SNIST (JNTUH) M.Tech (Therm.

Engg)

ALTERNATIVE FUELS

Dr. SIRIVELLA VIJAYA BHASKAR

Professor in Mechanical Engineering
Sreenidhi Institute of Scienc & Technology,
Hyderabad
 UNIT-I: Alternate Fuels
2

 Availability and properties of alternate fuels

 General use of
 Alcohols
 LPG,

 Hydrogen

 ammonia,

 CNG and LNG

 Vegetable oils and

 biogas.

 Merits and demerits of various alternate fuels

 Objectives
3

After studying this unit, you should be able to

understand the alternative renewable fuel sources

understand the different types of alternative fuels
available as of today
know the chemical properties of alternative fuels
and
advantages and disadvantages of alternative fuels
Sources of Energy

Conventional /
Non-Renewable

Unconventional
(Non-conventional)/
Renewable
Conventional/Non-conventional ???

5
 Introduction

 The increase in energy consumption

particularly in the past several decades has
raised fears of exhausting vital natural
resources

 Rapid industrialization and massive growth in

population has increased the dependence and
use of natural fuels

 Currently approximately 90% of our

energy requirement are met by
fossil fuels
 Studies suggest that if exploited at the same
rate, the coal reserves will deplete in the next
200-300 years and petroleum deposits will
deplete in the next few decades

 So,it is important for us to engage in

research and development of alternative fuels
so we may not face scarcity of natural
resources in the future
 Need for Alternate Fuel

1. Diminishing Reserves of Conventional Fuels

2. To reduce environmental pollution
3. To protect against Global Warming
4. To reduce import cost and improve nations’
economy
5. Meeting the current global energy demand
 Need for Alternate Fuel

1. Diminishing Reserves of Conventional Fuels

The traditional fuels including petroleum would
be depleted after some time. Because they are
not renewable

2. To reduce environmental pollution

The use of alternative fuels considerably
decreases harmful exhaust emissions (such as
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, particulate
matter and sulfur dioxide) as well as ozone-
producing emissions.
 Need for Alternate Fuel (cont..)

3. To protect against Global Warming

According to a commonly accepted scientific

theory, burning fossil fuels was causing
temperatures to rise in the earth’s atmosphere
(global warming).
Though global warming continues to be just a
theory, a lot of people across the globe are of the
belief that discovering sources of cleaner burning
fuel is an essential step towards enhancing the
quality of our environment.
 Need for Alternate Fuel (cont..)

4. To reduce import cost and improve nations’

economy
The majority of oil fields are located in Middle
East and majority of OPEC countries are
associated with problems – both political and
economic. So, the production rate is uncertain and
may/may not meet the demand. This causes rise
in price abruptly.
On the other hand, the feed-stock for alternative
fuels are renewable and can be produced locally
with less expenses. This in turn means saving of
money in the long term.
 Need for Alternate Fuel (cont..)

5. Meeting the current global energy demand

Every day increasing demand of energy has
created large gap between demand and supply.
Availability of Alternate Fuels
 Properties of Alternative Fuels
14

Key properties for alternative fuels to be considered for :

 Combustion and Performance: Heat of combustion, heat
content of stoichiometric mixture, octane number (SI
engine) , cetane number (CI engine), boiling point ( esp.,
cold start), flammability limits
 Emissions: Chemical composition and nature, adiabatic
flame temperature
 Storage and Handling: Boiling point, volumetric energy
density, vapour pressure, flammability limits
15
 Properties of Alternative Fuels
16

 Volatility : Volatility is one of the main characteristic properties

of petrol/gasoline which determines its suitability for use in an
SI engine. Since gasoline is a mixture of different hydrocarbons,
volatility depends on the fractional composition of the fuel. The
usual practice of measuring the fuel volatility is the distillation of
the fuel in a special device at atmospheric pressure and in the
presence of its own vapour.

 Starting and Warm up : A certain part of the gasoline should
vapourize at the room temperature for easy starting of the
engine. As the engine warms up, the temperature will gradually
increase to the operating temperature.
 Properties of Alternative Fuels (Cont..)
17
 Antiknock Quality : Abnormal burning or detonation in an SI
engine . combustion chamber causes a very high rate of energy
release, excessive temperature and pressure inside the cylinder
adversely affect its thermal efficiency. Therefore, the
characteristics of the fuel used should be such that it resists the
tendency to produce detonation and this property is called its
antiknock property.
 Gum Deposits : Reactive hydrocarbons and impurities in the fuel
have a tendency to oxidize upon storage and form liquid and
solid gummy substances. . A gasoline with high gum content will
cause operating difficulties such as sticking valves and piston
rings carbon deposits in the engine, gum deposits in the
manifold, clogging of carburettor jets and enlarging of the valve
stems, cylinders and pistons.
 Properties of Alternative Fuels (Cont..)
18

 Sulphur Content : Hydrocarbon fuels may contain free sulphur,

hydrogen sulphide and other sulphur compounds which are objection
able for several reasons. The sulphur is a corrosive element of the fuel
that can corrode fuel lines, carburettors and injection pumps and it will
unite with oxygen to form sulphur dioxide that, in the presence of water
at low temperatures, may form sulphurous acid .
The presence of sulphur can reduce the self-ignition temperature, then
promoting knock in the SI engine

Viscosity : CI engine fuels should be able to flow through the fuel system and the
strainers under the lowest operating temperatures to which the engine is
subjected to.
SI Engine: Higher Octane number is required (above 86-94)
CI Engine: Above 45 Cetane number is preferred
 Properties of Alternative Fuels
19

 Some of the key properties of the main alternative fuel candidates are
compared in Table with those of conventional petroleum fuels.
Properties of Alternative Fuels
20
DIFFERENT TYPES OF ALTERNATE FUELS
21

 Alcohol fuels (ethanol & methanol)

 LPG
 Hydrogen
 Ammonia
 CNG and LNG
 Vegetable oil
 Bio-Fuel (incl. Biogas)
 Alcohol Fuels: Ethanol & Methanol
22

 Methanol at present is produced mostly from

natural gas although both methanol and ethanol
can be produced from renewable sources.
 Methanol may be produced near the natural gas
field and it being liquid can be more easily handled
and transported over long distances compared to
natural gas.
 Ethanol is produced almost entirely from the
renewable agriculture sources by fermentation
of sugar, grains, tapioca, molasses etc.
 Alcohol Fuels: Ethanol & Methanol
23

Alcohols in engines may be used as:

 Low concentration ( 5 to 10% by volume) blends in gasoline
 Neat alcohol or high level ( 85% by volume) blends
Neat ethanol (95% ethanol + 5% water) and
anhydrous ethanol blended up to 20% in gasoline
have been widely used in Brazil during 1980’s. In
the USA, use of ethanol was promoted due to
agricultural surplus for blending in the
reformulated gasoline as oxygenate.
 Alcohol Fuels: Ethanol & Methanol
24

Use of 5 to 10% ethanol as a blending component in

gasoline is permitted in Europe and India.
Now, ethanol is the preferred oxygenate replacing
MTBE (methyl tertiary-butyl ether).
Methanol due to its toxicity is not permitted any
more for blending into gasoline.
The 10 percent ethanol-gasoline blends used in the
USA are commonly referred as ‘Gasohol’.
 Alcohol Fuels: Ethanol & Methanol
25

Key features of alcohols as motor fuel are:

 Alcohols are a preferred alternative for SI engines only due to
their high octane number. A higher engine compression ratio
could be used to obtain a higher engine thermal efficiency.
 Cetane number of methanol and ethanol are close to 5 and 8,
respectively.
 Direct injection alcohol engine prototypes operating similar to
diesel/CI engines have also been developed using either a
positive source of ignition or high dosage of ignition quality
improvers (3 to 7% by volume).
 Alcohols are not easily miscible (homogeneous mixture) in the
diesel fuels. To prepare alcohol-diesel blends high amounts of
emulsifiers or solublizers are required.
 Key features of alcohols as motor fuel are:
26

 Heating value of ethanol is approximately 60 percent and that of

methanol is only 45 % of gasoline.
 The stoichiometric air-fuel ratio due to presence of oxygen in the
molecule is much lower than the gasoline.
 The volumetric energy content of stoichiometric mixture (gaseous
state) of alcohols and gasoline however, are not very different. Thus,
engine specific power output that may be obtained with alcohols and
gasoline is nearly the same.
 The latent heat of vaporization of methanol and ethanol is nearly 4
and 2.7 times, respectively compared to gasoline. Cold starting
performance with neat alcohol is therefore, poor compared to
gasoline.
 Flames of neat alcohols in air are not easily visible to the naked eye.
Hence, 15% gasoline is mixed to alcohol for making the flame visible
in case of an accidental fire.
 Alcohols - Ethanol
27

An alcohol-based alternative fuel made by fermenting

and distilling crops such as corn, barley or wheat. It
can be blended with gasoline to increase octane
levels and improve emissions quality.
Positive: Materials are renewable.
Negative: Ethanol subsidies have a negative impact
on food prices and availability.
 General Use of Alcohols- Ethanol
28

 Ethanol fuel use in the U.S. has increased

dramatically from about 1.7 billion gallons in 2001 to
about 16.4 billion in 2016
 Ethanol is also known as ethyl alcohol. It’s the
alcohol in beer, wine, rum, vodka, etc.

 Ethanol was used to fuel some of the

first automobiles
 The first production car running entirely on ethanol
was the Fiat 147, introduced in 1978 in Brazil by Fiat
 General Use of Alcohols- Ethanol
29

 Alcohol-based alternative fuel produced by

fermenting and distilling starch crops or cellulose
 Most commonly used to increase octane and improve
the emissions quality of gasoline.
 Can be blended with gasoline to create E85, a blend of
85% ethanol and 15% gasoline.(Gasohol)
 An excellent, clean-burning fuel, has a higher octane
rating (over 100) and burns cooler than gasoline.
 High ethanol blends present a problem to achieve
enough vapor pressure for the fuel to evaporate and
spark the ignition during cold weather
 General Use of Alcohols- Ethanol
30

The various techniques by which the ethanol can be

used as a fuel for petrol engines are:
1. Blend formation
2. Fumigation  carbureting or vaporizing
3. Dual injection
4. Ignition improvers
5. Surface ignition
 Ethanol
31

World country 2013 2010 2009 2008 2007

rank

1 United States 13,900.00 13,231.00 10,938.00 9,235.00 6,485.00

2 Brazil 5,573.24 6,921.54 6,577.89 6,472.20 5,019.20

4 China 554.76 541.55 541.55 501.90 486.00

7 India 91.67 66.00 52.80

 Ethanol – General Uses
32

Personal Care Products

 clean skin, in lotions as a preservative and to help
ensure that lotion ingredients do not separate, and in
hairsprays to help the spray adhere to hair.
 ethanol is effective in killing microorganisms like
bacteria, fungi and viruses, it is a common ingredient
in many hand sanitizers
 Ethanol – General Uses
33

Household Products
 Ethanol mixes easily with water and many organic
compounds, and makes an effective solvent for use in
paints, lacquers and varnish, as well as household
cleaning products.
 As an additive to cleaning products, ethanol is also
used as a preservative because it is effective in
knocking out organisms that could pose a danger to
consumers.
 Ethanol – General Uses
34

Food Additives
 As a food additive, ethanol can help evenly distribute
food coloring, as well as enhance the flavor of food
extracts. For example, vanilla extract, a common
food flavoring, is made by curing and processing
vanilla beans in a solution of ethanol and water.
 In the United States, the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) only allows vanilla to be called
“extract” when it has an alcohol or ethanol base.
 Ethanol – General Uses
35

Fuel in Automotives
 More than 97 percent of U.S. gasoline contains
ethanol, typically in a mixture called E10, made up of
10 percent ethanol and 90 percent gasoline, to
oxygenate the fuel and reduce air pollution.
 Ethanol has a higher octane number than gasoline,
providing premium blending properties, according to
the U.S. Department of Energy. Minimum octane
number requirements prevent engine knocking and
maintain drivability.
 General Use of Alcohols- Methanol
36

 Methanol also known as wood alcohol, methanol is a

convenient liquid fuel that is made from a number of
different feedstock resources
- natural gas and coal as well as renewable resources
like forest thinning or
agriculture waste and
- even directly from CO2
captured from power plant and factory
emissions.
General Use of Alcohols- Methanol
37
 General Use of Alcohols- Methanol
38

 Methanol’s benefits include lower emissions, higher

performance, and lower risk of flammability than
gasoline
 Methanol can easily be made into hydrogen for
hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in the future.
 Methanol is extremely corrosive, requiring special
materials for delivery and storage.
 General Use of Alcohols- Methanol
39

 Methyl alcohol, also called methanol, can be readily

purchased in hardware stores as paint thinner and
gas stations as gas line antifreeze.
 It makes a good fuel for alcohol stoves.
 It is also referred to as wood alcohol, camp stove fuel
and methyl hydrate. The vapors of methyl alcohol are
toxic and long-term use and contaminated stoves
may cause inadvertent exposure. Be careful when
stowing methyl alcohol near cooking utensils.
40
 General Use of LPG
41

 Cooking and Heating

 No self-respecting chef would cook with anything
else but gas. In fact, LPG is one of the major
ingredients in the success of a good recipe and
delicious meal. Its efficient flame provides you with
instant heat and therefore makes cooking easy,
enjoyable and clean.
 LPG fireplace or portable heater during a cold
winter.
 General Use of LPG
42

 Cooling
 Gone are the days of fluctuating air-conditioned
temperatures. LPG has revolutionised the consistent
supply of your temperature requirements. From
island breezes to Alaskan snow falls, you can have it
all. Home air-conditioning is the easiest way to
monitor your home temperature. A vast range of
systems is available to suit your needs.
 General Use of LPG
43

 Refrigeration
 From fresh produce to bulk meat preservation, LPG
has assisted this industry to improve cold storage
facilities throughout the country. LPG adheres to the
strictest regulations and assists in maintaining a
non-pollutant atmosphere resulting in only the
freshest products offered to the consumers
 General Use of LPG
44

 Crop Drying
 LPG is often used in this agricultural application
because of its highly controllable nature. Whatever
your crop, Totalgaz will supply you with the kind of
fuel that can maintain an optimum drying
temperature. Potatoes, wheat, maize, barley, etc can
then be dried at an optimum level for the most
suitable usage.
 General Use of LPG
45

 Poultry Rearing
 A reliable energy supply is a matter of life and death
for poultry farmers. Birds thrive on consistent levels
of heat and on a stress-free environment in which to
grow healthily. LPG produces the moist heat
necessary to promote rapid growth as well as the
feathering of chickens. Moreover, thanks to the clean
properties of LPG feeds or broods do not run the
danger of contamination.
 Mining Uses for LPG
46

 Extraction industries include the extraction of

natural products from the earth as well as their
industrially derived products. These industries
require continuous energy mostly for drying and
heating.
 Some sectors, like cement works, bitumen coatings,
road lining and roof water-proofing are particularly
large consumers of energy.
 LPG is a well-adapted source of energy for these
sectors because of its mobile storage and on-site
transport possibility.
 General Use of LPG
47

 LPG can be used in many applications in the

industrial sector namely in space- and process-
heating, powering industrial ovens, production of
food, kilns, furnaces, production of packing material
as well as in powering forklift trucks in warehouses.
 Ceramic
 LPG is one of the best choices of energy in this
particular industry. Ceramics made of clay require a
high heating value in order to dry and become hard
and solid.
 General Use of LPG
48

 Easily controllable, LPG provides clean combustion

and is therefore advantageous in the maintenance
process. Burners and kilns have to be maintained
less often causing less downtime, with the
consequence of saving costs and increasing
productivity. As a choice energy, LPG is widely used
in pottery, roofing, ceramic tiles and sanitary ware.
 General Use of LPG
49

 Food Processing
 LPG is widely used in many food processing systems
because of its clean burning properties. Bakeries and
the manufacturers of biscuits, chips and chocolate
are inclined to choose LPG as their preferred energy
option as their products will not be exposed to the
risk of contamination. In addition, this energy is also
used in slaughterhouse for the cleaning of facilities
and sterilisation, pork butchery in the process of
cooking, drying and smoking as well as in the dairy
industry for pasteurisation.

 General Use of LPG
50

 Metal Processing
 Metallurgy uses heat treatments to meet the demand
for highly specialised metals. Heat treatment
consists in modifying the original structure of the
metal or alloy in order to obtain mechanical
specifications. This is done while using a precise
thermal cycle that includes heating, maintaining a
high temperature and cooling.
 General Use of LPG
51

 Some heat treatments need a controlled atmospheric

environment and the production of such an
environment is possible in furnaces where LPG is
used since combustion products have no contact
with the furnace wall (thus avoiding any oxidation
processes). Using LPG in this process allows the
industry to manufacture products of a higher quality
thanks to its flexible usage and low maintenance
costs. LPG can also be used in applications
involving surface treatment such as paint drying and
galvanisation.

 General Use of LPG - Textile
52

The textile industry consists of three groups, namely:

 Natural textiles: cotton, wool, linen, silk,
 Artificial textiles: derived from natural products
 Synthetic textiles: 100% chemical products with a high
degree of polymerisation.
 The textile industry requires a number of energy-
consuming processes for which LPG is found to be a
suitable fuel. These processes are:
 Heating of the bath (cleaning, bleaching, dyeing)
 Drying, thread singeing and polymerisation
 Ironing
 General Use of LPG- Printing
53

 The manufacture of pulp, paper and cardboard

consumes a considerable amount of energy. If fuel oil
is to be commonly used in manufacturing pulp, it is
possible for LPG to find many applications in paper,
cardboard manufacturing processes and printing. In
colour printing, the paper has to go several times
through the rotary press as it requires a fast ink drying
process. It is therefore always better to use the
decentralised heating solution rather than the
centralised steam solution in these processes as it
offers more advantages: modular heating, easy
regulation of gas output, cleanliness and
environmental care.
 General Use of LPG-Chemicals Production
54
 A number of products are part of the field of
chemical engineering, i.e.
 Polymers
 Paint
 Varnish
 Colourings and dyes
 Wax and polish.
 A number of products are destined to:
 The food industry (aromas, flavours, spice extracts)
 The pharmaceutical industry
 General Use of LPG-Chemicals Production
55
 Although chemical engineering is the biggest user of
steam boilers, LPG-powered heat-exchangers are
recommended in a number of different stages of the
process. By using LPG, the chemical processes are
enhanced thanks to good temperature regulation
attributes, very high yields of energy and low
maintenance procedures that are required by this
type of installation.
 General Use of LPG
56

 Forklifts
 Good for meeting air quality regulations in the
workplace and technical demands for a modern
handling (rapidity, power, flexibility, economy), LPG
is nowadays the best response for the fuelling of
thermal-engine trucks. Lead-free and soot-free, LPG
has a very low rate of carbon monoxide emissions
and is therefore the chosen energy when a pollution-
free environment is critical. Should you invest in new
forklifts trucks, there are many reasons why you
should use LPG models

 General Use of LPG
57

 The LPG is usually fed to the engine in gas phase.

 Most LPG vehicles operate on bi-fuel systems for
operation either on gasoline or LPG. It is important
as the number of LPG filling stations is usually small.
 One drawback with a bi-fuel system is that the
engine is neither optimised on LPG nor on gasoline.
 Better cold start and warm-up characteristics due to
its gaseous state compared to gasoline hence lower
HC emissions.
 General Use of LPG
58

 HC emissions from LPG vehicles have significantly

lower potential of smog formation compared to
gasoline and diesel fuels.
 Negligible PM emissions compared to diesel.
 Small reductions in CO compared to gasoline as no
enrichment of mixtures during warm up or
acceleration phase is required.
 No significant difference in NOx emissions.
 General Use of LPG
59

 Variation in propane/butane ratio in LPG poses

problem as the octane number of the two main
constituents; propane (RON is 112) and butane
(RON is 94) is quite different.
 For bi-fuel vehicles specific technological
development will be necessary to ensure compliance
with the stringent emission standards.
 Hydrogen
60
 Steam reacts with methanol to generate carbon monoxide
and hydrogen.
 This process is done at high temperatures. When the
temperature is set down, carbon monoxide will be produced.
It can produce carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
 The efficiency rate is around 75%.

 A mixture of water and methanol with a molar concentration ratio

(water:methanol) of 1.0 - 1.5 is pressurized to approximately 20 bar,
vaporized and heated to a temperature of 250 - 360 °C.
 The hydrogen that is created is separated through the use of Pressure
swing adsorption or a hydrogen-permeable membrane made of polymer
or a palladium alloy.
 Production of Hydrogen
61

Production using Thermolysis and Electrolysis

 These are used for hydrogen production for industrial
uses. The method is also known as water splitting. In
this method, hydrogen and oxygen molecules are
separated using electric currents. Heat is not
necessary for electrolysis.
 However, high temperatures will produce better
hydrogen yields. Sometimes urine is used in lieu of
water. Many uses of hydrogen rely on this method.
 H2 Prod: Steam reforming of hydrocarbons
 Steam reforming of natural gas or syngas sometimes
referred to as steam methane reforming (SMR) is the
most common method of producing commercial bulk
hydrogen as well as the hydrogen used in the industrial
synthesis of ammonia.
 It is also the least expensive method.
 At high temperatures (700 – 1100 °C) and in the
presence of a metal-based catalyst (nickel),
steam reacts with methane to yield carbon
monoxide and hydrogen.
 These two reactions are reversible in nature.
CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2
 Steam reforming of hydrocarbons

 Additional hydrogen can be recovered by a lower-

temperature gas-shift reaction with the carbon
monoxide produced.
 The reaction is summarized by:

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
The first reaction is strongly endothermic
(consumes heat).
the second reaction is mildly exothermic
(produces heat).
The efficiency of the process is approximately 65% to
75%.
 General Use of Hydrogen
64

Fuel Cells
 Hydrogen fuel cells generate electricity from oxygen
and hydrogen. These electrochemical cells generate
only water vapor so it is considered as environment
friendly.
 Fuel cells are used in spacecrafts, remote weather
stations and submarines. When in liquid form, it is
used as rocket fuel.
 Deuterium is heavy hydrogen. This isotope is used for
nuclear fusion reaction in nuclear reactors.
 General Use of Hydrogen
65

Use in Weather Balloons

 Because hydrogen is light, scientists are able to use it
with weather balloons. Meteorologists’ weather
balloons have this element installed. These balloons
are fitted with equipment to record information
necessary to study the climate. During the First
World War, these were utilized in balloon airships.
 General Use of Hydrogen
66

Industrial Applications
 Other uses of hydrogen are in the fertilizer and
paint industries.
 It is also used in the food and chemical industries.
 Food industries use the element to make
Hydrogenated vegetable oils such as margarine and
butter. In this procedure, vegetable oils are combined
with hydrogen. By using nickel as a catalyst, solid fat
substances are produced.
In petrochemical industry, hydrogen is required for
crude oil refinements
 General Use of Hydrogen
67

Chemical Compounds
 This element is used for producing several chemical
compounds. Apart from ammonia, hydrogen can be
harnessed in other ways. It can be used to make
fertilizers, hydrochloric acids and an assortment
of bases.
 The same element is required for methyl alcohol
production. Methyl alcohol is used in inks, varnishes
and paints.
 Hydrogen peroxide is another vital compound that is
used in Doctor’s office.
 General Use of Hydrogen
68

 Hydrogen peroxide is used in many ways. First and

foremost it is used for medication. It is included in
most first aid kits. It is primarily used for treating
wounds and cuts. Peroxide is also a toenail fungus
disinfectant. Hydrogen peroxide can be diluted in
water. It can kill bacteria and germs if used as
whitewash. The same element can be used for teeth
whitening and canker sores treatment.
 Hydrogen peroxide can be used in non-medical ways.
Other applications include a pest controller in
gardens, removing stains on clothing and
functioning as a bleaching agent for cleaning homes.
 Ammonia
69

 Ammonia, also known as NH3, is a colorless gas with

a distinct odor composed of nitrogen and hydrogen
atoms.
 It is produced naturally in the human body and in
nature—in water, soil and air, even in tiny bacteria
molecules.
 In human health, ammonia and the ammonium ion
are vital components of metabolic processes
 General Use of Ammonia
70

Fertilizer
 About 90 percent of ammonia produced is used in
fertilizer, to help sustain food production for
billions of people around the world.
 The production of food crops naturally depletes soil
nutrient supplies. In order to maintain healthy crops,
farmers rely on fertilizers to keep their soils
productive.
 General Use of Ammonia
71
Household Cleaning Products
 On its own or as an ingredient in many household
cleaning products, ammonia can be used to clean a
variety of household surfaces – from tubs, sinks and
toilets to bathroom and kitchen countertops and
tiles.
 Ammonia also is effective at breaking down
household grime or stains from animal fats or
vegetable oils, such as cooking grease and wine
stains. Because ammonia evaporates quickly, it is
commonly used in glass cleaning solutions to help
avoid streaking.
 General Use of Ammonia
72

Industrial/Manufacturing Uses
 When used as a refrigerant gas and in air-conditioning
equipment, ammonia can absorb substantial amounts of
heat from its surroundings.
 Ammonia can be used to purify water supplies and as a
building block in the manufacture of many products
including plastics, explosives, fabrics, pesticides and
dyes.
 Ammonia also is used in the waste and wastewater
treatment, cold storage, rubber, pulp and paper and
food and beverage industries as a stabilizer, neutralizer
and a source of nitrogen. It also is used in the manufacture
of pharmaceuticals.
 General Use of Ammonia
73
 Agricultural industries are the major users of ammonia, representing nearly 80% of all
ammonia produced in the United States. Ammonia is a very valuable source of nitrogen
that is essential for plant growth. Depending on the particular crop being grown, up to
200 pounds of ammonia per acre may be applied for each growing season.

 Ammonia is used in the production of liquid fertilizer solutions which consist of ammonia,
ammonium nitrate, urea and aqua ammonia. It is also used by the fertilizer industry to
produce ammonium and nitrate salts.

 Ammonia and urea are used as a source of protein in livestock feeds for ruminating
animals such as cattle, sheep and goats. Ammonia can also be used as a pre-harvest cotton
defoliant, an anti-fungal agent on certain fruits and as preservative for the storage of high-
moisture corn.

 Dissociated ammonia is used in such metal treating operations as nitriding,

carbonitriding, bright annealing, furnace brazing, sintering, sodium hydride descaling,
atomic hydrogen welding and other applications where protective atmospheres are
required.
 General Use of Ammonia
74
 Ammonia is used in the manufacture of nitric acid; certain alkalies such as soda ash;
dyes; pharmaceuticals such as sulfa drugs, vitamins and cosmetics; synthetic textile
fibers such as nylon, rayon and acrylics; and for the manufacture of certain plastics such as
phenolics and polyurethanes.

 The petroleum industry utilizes ammonia in neutralizing the acid constituents of crude
oil and for protection of equipment from corrosion. Ammonia is used in the mining
industry for extraction of metals such as copper, nickel and molybdenum from their ores.

 Ammonia is used in several areas of water and wastewater treatment, such as pH

control, in solution form to regenerate weak anion exchange resins, in conjunction with
chlorine to produce potable water and as an oxygen scavenger in boiler water treatment.
 Ammonia is used in stack emission control systems to neutralize sulfur oxides from
combustion of sulfur-containing fuels, as a method of NOx control in both catalytic and
non-catalytic applications and to enhance the efficiency of electrostatic precipitators for
particulate control.
 Ammonia is used as the developing agent in photochemical processes such as white
printing, blue printing and in the diazo duplication process.
 General Use of Ammonia
75
 Ammonia is a widely used refrigerant in industrial refrigeration systems found in
the food, beverage, petro-chemical and cold storage industries.

 Ammonia is used in the rubber industry for the stabilization of natural and synthetic
latex to prevent premature coagulation.

 The pulp and paper industry uses ammonia for pulping wood and as a casein
dispersant in the coating of paper.

 The food and beverage industry uses ammonia as a source of nitrogen needed for
yeast and microorganisms.

 The decomposition of ammonia serves as a source of hydrogen for some fuel cell and other
applications.

 Ammonia is used by the leather industry as a curing agent, as a slime and mold
preventative in tanning liquors and as a protective agent for leathers and furs in storage.

 Weak ammonia solutions are also widely used as commercial and household cleaners and
detergents.
 CNG and Its Uses
76

 Conventional natural gas, must be compressed (CNG)

or liquefied (LNG) for use in vehicles

 CNG: Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a fuel source

that is made from compressing natural gas to less
than 1% of its standard atmospheric volume, or 3,600
PSI.
 CNG can be used in place of gasoline or diesel in
any vehicle with a CNG conversion kit available or
CNG engine
 Primary component is Methane (CH4)
Use of CNG in Automotives
77
The average composition of
CNG is as follows
Constituents Percentage (%)
Methane 88.5
Ethane 5.5
Propane 3.7
Butane 1.8
Pentane 0.5
 Properties of CNG
 1.CNG is the cheapest, cleanest and least
environmentally impacting alternative fuel.
 2. Vehicles powered by CNG produce less
carbonmonoxide and hydrocarbon (HC) emission.
 3. It is less expensive than petrol and diesel.
 4. The ignition temperature of CNG is about 550°C.

 5. CNG requires more air for ignition

 LNG
80

 LNG: LNG is natural gas that has been cooled to

–260° F (–162° C), changing it from a gas into a
liquid that is 1/600th of its original volume.
 Major components are Propane and Butane (95%)

USES
 The industrial sector uses natural gas as a fuel for
process heating, in combined heat and power
systems, and as a raw material (feedstock) to
produce chemicals, fertilizer, and hydrogen.
 Uses of LNG
81

 Trucks: LNG can be used as a transportation fuel

because of its energy density. This has the potential
to be cheaper than conventional diesel, have quieter
engine operation, and emit less greenhouse gas
emissions (30-40% reduction).
 Shipping: LNG is a potential solution for the
shipping industry as an alternative fuel source to
diesel powered vessels. LNG is not only cleaner-
burning but also cost-saving as the vessel can hold a
greater volume of LNG than diesel fuel.
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

 Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes

that are primarily propane (C3H8), primarily
butane (C4H10) and, most commonly, mixes
including both propane and butane and
isobutane depending on the season — in winter
more propane, in summer more butane.
 Propylene and butylenes are usually also present
in small concentration. A powerful odorant,
ethanethiol, is added so that leaks can be
detected easily
The average composition of LPG
is as follows:

constituents percentage
N-butane 38.5

Iso butane 37

propane 24.5

 Its calorific value is about 25,000 kcal/m3

 Uses of LPG
 LPG is used to run an automobile vehicle just like CNG.
 Used as Home Gas for Cooking
 Heating Homes and Heat generation in industrial
equipment(s) in industries

Why Can't we Use CNG Instead of LPG as Home Gas?

Due to the lower energy capacity of a CNG cylinder, they
would need to be replaced more than twice as often.
So Space and Transportation cost will be saved
Advantages of CNG over LPG
 CNG produces less pollutants than LPG.
 CNG is cheaper and cleaner than LPG.
 The octane rating of CNG is high, hence
the thermal efficiency is more.
 It does not evolve sulphur and nitrogen gases.
 It mixes very easily with air than the other
gaseous fuels.
 Noise level is much less than diesel
 CNG vehicle limit 40% less of nitrogen oxide, 90%
less of hydrocarbons, 25% less of CO2
86
 Application of LPG

 It is increasingly used as an aerosol propellant and a

refrigerant, replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an
effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer.
 When specifically used as a vehicle fuel it is often
referred to as autogas.
 Other industrial application includes its use in
portable blow lamps, soldering, welding,
annealing, hardening, brazing, steel cutting etc.
88
 Biodiesel
89

 In a 1912 speech, Rudolf Diesel said, "the use of

vegetable oils for engine fuels may seem insignificant
today, but such oils may become, in the course of
time, as important as petroleum and the coal - tar
products of the present time".
 The revival of biodiesel derived from vegetable oils
started as a result of agricultural surplus in some
European countries and under Kyoto protocol the
need of reducing greenhouse gas CO2 emissions.
 Biodiesel
90

 Biodiesel is a renewable fuel that is produced from

a variety of edible and non-edible vegetable oils and
animal fats.
 It is mainly used as Alternative Fuel in Diesel
Engine

The term “biodiesel” is commonly used for methyl or

ethyl esters of the fatty acids in natural oils and
fats, which meet the fuel quality requirements of
compression-ignition engines.
 Biodiesel
91

 Straight vegetable oils (SVO) are not considered as

biodiesel.
 The straight vegetable oils have a very high
viscosity that makes flow of these oils difficult
even at room temperatures.
 Moreover, presence of glycerine in the vegetable oil
causes formation of heavy carbon deposits on the
injector nozzle holes that results in poor and
unacceptable performance and emissions from the
engine even within a few hours of operation.
 Production of Biodiesel
92

 Biodiesel is produced by reacting vegetable oils or

animal fats with an alcohol such as methanol or
ethanol in presence of a catalyst to yield mono-alkyl
esters. The overall reaction is given in Fig. Glycerol is
obtained as a by-product.
 Properties of Biodiesel
93

 A variety of vegetable oils such as soybean, rapeseed,

safflower, jatropha-curcas, palm, and cottonseed oils
have been used for production of biodiesel. Waste
edible oils left after frying/cooking operation etc.,
have also been converted to biodiesel for study of
their performance. The biodiesel are also known as
fatty acid methyl esters [FAME].
 Recently non-edible oil produced from jatropha-
curcas seeds has gained interest in India as this plant
can be easily grown on wastelands.
 Properties of Biodiesel
94

 The vegetable oil esters are practically free of sulphur and have a high
cetane number ranging from 46 to 60 depending upon the feedstock.
Due to presence of oxygen, biodiesels have a lower calorific value than
the diesel fuels. European specifications for biodiesel or fatty acid
methyl esters (FAME), EN 14214 have been issued in 2003.
 Biodiesel-Emissions
95

 The influence of biodiesel on emissions varies depending

on the type of biodiesel (soybean, rapeseed, or animal fats)
and on the type of conventional diesel to which the
biodiesel is added due to differences in their chemical
composition and properties.
 The average effects of blending of biodiesel in diesel fuel on
CO, HC, NOx and PM emissions compared to diesel as base
fuel are shown in Fig.8.7.The Table 8.19 gives change in
emissions with 20 % blend of biodiesel in diesel and 100%
biodiesel compared to diesel alone. These show the average
of the trends observed in a number of investigations.
 Biodiesel-Emissions
96

 Use of biodiesel results in reduction of CO, HC and PM, but

slight increase in NOx emissions is obtained.
 Reduction in CO emissions is attributed to presence of
oxygen in the fuel molecule.
 A slight increase in NOx emissions results perhaps due to
advancement of dynamic injection timing with biodiesel.
The methyl esters have a lower compressibility, which
results in advancement of dynamic injection timing with
biodiesel compared to diesel.
 Lower SOF with biodiesel and advanced injection timing
also results in lower PM emissions.
 Biodiesel-Emissions
97

 Volumetric fuel consumption with biodiesel is higher than

diesel due to its lower heating value. An increase of 10-11 %
in fuel consumption compared to diesel may be expected
when comparing their heating values. An increase in
volumetric fuel consumption by 0.9-2.1% with 20% blends
has been obtained.
Biodiesel-Emissions
98
 Alternative Fuels
99

 Greenhouse Gas Emissions with Alternative Fuels

 Fossil fuels currently supply about 80% of all primary energy and are
expected to remain fundamental to global energy supply for at least the
next 20 to 30 years. . Presently, it is estimated that power generation
accounts for about 40% and surface transport contributes nearly 20%
of global CO2 emissions.
The Kyoto Protocol signed in December 1997 commits the
industrialized countries to legally binding reductions in emissions of
greenhouse gases by 2008-2012. Strategy to achieve reduction in CO2
emissions from transport sector involves essentially the following:
 Reduction in fuel consumption of vehicles.
 Increased use of low carbon alternative fuels and bio fuels.
 Alternative Fuels
100

 European Union countries have introduced CO2 emission regulations

for the automobiles. A voluntary target of 140 g/km average CO2
emissions for new car sales to be met in 2008 was set that had to be
relaxed. By the year 2012, a goal of 130 g/km of CO2 to be achieved by
engine and vehicle technology, and further reduction to 120g/km by
use of renewable fuels has been set by European Union.
 Alternative Fuels
101

 When comparing different fuel and power plant alternatives, life cycle CO2 equivalent
GHG emissions are to be considered. It should account for CO2 and other GHG emissions
generated during production, transportation and use in the vehicles. Lifecycle CO2
emissions for liquid petroleum fuels, LPG, natural gas and biodiesel for heavy vehicle
application are compared in Fig 8.8. The CO2 emissions yielded during fuel production
and during fuel utilization stage in engines are shown separately. Among the alternative
fuels, natural gas having lower carbon content in the fuel molecule has advantage over
gasoline and diesel fuels as far as CO2 emissions are concerned. From natural gas
vehicles, the greenhouse effect of the fugitive methane emissions as a result of leakage
from the transportation and distribution systems is also to be accounted for as methane is
nearly 20 times more potent than CO2 in causing global warming. LPG lies in between the
natural gas and liquid petroleum fuels. The bio fuels such as ethanol and biodiesel have
much lower lifecycle CO2 emissions as the carbon dioxide produced on their combustion
would be the same that has been fixed from atmosphere during growth of the agriculture
crops. These fuels do contribute to net CO2 emissions resulting from manufacture of
fertilizers and other ingredients used for crops and, during processing of these fuels and
making them suitable for use in the engines.
102
103
 Bio-Gas
104

 Biogas is a mixture of methane, carbon dioxide

and other trace gasses.
 In principal, biogas can be used like other fuel gas.
When produced in household-level biogas
reactors, it is most suitable for cooking or
lightening .
 Additionally, electricity generation is a valuable
option with the biogas produced in large anaerobic
digesters.