition gives, on mass basis, the relative
amounts of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, Ash and Moisture.

LUBRICANTS
Definitions:
1. Viscosimeteris an instrument used to measure the
viscosity of lubricants or fuels.

2. Viscosity index - is the rate of change of viscosity with

respect to its temperature.
3. Absolute viscosity is a viscosity which is determined by
means ofa direct measurement resistance to shear.

4. lubricant
Viscosity or- isis the property which resists shearing of the
the resistance to flow.

5. Kinematics viscosity - is the ratio of absolute viscosity to

the density.
6. Fire point-is the temperature of oil at which it burns
continuously wherignited.
I. Flash point is the temperature of oil that it burns
temporarily when ignited.
O. Dropping point is the temperature at which grease
start to melts.

. Four point - is the temperature at which oil willno longer

102 Fuels & Combustion

pour freely.
10. Octane number - the ignition quality ratingof gasoline.
11. Cetane number -the ignition quality rating of diesel.

Air-Fuel Ratio of Solid Fuels:

FORMULAS:

1. Theoretical Air-fuel ratio:

AF air-fuel ratio =
m,
akg air
Theoretical A/F = 11.5C + 34.5(H - +4.35, kg fuel

2. Actual Air-Fuel Ratio:

A kg air
AF= (Theoretical )(1+ e), kg fuel
where: e = excess air

Typical Combustion Reaction of Liquid Fuels

1. Molecular Weights:
C=12H-10=16 N 14 S32
Molecular Weight of air = 28.92 kg/kg-mol

2. Air by volume:
Oxygen in air =21%
Nitrogen in air = 79%
3.76 of N2 per mol O2
Air by weight:
Oxygen 23.20%
Nitrogen = 76.80%

3. THEORETICAL AIR-FUEL RATIO

Fuel + Air = Products of Combustion
CnHm+ XO2 + X(3.76) N2 = yCO2 + ZH20 + x(3.76)N2
where: x, y and z represents the number of mols
For perfect combustion: 2n+ m/2
X=
2

Theoretical air-fuel ratio = "a

 Fuels & Combustion 103

Molal Basis,
mol air
Theoretical Air - Fuel Ratio x + 3.76 x,
mol fuel

MassBasis:
Theoretical Air - Fuel Ratio 32 x + 28 (3.76) x kg air
12n + m kg fuel
a ACTUAL AIR-FUEL RATIO
Considering the excess air, e

Fuel + Air = Products of Combustion

CaHm + (1+e) x O2 + (1+e) x (3.76) N, yCO +z H0+
(1+e) x (3.76)N2 + e (x) Oz
2n+ m/2
For perfect combustion: X=
2
where: X, y and z represents the number of mols

mT = total mols of product

mT = y+Z+ (1+e) x(3.76) + e (x)
4. Partial Pressure of H2O

Partial Pressure of Hz0 P

P= pressure
Use P = 101.325 kpa if not given in the problem
5. ACTUAL AIR-FUEL RATIO
A
Actual Air-fuel Ratio = Theoretical (1+e)

6. By Mass Balance in the Engine:

ma + m = mg

where: ma = mass of air entering the engine

m = mass of fuel entering the engine
mg = mass of gas leaving the engine

Gas constant, R
8.314 R545 ft-Ib
R= KJ/kg-K R
M M b- R
Where: M = molecular weight of gas
 SOLUTION: What Fuels
A SOLUTION: Determine Fuels
A atFuelsA
diesel certain 15.67°C.
Finthdiesel
de
is & & &
the
Combustion 26,961.45
45,256
KJ/kgKJ/kg
B. A. 3.5%O22.5%
= H269%
= C=
Combustion Q Q Q
°AP|27
= 892.74/1000
°API 0.89274
= SG=SG= SOLUTION: 44,900
19,301KJ/kg
Btu/lbB. A.power
Qn 0.887 B.
kg/li0.900
kg/li
A.power Qh Qn Qn coal sG Combustion
the = = =
= density = = = 41,130
41,130
heating has 44,899.31 plant
41,130 plant 26,961.45
33,820(0.69) 33,820C 0.89274
Density
water of
the 141.5 Density
of heating uses
uses -5 value following - + + -3
+ fuel 4 139.6°API
+ KJ/kg
139.6(27) fuel
139.6 KJ/kg Ash5% = S5% N2
= -
atfuel 144,212 of 131.5 of value Combustion Fuels &.
+ = that
30°C? fuel ultimate fuel
°API with 144,212(0.025 7% ofhas
43,000
KJ/Kg
4356.2
KJ/kg D.C.
heating (H used.
C.
D. Moisture fuel.
0.878 kg/liC.
kg/li0.850
D. a
9,304S
-+ 25,002.4
26,000
KJ/kgKJ/kg analysis: density

value =8% of
0.035 892.74
of 8
45,038.8
-)+9,304(0.07) kg/m

KJ/kg.

105
 104 Puels & Combustlon

Fuels & Combustlon -1

Adiesel power plant consumes 650 liters of fuel at 26°C in 24 hourS with
Find the fuel rate in kg/hr. 28 NP
A. 23.83 C. 22.85
B. 24.85 D. 26.85

SOLUTION:
141.5
Sgat 15.6 c = 131.5 +°API
141.5
Sgat 15.6 c = 131.5 + 28
Sgat 15.6°c = 0.887
SGat 26-C = 0.887[ 1-0.0007(26 - 15.6)
SGat 26-c = 0.88

Density of fuel =0.88(1 kg/li)

Density of fuel =0.88 kg/li
m
W =

V = 650/24
V = 27.0833
li/hr
0.88 m/27.0833
m =23.83 kg/hr

Fuels & Combustion -2

A boiler burns fuel oil
H30. with
15% excess air. The fuel oil may
Calculate the molal air fuel ratio. be represented by Ct4
A. 14 C. 102.34
B. 117.69
D. 17.14
SOLUTION:
Fuel +Air
Product of Combustion
CtaH30 +O2 +3.76N2 CO2 + H20 +3.76 N2
C1aH3o + 21.502 +21.5(3.76) Nz ’ 14CO2 + 15H20 + 21.5(3.76) N,
Theoretical A/F = 21.5 +21.5(3.76)
1
Theoretical AF = 102.34
Actual A/F = 102.34 (1.15)
Actual A/F = 117.69 mol air/mol fuel
 uels & Combust ion
106
139.6(°API)
+
45,038.8 = 41,130
API = 28
141.5
SG156C= 131.5 + API
0.8872
SGI56c = 0.8872[1 0.0007(30 - 15.6)]
SGat 30-C =0.8782
SGat 30-C = 0.8782(1 kg/li)
Densityof fuel = 0.8782 kg/li
Density offuel =

-6
Fuels &Combustion 945 liters of fuel per day at
engine consumed 30°c. of If
diesel
Apurchased at 15.5°C and 30°API at P5..00/i, determine the cost the
the engine per day. C. P4888.90
A. P5677.50
B. P4677.50 D. P5000.00

SOLUTION:

141.5
SG15.6-c = 131.5 +30
SG156-c = 0.87616
SG30-c = 0.87616 [1 -0.0007(30 - 15.6)]
SG30-c = 0.8673

Vi5.6-C SG
30°C
945 0.87616
Vi56-c 0.8673
V156-c = 935.44 li
Cost = P5.001i (935.44 li)
Cost = P4,677.20

Fuels & Combustion -7

Acylindrical tank 3 mlong and 2 mdiameter is used for oil storage. How mary
can the tank supply the engine having 27°API with fuel consumption of60kg'hi
A. 4.84
B. 5.84 C. 7.84
D. 8.84
SOLUTION:
V = /4 D h p
V=
V=9.42478 2) (3)
 uels Combust ion 107

141.5 3 m
SG1seC 131.5 +27
SGis6C = 0.8927 meL
2 tank
Density of fuel = 0.89274(1000 ka/m
Density of fuel = 892.74 kg/m
W m/N
892.74 = 60N
Mm 60 kg/hr

V =0.0672 m'hr
Number of days = 9.42478/0.0672
ENGINE
Number of days = 140.23 hrs
Number of days = 5.843 days

Fuels & Combustion -8

Determine the minimum volume of day tank in m° of 28 API fuel having a fuel
consumption of 200 kghr.
A. 10.43 m C. 6.87 m
B. 5.41 m D. 7.56 m
SOLUTION:

141.5
SG15.6-C =
131.5 + 28
SG15.6-c = 0.887

Density of fuel = 0.887(1000)

Density of fuel = 887 kg/m
W = m//
887 = 200/V
V= 0.22548 m°/hr x 24 hrs/day
V = 5.41 m

Fuels & Combustion - 9

Given the following ultimate arnalysis:
C= 70% O2 = 4%
N2 = 5% S2 = 6% Moisture = 8%
H2 = 3% Ash = 5%
Using 25% excess air, determine the actual air fuel ratio
A. 11.46 C. 23.85
B. 24.85 D. 26.85

SOLUTION:
AF = 11.5C + 34.5(H - O/8) + 9.3S
AF = 11.5(0.7) + 34.5(0.03 - 0.04/8) + 4.3(0.06)
A/F = 9.1705(1.25)
AF = 11.46 kg air/kg fuel
 Euels &Combust ion
108

1991)
Combustion - 10 (ME Bd. Apr.
Fuéls & fuel oll of 28°A
A650 Bhp diesel engine uses
is P7.95 per
"API gravity, fuel
liter, For
Ib/Bhp-hr. Cost of fuel
cubical day tank in
cm continuous
minimum volume of
A. 5.291,880 cm
B.5,391,880 cm
ambient
C. 5,491,880 cm
D. 5,591,880 cm3 temperaotupreaCoionni,su 4s
SOLUTION:

141.5
SG156C = 131.5 + 28
SGi56-c = 0.887
- 15.6)]
SGus-c = SGi56c(1 -0.0007(t
SG4s-c = 0.887[1 -0.0007(45-
SG4sC = 0.869
15.6)]
0.6s
Density of fuel = 0.869(1 kg/li)
Density of fuel = 0.869 kg/li
ENGIN
Solving for fuel consumption:
m = 0.65(650)
m = 422.5 Ib/hr
mË = 191.61 kg/hr
V = 191.61/0.869
V = 220.495 li/hr
Volume of day tank = 220.495 x 24 hrs
Volume of day tank = 5,291.88 li x1m°/1000i
Volume of day tank =5.291.88 m² x(100)°cm /m
Volume of day tank = 5,291,880 cm

Fuels &Combustion- 11 (ME Bd. Apr. 1991)

A 650 Bhp diesel engine uses fuel oil of 28°API
gqravity, fuel consumption
Ib/Bhp-hr. Cost of fuel is P7.95 per iter. For continuous operation, detem
cost of fuel per day at 45°C.
A. P42,870.45
C. P42,570.45
B. P42,070.45 D. P42,170.45

SOLUTION:
141.5
SG156-c= 131.5 + 28
SG15.6-c = 0.887
SG45-c = SG156-c[1
SG4s-c = - -0.0007(t- 15.6)]
SG45-c = 0.887[1
0.869 0.0007(45 - 15.6)]
Density of fuel = 0.869(1 kg/i)
Density of fuel = 0.869 kg/i
Solving for fuel
consumption:
 Puels R. Combustion 109

m = 0.65(650)
m = 422.5 lb/hr
m = 191.61 ka/hr
V = 191.61/0.869
V = 220.495 li/hr
Volume of day tank = 220.495 x 24 hrs
Volume of day tank 5,291.88 li
Cost of fuel per day = 5,291.88 li x P7.95/i
Cost of fuel per day = P42,070.45

Fuels &Combustion- 12 (ME Bd. Oct. 1981)

Alogging fim in Isabela operates a Diesel Electric Plant to supply its electric
energy requirements. During a 24 hour period, the plant consumed 250 gallons of
fuel at 80°F and produced 2700 KW-hrs. Industrial fuel used is 30°API and was
purchased at P3.00i at 60°F. Determine cost of fuel to produce one Kwh
A.P3.043/KW-h C. P1.043/KW-h
B. P4.043/KW-h D.P2.043/KW-h
SOLUTION:
60°F = 15.6°C
80°F = 26.6°C
141.5
SG156-Cc= 131.5 + 30
SG156-c = 0.876
SGzs.6-c = 0.876[1 - 0.0007(26.67 - 15.56)]
SG26.6-C = 0.869
At 26.6°C, m= 250gal/24hrs x3.785li/gal
At 26.6°C, m = 39.431 li/hr
At 15.6°C, m = 39.431(0.869/0.876)
At 15.6°C, m= 39.116 li/hr
Load = 2700/24
Load = 112.5 KW htar olt
39.116xP.00 / i
Cost per KW-hr = 112.5
Cost per KW-hr = P1.043/KW-h

Fuels &Combustion - 13 (ME Bd. Oct. 1981)

A logging firm in Isabela operates a Diesel Electric Plant to supply its electric
energy requirements. During a 24 hour period, the plant consumed 250 gallons of
fuel at 80°F and produced 2700 KW-hrs. Industrial fuel used is 30°API and was
purchased at P3.00/li at 60F. Determine the overall thermal efficiency of the plant.
A. 26.08% C. 43.12%
B. 34.23% D. 18.46%

SOLUTION:
Qn = 41,130 + 139.6 x °API