- INCINERATION

- GASIFICATION
- PYROLYSIS

THERMAL WASTE TREATMENT

Background
 Types of thermal treatments: Incineration, pyrolysis and gasification
 These thermal technologies are designed to recover energy (in the form of heat,
electricity or fuel) and can contribute to the diversion of BMW from landfill.
 Incineration is the oxidation of the combustible material in the waste to produce
heat, water vapour, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and oxygen. Depending on the
waste composition, other emissions may be formed including, carbon monoxide,
hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, volatile
organic carbon, dioxins and furans, polychlorinated biphenyls, heavy metals,
etc.
 The gasification and pyrolysis of solid materials is not a new concept. It has
been used extensively to produce fuels such as charcoal and coke or producer
gas. Charcoal and coke are produced by pyrolysing wood and coal respectively
and producer gas is a combustible gas produced by the gasification of coke in
the presence of air and steam
Background
 It is only in recent years that such pyrolysis and gasification have been
commercially applied to the treatment of MSW. The development of
pyrolysis and gasification technologies is in its infancy in the UK but large
scale plants have been built and are in operation in Europe, North America
and Japan (as shown in Table 1)
 In short, combustion directly releases the energy in the waste, whereas
pyrolysis and gasification thermally treat the waste to generate secondary
products (gas, liquid and/or solid) from which energy can be generated.
 TT are capital intensive facilities and have a design life of 15 – 25 years.
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Table 1.
TT
facilities
 Heating value
 Moisture content and ash represent the non-combustible component of the
MSW. Moisture and ash are undesirable in MSW as they add weight to the
fuel without adding to the heating value. Furthermore, ash retains heat when
removed from the furnace; causing useful heat to be lost to the environment.
 The volatile matter and the fixed carbon content are the preferred indicators of
the combustion capability of MSW.
 Volatile matter: the portion of MSW converted into gas as the temperature
increases. Gasification occurs before the onset of combustion.
 Fixed carbon: the solid carbon residue that has settled on the furnace grates.
Combustion occurs in the solid state, i.e., on the surface of this ‘char’ material. The
rate of combustion is affected by the temperature and surface area of the char. A
waste fuel with a high percentage of fixed carbon will require a longer retention
time in the combustion chamber to achieve complete combustion as compared with
a fuel low in fixed carbon.

% fixed carbon = 100% - % moisture - % ash - % volatile matter

Proximate analysis data for the combustible components of MSW and bulk
samples of MSW are presented in Table 2 above
 Heating value
 Energy content of OFMSW determined by (i) combusting samples in a full-scale
boiler and measuring steam output, (ii) using a laboratory bomb calorimeter, or
(iii) calculation from elemental composition (i.e. ultimate analysis). Most data on
the energy content of MSW are based on the bomb calorimeter tests.
 Heat of combustion: the energy stored within the chemical bonds of a material.
This heat released when material is burned. Two significant heat of combustion
parameters: high heating value and low heating value.
 high heating value (HHV): includes the heat of vaporization of water molecules
generated during the combustion process. The reaction for the combustion of cellulose
and the consequent formation of water is:

HHV (MJ/kg) = 0.339 (C) + 1.44 (H) – 0.139 (O) + 0.105 (S)
 Heating value
 Low heating value (LHV): subtracting the heat of vaporization of water. This value
represents the net heat available during the incineration of MSW.

LHV (MJ/kg) = HHV (in MJ/kg) – 0.0244 (W +

9H)
Where W represents the % mass of water and H the wt % of H in the waste

How is heat value expressed?

 Typical units – BTU per pound. Examples:
 Food wastes 2,000 BTU/lb
 Paper 7,200 BTU/lb
 Plastics 14,000 BTU/lb
 Wood 8,000 BTU/lb
 MSW 5,000 BTU/lb
Example 1
A carbonaceous waste given by the empirical formula C65.5H102.3O40.8N1.1 is to
be incinerated. Proximate and elemental analysis of the waste are as follows:
Proximate % Elemental %
analysis analysis
Moisture 4.8 Carbon 47.36
Noncombustibles 6.2 Hydrogen 6.25
Oxygen 39.25
Nitrogen 0.85
Sulfur 0.19
Ash 6.10

Calculate the gross heat value and net heat value of this waste as received
 Difference between Pyrolysis, Gasification and
Incineration
Incineration usually involves the
combustion of unprepared (raw or
residual) MSW. To allow the
combustion to take place a sufficient
quantity of oxygen is required to
fully oxidise the fuel. Typically,
incineration plant combustion
(flame) temperatures are in
excess of 850ºC and the waste is
converted into carbon dioxide and
water. Any noncombustible materials
(e.g. metals, glass) remain as a solid,
known as Bottom Ash, that contains
a small amount of residual carbon
 Difference between Pyrolysis, Gasification and
Incineration

Pyrolysis is the thermal degradation of

carbon. The syngas is a mixture of
a substance in the absence of oxygen.
gases (combustible constituents
This process requires an external heat
include carbon monoxide, hydrogen,
source to maintain the temperature
methane and a broad range of other
required. Typically, relatively low
VOCs). A proportion of these can be
temperatures of between 300ºC to
condensed to produce oils, waxes and
850ºC are used during pyrolysis of
tars. The syngas typically has a net
materials such as MSW. The products
calorific
produced from pyrolysing materials
value (NCV) of between 10 and 20
are a solid residue and a synthetic gas
MJ/Nm3. If required, the condensable
(syngas). The solid residue (sometimes
fraction can be collected by cooling
described as a char) is a combination
the syngas, potentially for use as a
of non-combustible materials and
liquid fuel.
 Difference between Pyrolysis, Gasification and
Incineration
Gasification can be seen as between
pyrolysis and combustion in that it
involves the partial oxidation of a
substance. This means that oxygen is
added but the amounts are not
sufficient to allow the fuel to be
completely oxidised and full
combustion to occur. The temperatures
employed are typically above 650°C.
The process is largely exothermic but
some heat may be required to initialise
and sustain the gasification process.
The main product is a syngas, which
contains carbon monoxide, hydrogen
and methane. Typically, the gas
generated from gasification will have
a net calorific value (NCV) of 4 - 10
MJ/Nm3. The other main product
produced by gasification is a solid
residue of noncombustible materials
(ash) which contains a relatively low
level of carbon. For reference, the
calorific value of syngas from
pyrolysis
and gasification is far lower than
natural gas, which has a NCV of
around 38 MJ/Nm3.
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Figure 1 Levels of air (oxygen) present during pyrolysis, gasification

and combustion processes for MSW.
 Thermal treatment in Malaysia
 In Malaysia, hazardous waste such as clinical waste and toxic industrial
waste is subjected to incineration Process
 There are small-scale capacity of MSW incinerators operating on islands
(e.g. Langkawi, Tioman, Labuan). Given the space constraint and nature
of waste on the island, thermal treatment technology is the best waste
management option for the islands
Langkawi Incinerator:
• use a rotary kiln and an air injection system to ensure continuous combustion.
• Sited on the existing Kilim landfill, Kuah, with 100 MT/day of solid waste capacity
• MSW screened and size reduction prior to treatment, recyclables sorted out from the TTP
waste feed and set aside for recycling.
• The TTP equipped with a water-tube boiler to produce steam, potentially 1 MW
• Air pollution control includes a cyclone, a neutralization reactor and a baghouse filter.
• Cyclone: filters heavier and larger particulates (larger than 25 μm), efficiency rate of 70%.
• Baghouse filter: capture smaller dust particles, termed as fly ash, which are collected, stored
and disposed accordingly. Has an efficiency rate of 99.8%.
• Flue gas will go through a neutralization reactor upon exit from the cyclone and prior to
entering the baghouse filter to neutralize acidic gases and to hinder dioxin formation.
Any legislation in Malaysia about incineration?

 In Malaysia, there is no regulation or guidelines specifically for air

pollution emission from waste incinerators
 Air pollution emission from various sources have to comply with Clean
Air Act Regulations 1978. The Clean Air Regulation 8, 280/1978 requires
that written permission be sought from the Department of Environment
(DOE), Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment for the
construction and operation of an incinerator
 Department of Environment (DOE) adopted certain standards in line with
international standard such as:
 United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
 European Standards (Directive 2000/76/EC) on the incineration of waste
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Limits of pollutants imposed by European Standards (Daily average

values)
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Limits of pollutants imposed by European Standards (Average values

of a minimum 30 minutes and a maximum of 8 hours)

Limits of pollutants imposed by European Standards (Average values

over a sample period of a minimum 6 hours and a maximum 8 hours)
Click icon to add picture
INCINERATION
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Figure 2 The incineration process

 Advantages of
incineration over landfill
 Can be carried out near the point of waste
collection. In some cities, the number of landfill
sites close to the point of waste generation are
becoming scarcer, resulting in transport of waste
over long distances
 The waste is reduced into a biologically sterile
ash product which for municipal solid waste is
approximately 10% of its pre-burnt volume and
33% of its per-burnt weight
 Incineration producers no methane, a GHG
 A low-cost source of energy to produce steam for
electric power generation, industrial process
heating or hot water for district heating
 The bottom ash residue can be used for materials
recovery or as secondary aggregates in
construction
 Incineration is the best practicable environmental
option for many hazardous wastes such as highly
flammable, volatile, toxic and infectious waste
Disadvantages of
incineration over landfill
 Much higher costs and longer pay-back periods,
due to the high capital investment
 There is sometimes a lack of flexibility in the
choice of waste disposal options once the
incineration route is chosen; because of the high
capital cost the incinerator must be tied to long-
term waste disposal contracts
 Incinerator design based on a certain calorific
value for the waste. Removal of materials such as
paper and plastics for recycling may reduce the
overall calorific value of the waste and
consequently may affect incinerator performance
 Whilst modern incinerators comply with the
existing emissions legislation there is some
public concern that the emitted levels may still
have an adverse effect on health
 The incineration process still produces a solid
waste residue which requires management
3 T’s Factors influencing the completeness of combustion-
temperature, time and turbulence

 Temperature: Each combustible substance has a minimum ignition

temperature that must be attained in the presence of oxygen for
combustion to be sustained. Above the ignition temperature, heat is
generated at a higher rate than it loses to the surroundings, which makes it
possible to maintain the elevated temperature necessary for sustained
combustion.
 Time: the residence time of the input wastes in the high-temperature
region of the combustion zone should exceed the time required for
combustion to take place. Such a requirement will affect the size and
shape of the furnace.
 Turbulence: (e.g. the thorough mixing of MSW as it passes through the
combustion chamber) will expose particle surfaces to oxygen and high
temperatures and will speed the evaporation of liquids for combustion in
the vapor phase. Inadequate mixing of combustible gases and air in the
furnace will lead to the generation of PICs, even from a unit containing
sufficient oxygen
 Combustion concept
 An aerobic thermal destruction process resulting in the transformation of solid
waste to ash, gases, and heat energy.
 To achieve efficient combustion with a minimum of air pollutant emissions the
correct amount of air must be available to the combustion chamber. This
‘stoichiometric air’ is needed to bring the combustion reactions to completion
and avoid generation of any products of incomplete combustion (PICs).
 The reaction for combustion of an organic material in MSW:

 The process is much more complex, however, since not all the hydrocarbons are
converted into carbon dioxide and water; and other components of the waste
such as sulfur and nitrogen are also oxidized, as follows:
Example 2
A carbonaceous waste given by the empirical formula C65.5H102.3O40.8N1.1 is to
be incinerated. Proximate and elemental analysis of the waste are as follows:
Proximate % Elemental %
analysis analysis
Moisture 4.8 Carbon 47.36
Noncombustibles 6.2 Hydrogen 6.25
Oxygen 39.25
Nitrogen 0.85
Sulfur 0.19
Ash 6.10

Calculate the volume of air needed for the complete combustion of 1000 kg
(1 metric ton) of the input material.
 Incineration technology overview
 Incinerator with energy recovery typically comprise the following key elements:
 waste reception and handling
 combustion chamber
 energy recovery plant
 emissions clean-up for combustion gases
 bottom ash handling and air pollution
 control residue handling

 Waste Reception and Handling

 MSW from the waste collection vehicle are tipped into a bunker where it is mixed.
Mixing helps blend the waste to ensure that the energy input (calorific value of the
waste feed) to the combustion chamber is as even as possible.
 Raw MSW energy content : 9 - 11MJ/kg, RDF energy content: 17MJ/kg
 Increase in the energy content of RDF is achieved due to the drying of the waste
(removal of water) and the removal of recyclables (glass, metals) and inerts (stones etc),
which do not contribute to the energy content of the waste. Therefore, the remaining
waste going into the RDF mainly comprises wastes with significant energy content,
Incineration
technology
overview
 Combustion Technology
There are four combustion
technologies that can be
employed to burn MSW or
RDF. A brief overview of
the main combustion
technologies is presented in
Table 3 (opposite).
 Roll type grate

Combustio
Waste
n chamber
Funnel

Sec.
Air Stair type grate

Mo
vi ng
g ra
te

Slag

Prim.
Water
Air
basin
 Rotary kiln
Rotary kiln installation

Inside Rotary kiln

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Fluidised bed incinerator
 Incineration technology overview
 Energy Recovery
 Recovery of energy from incineration of MSW is achieved through utilization of the
combustion heat through a boiler to generate steam, where up to 80% total available
energy in the waste can be retrieved this way
 The steam can be used for the generation of power via a steam turbine and/or used
for heating. An energy recovery plant producing both heat and power referred to as
a Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Plant is the most efficient option overall for
utilising recovered energy from waste via a steam boiler.
 An incinerator producing exclusively heat can have a thermal generating efficiency
of around 80 - 90%; this heat may be used to raise steam for electrical generation at
approximately 17 - 30% efficiency.

 Emissions Control for Releases to Atmosphere

 To meet the emissions limits, the combustion process must be correctly controlled
and the flue gases cleaned prior to their final release. A common approach for
control of emissions is as follows:
Incineration technology overview
 ammonia injection into the hot flue gases for control of NOx emissions
 lime or Sodium Bicarbonate injection for control of SO2 and HCl
 carbon injection for capture of heavy metals
 filter system for removal of fly ash and other solids (lime or bicarbonate and carbon)

 The control of CO, VOCs and dioxins in terms of their concentration is primarily
though correct combustion conditions being maintained.
 The clean-up of the flue gases will produce solid residues comprising fly-ash,
lime/bicarbonate and carbon. These residues are usually combined (although some
systems may separate fly ash and other components) and are classified as hazardous
waste, therefore their disposal must be undertaken in accordance with relevant
regulations and guidance. Typically, their production will be around 2% - 6% of the
weight of the waste entering the incinerator.
 Flue Gas Cleaning Method
Flue Gas Emission in
Step 3 :2:Dioxin
Step Treatment
Flue Gas
accordanceCleaning
to EU to
Step 1: Flue Gas Cooling
removeStandard
dust andprior
acidic
togases
discharge to
atmosphere

Dioxin Filter
Scrubber
Quencher
Continuous Emission Monitoring System
 Incineration technology overview
 Bottom Ash Handling
 The main residual material from the incineration of MSW is referred to as “bottom
ash”. This is the residual material in the combustion chamber and consists of the
noncombustible constituents of the waste feed.
 The bottom ash typically represents around 20% - 30% of the original waste feed by
weight, only about 10% by volume. The bottom ash is continually discharged from
the combustion chamber and is then cooled. The amount of ash will depend on the
level of waste pre-treatment prior to entering the incinerator and will also contain
metals that can be recovered for recycling.
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ICn8&feature=related
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_I&feature=related
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Summary: The three main issues of incineration

The three main issues: (i) air emissions (ii) residual incinerator ash (iii) dioxin
 Air emissions
 The combustion of any substance will generate byproduct emissions that could
be released to the air
 air emissions are usually associated with metals, mercury, lead, cadmium,
organics such as dioxins and furans, acid gases, particulate matter such as dust
and grit
 People can be exposed to emissions directly by inhaling contaminated air,
ingesting, having skin contact with contaminated soil and dust.
 can also occur indirectly by eating foods that have been contaminated with
these substances
 Residual incinerator ash
 generates ash representing about 10% by volume and 25-35% by weight of
the waste incinerated.
 Ash can divided into two categories:
Summary: The three main issues of incineration

 bottom ashcompletely or partially combusted material that passes through or

is discharged from the combustion grate.
 fly ashparticulate matter captured from flue gas by the air pollution control
system; it could include scrubber residue, bag house dust, and what is shaken
from precipitators.
 Dioxin
 Dioxins are the most notorious pollutants associated with incinerators
 Cause a wide range of health problems including cancer, immune system
damage, reproductive and developmental problems.
 Dioxins bioaccumulation, selectively building up in the fatty tissues of living
organisms, and they biomagnified, meaning that they are passed up the food
chain from prey to predator
 Particular concern because they are ever-present in the environment
4
Markets and
outlets for the
outputs
 Incineration processes
all produce a solid residue
(bottom ash). Some
systems are also designed
with mechanical
preparation and sorting
equipment to extract
recyclables before or after
combustion. The table
summarises the key
outputs from incineration
processes.
Markets and outlets for the outputs
 Materials Recycling
 The IBA produced can be potentially recycled as a secondary aggregate, used
as fill or in masonry products’ However, the recycling of IBA would need to be
undertaken in accordance with relevant legislation and guidance.
 metals (ferrous and sometimes non-ferrous) almost always are recovered from
Incineration processes. However, the extraction of materials for recycling prior
to combustion contributes more to recycling targets

 Energy Recovery
 Incineration processes are designed to recover energy from the waste processed
by generating electricity and / or heat for use on site and export off site. The
useful energy that can be generated from an incineration plant using a boiler to
generate steam is presented in Table 5.
Markets and outlets for the outputs
5
PYROLYSIS AND
GASIFICATOIN
 Advantages of Pyrolysis
and Gasification over
Incineration
 Less oxygen, thus fewer air emissions
 Plants are modular; made up of small
units which can be added to or taken
away as waste streams or volumes
change and are therefore more flexible
and can operate at a smaller scale than
mass-burn incinerators.
 They are quicker to build.
 Produce more useful products – gases,
oils and solid char useful as a fuel, or
purified and used as a feedstock for
petro-chemicals and other applications.
 The syngas may be used to generate
energy more efficiently, if a gas engine
(and potentially a fuel cell) is used
Disadvantages of Pyrolysis
and Gasification over
Incineration
 Unless they only deal with truly
residual waste, the processes will
undermine recycling and composting.
 Any fuel produced will not make up for
the energy spent in manufacturing new
products
 Disposal of ash and other by-products
may be required, though some
companies claim that their process
makes this easier than for incineration
ash.
Thermal treatment (TT) technology overview

 The actual plant design and configuration of TT facilities will differ

considerably between technology providers. However, an ATT plant will
typically consist of the following key elements:
 Waste reception, handling and pretreatment;
 Thermal treatment reactor;
 Gas and residue treatment plant (optional);
 Energy recovery plant (optional); and
 Emissions clean-up.
 Figure 3 describes the generic process flows for TT technologies.
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Figure 3 describes the generic process flows for TT technologies.

 The two most important variables in a pyrolysis system are the heating rates
(how rapidly the fuel is brought to a high temperature) and the final
temperature. The ranges of these are listed in Table below:
Heating rate °C/sec Temperature °C

Slow <1 Low 500 to 750

Intermediate 5 to 100 Intermediate 750 to 1000
Rapid 500 to 106 High 1000 to 1200
Flash > 106 Very high > 1200

 The choices of these variables, heating rate and temperature, determine the
products obtained from the pyrolysis system.
 At very high temperatures and slow heating, the product is mostly gas, while
at very slow heating rates and low temperature, mostly solid product results
 How it works
Waste reception, handling and pre-treatment
 The pyrolysis and gasification process treats the biodegradable materials
present in MSW (e.g. paper,card, putrescible waste, green waste, wood), as
well as plastics. Non combustible materials and recyclables (typically metals
and glass) are removed prior to the primary treatment reactor stage.
 The feed material might require processing to remove excess moisture and
shredding to reduce the size.
 TT processes may be used in conjunction with other waste treatment
technologies such as Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT) and
Mechanical Heat Treatment (MHT). Many MBT/MHT plant are designed to
produce a fuel stream (primarily composed of paper, card and plastics) as one
of the outputs from the process. This is commonly referred to as Refuse
Derived Fuel or RDF. This may be more amenable to processing in a TT plant
rather than raw MSW.
How it works
Thermal Treatment Reactor
 The thermal treatment process, whether pyrolysis or gasification, will
produce syngas and solid residue. The composition of the syngas and solid
residue will depend on the process conditions employed, which include
operating temperature, oxygen level, heating rate and residence time in the
reactor. The main types of thermal treatment units available, their
application and operating conditions are summarised in Table 2. There are
also other factors influencing the process such as direction of gas flow
(e.g. horizontally or vertically).
 Click
Table 2. Treatment icon
reactors to add picture
 How it works
Gas and Residue Treatment Stages
 Solids will be discharged from the process which include metals together with carbon.
The level of carbon is small for gasification; but significant in pyrolysis
 Larger particles of solids in the thermal treatment reactor are usually discharged as
bottom ash and slag. Lighter ash is usually collected when the gas is separated with the
use of cyclones and ultimately filters. In addition, volatile metals such as lead, tin,
cadmium and mercury will be carried in the gas until such point that the gas is cooled
for them to be sufficiently condensed.

Energy Recovery/Utilisation of Syngas

 One of the potential benefits of pyrolysis and gasification is that the syngas can be used
in a number of different ways. In terms of producing energy, the most common
configuration is to burn the syngas in a boiler to generate steam. The steam can then be
used to generate electricity by passing it through a steam turbine and, if there is a
demand local to the plant, for heating. Using the heat in addition to generating
electricity improves the overall energy efficiency of the system significantly.
 How it works
 The syngas can also be used to fuel a dedicated gas engine. A syngas from a very well
run gasifier, or further processed for example by reforming, may be suitable for use in a
gas turbine. Running these types of plant on syngas is still in its infancy and would
require cleaning and cooling prior to use.
 To minimise costs for energy generation the TT plant could be located adjacent to an
existing power plant and the syngas transferred to it.
 Syngas could also be used as a chemical feedstock, but would require the treatment
plant to be local to the end user, in order to be a practical solution. This would require
very high gas cleanliness; pollutants, notably sulphur and halogens, may need to be
removed prior to combustion of the gas. Alkalis such as lime and sodium hydroxide are
the favoured reagents for removal of the halogen streams. Sulphur can be removed by a
variety of routes, largely dependant on the initial concentration
 Syngas from waste has potential as hydrogen source, which could have applications in
both power generation and as a vehicle fuel. There would however be significant
purification and reforming required before the gas would be of an appropriate quality
for power generation (in turbines) or transport (in fuel cells).
 How it works
 The advantages of using TT plants to produce the syngas would arise from their
relatively small scale, flexibility to different inputs and modular development.
Producing syngas to serve multiple end uses could complicate delivery of the plants but
it could provide a higher degree of financial security.
Examples of TT technologies
Waste Gen (Tech Trade) Hamm Germany
 A pyrolysis plant that processes a pre-prepared RDF to produce a syngas
that is immediately burnt in a dedicated burner in an otherwise coal fired
power station boiler.
 The resulting char after recovery of metals using magnets and aggregate,
using a ballistic separator, is fed into the station coalbunkers.
 Fuel is delivered to the plant in bales or bulk form, from a range of RDF
producers. The fuel is conveyed to the two rotary kiln, pyrolyser, units
(20m in length x 2.8m in diameter). Natural gas burners heat the pyrolysis
drums. The two pyrolysis drums replace 10% of the fuel input to a coal
fired 330Mwe generating set.
 Examples of TT technologies
KBI Waste & Energy Solutions GmbH
 A Mechanical & Biological Treatment (MBT) plant followed by an oxygen
blown ‘down draught’ gasifier. The waste pre-treatment and the gasifier helps to
produce quality and consistent gas production and meet emission limits.
 Received waste is dried in a rotating compost drum and recyclates are removed.
The waste then passes to a feed preparation area where additives such as coke,
(typically 17%) and limestone are introduced prior to gasification.
 In the gasifier oxygen is added at several points down the gasifier progressively
raising the temperature towards the maximum, normally 1500°C. Additional
feeds of steam and natural gas are used so as to control the composition of the
produced gas.
 The gas is to be used for power generation via a gas turbine set. The gas is
burned in a conventional gas turbine set and the exhaust gas from the turbine is
used to raise steam. Some of the steam / electricity is used by the process with
the excess available for export.
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 Markets and outlets for the outputs
 TT processes will all produce a gas (usually for energy recovery) and a solid
residue (slag, ash or char). Some facilities are also designed with mechanical
preparation and sorting equipment to extract recyclables. Table 3 summarises
the key outputs from ATT processes.

Materials Recycling
 Recyclables derived from either the front end preparation stage of a TT plant
or metals extracted from the back end of the process (i.e. out of the ash) are
typically of a lower quality than those derived from a separate household
recyclate collection system, and generally have a lower value accordingly.
 The types of materials recovered from TT processes almost always include
metals (ferrous and non-ferrous), usually from the front end of the process.
Metal removal can help enhance overall recycling levels and enable recovery
of certain constituent parts that would not otherwise be collected in
household systems (e.g. steel coat hangers, scrap metal etc.).
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Table 3:
Examples of outputs
from gasification and
pyrolysis
processes
 Markets and outlets for the outputs
 Pyrolysis plants produce a bottom residue that contains significant amounts of
carbon. This will need to be disposed of to landfill, or treated further to reduce the
carbon content for example by gasification or combustion. If treated further the final
bottom residue could then be recycled as a secondary aggregate.
 Gasification tends to produce a bottom residue which has a lower carbon content and
has usually been melted or fused, and this could therefore be recycled as aggregate.
The recycling of bottom ash would need to be undertaken in accordance with
relevant legislation but is likely to be of equivalent or potentially better quality than
incinerator bottom ash, which is currently recycled in aggregate applications.

Energy
 TT processes are designed to recover energy from the waste processed either in the
form of fuel production (liquid or gas) or combusting the syngas to generate
electricity and/or heat for use on site and export off site. There is also potential for
the syngas to be utilised in vehicles, after reforming to produce hydrogen. It is
envisaged that the initial market for the hydrogen would be public transport fleets
using fuel cell vehicles.
PLANNING ISSUES
 Key Issues
 The key issues that will need to be considered when planning a TT facility
are:
 Plant/Facility Siting;
 Traffic;
 Air Emissions / Health Effects;
 Dust / Odour;
 Flies, Vermin and Birds;
 Noise;
 Litter;
 Water Resources;
 Visual Intrusion; and
 Public Concern
 Planningissues
Plant Siting
 TT processes can be similar in appearance and characteristics to various
process industries. It would often be suitable to locate facilities on land
previously used for general industrial activities
 Facilities are likely to require good transport infrastructure. Such sites should
either be located close to the primary road network or alternatively have the
potential to be accessed by rail or barge
 The location of such plants together with facilities producing RDF (such as
MBT and MHT facilities) could be advantageous.
 The potential for export of energy to host users or the national grid should
also be a key consideration in the siting of TT facilities. Consideration should
always be given to utilising not only the electricity from the plant but also the
waste heat in order to maximise energy and carbon benefits.
 Planningissues
Traffic
 TT facilities may be served by large numbers of heavy goods vehicle with a
potential impact on local roads and the amenity of local residents. It is likely
that the site layout/road configuration will need to be suitable to accept a
range of light and heavy vehicles.
Emissions/Health Effects
 The major emission from a plant with energy recovery is the release of flue
gases from the combustion of the syngas or residual solid. The clean-up
required for the flue gases is dependent on the process from which they have
been generated. One of the main benefits claimed by manufacturers for
pyrolysis and gasification plant is that emissions of pollutants are lower than
those from conventional incineration.
 Entrained (fine) particles in the syngas can either be removed before or after
combustion depending on the treatment process and combustion technology
employed.
 Planning issues
 A further solid residue that is produced is from abatement plant used to
clean-up the flue gases from the combustion process. Both of these solid
streams are hazardous and must be disposed of appropriately. Often they are
combined as they are removed during the same stage of the flue gas clean-up.
Dust / Odour
 Any waste management operations can give rise to dust and odours. These
can be minimised by good building design, performing all operations under
controlled conditions indoors, good working practices and effective
management undertaken for dust suppression from vehicle movements.
Flies, Vermin and Birds
 A TT processing is unlikely to attract vermin and birds due to majority of
waste throughput and operations being completely enclosed in buildings.
However, it is possible that flies could accumulate, especially if they have
been brought in during delivery of the waste. Effective housekeeping and on
site management of tipping and storage areas is essential to minimise the risk
from vermin and
 Planning issues
other pests. In some operations waste heat from the process may be used to
bring temperatures in fresh input waste to levels above which flies can live.
The use of RDF as a feedstock would reduce this issue relative to raw waste.
Noise
 The main contributors to noise associated with TT are likely to be:
 vehicle movements / manoeuvring;  steam turbine units; and
 traffic noise on the local road networks;
 air cooled condenser
units.
 mechanical processing such as waste preparation;
 air extraction fans and ventilation systems;
Litter
 Any waste which contains plastics and paper is more likely to lead to litter
problems. With TT litter problems can be minimised as long as good working
practices are adhered to and vehicles use covers and reception and processing
are undertaken indoors.
 Planning issues
Visual Intrusion
 Visual intrusion issues should be dealt with on a site specific basis and the
following items should be considered:
 Effect on landscape; removal of items such as trees or undertaking major earthworks
 Site setting; is the site close to heritage buildings, conservation areas or sensitive
viewpoints
 Existing large buildings and structures in the area
 The potential of a stack associated with some air clean up systems for mixed waste
processing operations may impact on visual intrusion
 Use of screening features (trees, hedges, banks etc); and
 The number of vehicles accessing the site and their frequency
Public Concern
 Public concerns about waste facilities relate to amenity issues (odour, dust,
noise, traffic, litter etc). With thermal based facilities health concerns can also be
a perceived issue.
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Table 4.
Land requirement
Size and Land take
Table 4 shows the land area required for the building footprint and also
for the entire site (including supporting site infrastructure) for examples
of thermal processes.
 References
 Vesilind, P. A., Worrell, W., and Reinhart, D. (2002). Solid waste engineering.
Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning, California, United States
 Pichtel, J. (2005). Waste management practices. Municipal, hazardous and
industrial. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, United States