Alcohol Fuel 1980 - Mathews

'
The Manual for the home

and farm production of
ALCOHOL FUEL
Stephen W. Mathewson
1e
Ten Speed Press
Berkeley, California
ii ALCOHOL MANUAL I ALCOHOL MANUAL
iii
COVER PHOTOGRAPH: Experimental 3 column still built t o check

operating parameters of a new plate design.
-Courtesy ALCOHOL TECHNOLOGY CORPORATION
© Copyright 1980 J.A. Diaz Publications
All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be

reproduced without written permission of the publisher.
Ten Speed Press

Box 7123
Berkeley, California 94707
Printed in USA
Library of Congress Catalqg Number 80-51216

iv ALCOHOL MANUAL ALCOHOL MANUAL v
CONTENTS
I NTRODU C T I ON ix
C h apter 1
AN OVERV l EW
Ch a p t e r 2
BAS I C FUEL THEORY 9
C h a p ter 3
UT I L I ZAT I ON O F ALCOHOL FUELS 31
Chapter4
ETHANOL PRODU C T I ON
GENERAL DESCR I PT I O N 45
Chapter 5
PROCESS I NG STEPS
COMMON TO ALL MATER I ALS 51
C h a p ter 6
PROCESS I NG STEPS
SPEC I F I C TO SACCHAR I NE MATER A I LS 65
C h apter 7
PROCESS I N G STEPS
SPEC IF I C TO STARCHY MATER I ALS 69
C h a p ter 8
PROCESS I NG STEPS
SPEC I F I C TO C E L LULOSE MATE R I ALS 85
C h a pt e r 9
YEAST AND F E R M E N T AT I ON 89
C h a p ter 1 0
I ND I V IDUAL RAW MATER I ALS 97
vi ALCOHOL MANUAL
ALCOHOL MANUAL vii
C h apter 1 1
F i g u res and I l l us t r a t ion s con t i n ued :
DI S T I LLAT I O N 1 15
2-5 Horsepower Comp a r i son of
C h a p ter 12 E th a n o l vs G a so l i ne 26
DRY I NG THE ALCOHOL 1 23
3-1 Bas i c I nj ec t i o n S ystem 42
C h a p ter 1 3 3-2 I njec t i on of T u rb o E n g i nes 43
MASH I NG AND
FERMENTAT I O N EQU I PMENT 131 4-1 Manufactu r i n g Steps 47
C h a p ter 1 4 5-1 Hy drometer 60

D I S T I LLAT I O N EQU I PMENT 145 5-2 S u g a r Content v s Spec i f i c Gra v i t y 61
5-3 A l cohol Content v s Spec i f i c Grav i t y 62
C h a p t er 1 5 5-4 Correc t i on T a b l e 63
SOLAR ST I LLS 1 67
1 1-1 S i m p l e D i st i l l a t i on Apparatus 116
C h apter 1 6 1 1 -2 Boi l i n g P o i n t Compos i t i on
GOVERNMENT REGULA T I ONS 1 79
1 1 -3
for L i q u i d and Vapor P h a ses
Ref I ux D i s t i I I i ng Apparatus
1 18
1 20 .I
I
I
C h apter 1 7
PUT T I NG I T ALL TOGETHER 187 1 3- 1 Sma l l Apparatus 1 34
1 3-2 Apparatus Adapted for Cook i n g 1 35
C h apter 1 8 1 3-3 Large Apparatus 1 37
T H E FUTURE 1 95 1 3-4 Coo l i n g Coi I 1 39
13-5 Fermen t a t i o n Lock 141
APPEN D I X 203 1 3-6 Large Fermen t a t i o n Lock 142
1 4- 1 Cross Sec t i on of Large C o l umn 1 47

1 4-2 Con t i nuous S t i l l 1 48
1 4-3 S i m p l e Ref l u x C o l umn 1 52
F I GURES AND I L LUSTRAT I ONS 1 54
1 4-4 Condenser Construction
1 4-5 Ref l ux Control C o i l 1 56
2-1 Chemi c a l Structu res 10 1 4-6 Hy drometer Sump 1 58
2-2 P h y s i c a l Prope rt i es of 1 60
1 4-7 I mproved Ref I ux Co I umn
A l cohol and G a s o l i ne 12
2-3 Octane I ncrease of 1 69
15-1 B a s i c So l a r Sti I I
A l cohol /G a so l i ne B l ends 20 Pass i ve So l a r S t i I I 1 71
2-4 1 5-2
E n g i ne Performance of Vapor Trap D ra i n 1 73
15-3
E th a n o l v s G a so l i ne 25 Act i ve So l a r S t i I I 175
1 5-4
viii ALCOHOL MANUAL ALCOHOL MANUAL ix
INTRODUCTION
Production of a I coho I fuel c a n be approached

on many l ev e l s , from cos t l y i ns t a l l at i ons
des i gned to supp l y the fuel needs of l arge
farms, to smalt, econom i c a l systems that
e n a b l e even c i ty-dwe l l e r s to save con s i derab l e
amou n t s of g a so l i ne . However, m a k i n g a l cohol
fuel takes know l edge, equipment and work .
There is no "free l u nch" and so l v i n g the
energy prob I em wi I I not be easy . Neverthel ess,
i t is pos s i b l e if we m a k e t h e effort .
There are many t h i ngs to cons i der before

deci d i n g o n a "perso n a l " a l cohol fuel faci l i t y .
Some of them are econom i c , such a s how much
X ALCOHOL MANUAL ALCOHOL MANUAL xi
fuel is needed, how much t h e feedstock wi I I a l cohol f ue l , i t shou l d be consid ered on l y a
cos t , how much the eq u i pment w i l l cost, and p r i mer .

how much l abor will be i nvol ved . Other
considerations are more ph i l osoph i ca l . For Stephen W . Mathewson
examp l e , how much is motor f u e l rea l l y worth?
The trou b l e and expense of set t i n g up a
manufactur i ng and ref i n i ng p l an t to produce
fuel is not for everyone. Some wil l simply
choose to d r i ve less or pay the ever
i ncreas i n g fuel cos t s . However, there are
others who, for one reason or another, cannot
afford to be dependent on the whims of oi I
producers or the cap r i c i ousness of government
fuel a l loca t i on . To a farmer, for examp l e ,
w i t h crops to be h a r vested a n d a n emp t y t a n k
in his tractor, an a I coho I prod u c t i on
capab i l i t y not o n l y makes sense, i t cou l d mean
surv i va l .
In the fo l l ow i n g pages, have t r i ed to

prese nt a com p l e x subject in as c l ear and
l uc i d a man ner as poss i b l e . E th a n o l
production i n vo l ves chem i s try , biology,
e n g i neeri n g , and a certain amount o f common
sense. A I thou g h t h i s book con t a i n s the b a s i c
i nforma t i on necessary to produce and use
xii ALCOHOL MANUAL ALCOHOL MANUAL
Chapter 1
AN
OVERVIEW
ALCOHOL FUEL
There i s not h i n g new in the use of a l cohol as

a motor f ue l . In 1 872, when N i ko l a u s O t to
i nvented the i n tern a l combustion engine,
g a s o l ine was not availa b l e . Ethyl a l cohol at
1 80-1 90 proof was the spec i f i e d fue l . T h e model
"T" Ford was desi gned to run on the a va i l a b l e
crude gaso l i nes, a l coho l , or any com b i n a t i on
of the t w o .
A l coho l s in general and ethanol , in parti

cu I ar, make exce l l e n t motor fue l s . T h e reason
..
a l cohol fuel has not been fu l l y e x p l o i ted is
that, up u n t i l now, g a so l i ne has been cheap,
avai I able, and easy to produce. However,
,......
2 ALCOHOL MANUAL ALCOHOL MANUAL 3
crude o i l i s get t i ng scarce, and the h i stor i c our present needs! However, th i s i s a very
p r i ce d i fferen t i a l between a l cohol a n d gaso l i n e i mpor t a n t 5 or 10% because i t can be renewed
i s ge t t i n g n a r rower. each year, and each gal lon of a l cohol pro
duced wi I I save a ga l l on of oi I.
Curren t l y there is a big push to f i nd and
develop a I tern a t i ve sources of energy so t h a t USES OF ALCOHOL FUEL
dwi nd I i ng reserves of crude oi I and other
foss i l fue l s may be conserved . As Edward One very important fact about a l cohol fuel
Tel ler, one of this country ' s lead i ng physi shou I d be s t ressed. A l cohol is an exce l l en t
c i st s p o i n t s o u t : "No s i ng l e prescr i p t i on e x i s t s a l tern a t i ve motor fuel for gaso l i n e eng i nes. I t
for a so l u t i o n t o t h e energy prob l e m . Energy i s n o t a s u i t a b l e a l ter n a t i ve for home hea t i n g
conserv a t ion is not enough . Petroleum is not or for essen t i a l l y s t a t i onary power requ i re
enou g h . Coal is not enou g h . Nuclear energy i s men t s . The production of a l cohol consumes
not enou g h . So l a r a n d geothermal energy are energ y . ExactI y how much depends on the
not enou g h . New i deas and developments w i I I feedstock ( raw materi a l ) and the eff i c i ency of
not be enough b y themsel ves . On l y the proper t h e d i s t i l l a t i on process. I n a sma l l oper a t i o n ,
comb i na t i on of a l l of these w i l l suff i ce . " it wou l d not b e u n common t o expend 30-40,000
Btu per g a l lon of e t h a no l . It wou l d be more
A l cohol fuel c a n b e a n i mp o r t a n t part of the sens i b l e , in a home h ea t i n g s i t u a t i on , to use
so l u t i o n , but it is by no means a p a n acea . If whatever fuel you wou l d use to run the st i l l
a l l of the a va i l ab l e a g r i cu l tu r a l surp l u s were d i rec t l y rather than using it to produce
converted to e t h a no l , a l cohol wou l d supp l y a l coho l . The r e a l a d v a ntage of a l cohol i s t h a t
less than 5% of our motor f u e l needs . Add the it can b e bu rned in the m i l l i ons of e x i st i n g
possi b i l i ty of convert i n g cel l u l ose res i d ues to veh i c l es w i t h l i t t l e or no mod i f i ca t i o n . A l cohol
ethanol and general b i omass to met h a no l , and fuel shou l d on l y be considered for the jobs i t
the most opt i m i s t i c tota l f a l l s short o f 10% of can do bes t . Jl
t
I
OTHER ALTERNATIVE FUELS acetone, acet i c acid, and a number of other

subs tances . These by-produc ts are d i ff i cu I t
T h i s b ook i s about t h e sma l l s c a l e p roduc t i on a n d expensive to remove, and , if I eft i n the
of et h a n o I for u se a s a motor fue I . However, m e t h a no l , they wi I I q u i c k l y corrode a n en g i ne .
before becom i ng commi t ted to et hano i , t h ere S i mp l y put, the sma l l scale product i on of
are other a l tern a t i ves that shou l d be con m e t h a n o l b y destru c t i ve d i s t i l l at i on requi res a
s i dered . l arge enough p lant to justify the equ i pment
and energy necessary to remove the impur
The f i rs t t h a t comes t o m i n d i s methano l , or i t ies. I f you h a p pen t o have a I arge source of
" wood" a l coh o l . L ik e e t h a no l , methanol is a su i ta b l e h a rdwood and are prepared to make
v i a b l e s ubst i t u te for g aso l i n e , and i t c a n be the necessary cap i t a l i n vestment, met h a n o l
p roduced from a w i de v a r i ety of renew a b l e produc t i on by this method m i ght be con s i
b io logical resou rces . Methanol, however, is dered .
not a s easy to p reduce o n a sma I I sea I e .
Other processes for prod u c i n g methanol from
The s i m p l est a nd o l dest met hod of p roduci n g renewab I e resourcesr such as h y d rogen and
methanol is by the destruc t i ve d i s t i l l a t ion carbon monox i de , or conversion of cel l u lose
( p yro l ys i s ) of wood. T he p rocess is nothing and b i omass, a l so ex i s t . Aga i n , the prob l e m i s
more than h ea t i n g the wood resi d ues 1n a t h a t these methods a re o n l y feas i b l e on a very
"d ry" d i s t i l l a t ion a pp a r a t u s a nd co l l ec t i ng t h e l arge sca l e .
met h a n o i at the other end. As such, the
p rocess req u i res re l a t i ve l y s i m p l e e q u i pment Methane gas has a Iso been con s i dered as a
and shou l d be s u i tab l e for s m a l l sca l e p ro motor fue I . M e t h a ne i s genera ted, for ex amp I e ,
d u c t io n . T he p rob l em, then, i s t he f a c t t h a t by the action of bacter i a on m a n u re . The
a l ong w i th t h e m e t h an o l a consi derab l e amou n t problem here is t hat a ny met h a n e production
of i mpur i t ies are p reduced that i nc l ude faci I i ty must be I arge enough to j u s t i fy the
eq u i pm e n t a n d energy required to compress the resou rces and u t i l ized in ex i st i ng motor

gas for storage. A l so, m e t h a n e has a very low veh i c l es . O t her means of power i n g veh i c l es ,
hea t v a l ue ( energy content per un i t of we i gh t ) s uch as e l ec t r i c i t y , i n v o l ve the development
and eng i ne conversion i s necessary . Methane and p roduction of com p l e t e l y new veh i c l es .
is bet ter s u i ted to s t a t i onary power requ i re W h a t seems t o b e n eeded i s a v eh i c l e t h a t c a n
men t s t h a n for use as a motor fuel . S t i I I , if u t i l ize a w i de v a r iety o f f ue l s s u c h as coa l ,
you h a ve a s i tu a t i o n where a l arge amount of wood, a l coh o l , g aso l i n e , kerosene, corn cobbs
manure or other s u i t a b l e b i omass i s a v a i l ab l e , or w hatever m i g h t be a va i l ab l e--for i nstance,
m e t h a n e gener a t ion sho u l d be considered . somet h i ng s i m i l a r , t o t he 1 897 S t a n l ey St eamer!
Natural gas, propane, and b u t a ne are a l so But, in the mea n t ime, e t hanoi is the best
poss i b l e motor fue l s . However, s i nce all of so l u t ion for a motor fue l from renew ab l e
them are basical l y petroleum rei a ted, they resou rces that can be p roduced eas i I y on a
c a n n o t b e consi dered as renew a b l e resources . sma l l s c a l e .
Much research has been done to find better

processes for sep a r a t i n g wa ter in to h ydrogen
and oxygen in order to ob t a i n t h e h y d rogen
for use as a fue l . To d a te no process h a s been
developed t h a t does n o t consume more energy
than can be returned when the h y d rogen is
burned .
Aside from a I coho I and, perhaps, methane,

there seems to be no other s u i t a b l e a l tern a t i ve
fuel that can be made from renewa b l e
Chapter2
BASIC
FUEL THEORY
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
A I coho I and g a so I i ne, desp i t e t h e fact that

they a r e from d i fferent chem i c a l c l asses, are
remark ab�y Gaso l i ne is most! y a
mi x t u re o f 11 h y d rocarbo ns" . H y d rocarbons are a
gro up of chem i c a l s u b s tances co mposed
exc l us i ve l y of carbon and h y d rogen a to m s .
Th i s i s a very l a rge chem i c a l c l ass co n t a i n i n g
many t ho us a n d s of substances. Most of the
f ue l s we use s u c h as coa l , g a so l i ne , kerosene,
fuel o i I, b u ta n e , propane, etc. are c h i ef l y
h y d rocarbo n s . Referri n g to F i g u re 2-1, the
s implest member of this group is methane
w h i ch co n s i s t s o f a s i ngle carbon a to m and
10 ALCOHOL MANUAL 11
ALCOHOL MANUAL
F igure 2-1 : CHE M I CA L STRUCTURES octane and so on . As we con t i nue w i t h even

more comp lex mo l e c u l es, the s u b s tances get
S I MPLE ( A L I PHAT I C ) HYDROCARBONS: progress i ve l y o i l i e r , w a x i er a n d f i n a l l y so l i d .
H H H H H H
I I I I I I
H-C-H H-C-C-H H-C-C-C-H
I I I I I I A I coho I s c a n be thought of a s h y d rocarbons i n
H H H H H H
METHANE E T HANE PROPANE w h i ch one of the h y d rogen a toms has been
rep l aced by a " h y d rox y l group" w h i c h con s i s t s
H H H H H H H H H H H H
I I I I I I I I I I I I o f a h y d rogen a tom bonded t o a n oxygen atom.
H-C-C-C-C-H H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-H
I I I I I I I I I I I I Thus methane becomes the s i m p l es t a I coho I,
H H H H H H H H H H H H
BUTANE OCTANE methano l . E t h ane becomes e t h a no l , propane
becomes propanol and so on. L i ke h y d ro
51 MPLE ( AL I PHAT I C ) ALCOHOLS:
carbons, there are many a l coho l s of ever
H H H H H H
I I I I I I
H-C-C-C-OH
i ncreas i ng comp l ex i t y .
H-C-OH H-C-C-OH
I I I I I I
H H H H H H
MET HANOL E T HANOL n-PROPANOL COMBUSTION PROPERTIES
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
One of the most impor t a n t properties of a _fuel
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
i s the amo u n t of energy ob t a i ned from i t when
CETYL ALCOHOL it is b u r ned . Referr i ng to Figure 2-2, note
four h y d rogen a toms . Next comes e t h a n e w i t h t h a t the h y drocarbon octane, w h i ch represents
two carbons a n d six h y d rogens . Propane h a s an " i dea l " gaso l i ne, con t a i n s no oxygen . In
three carbons a nd butane has four. comp a r i so n , all of the a l coho l s con t a i n an
The
substances j u s t named are gases under ord i n ox y gen a tom bonded t o a h yd rogen a tom i n the
ary cond i t i o n s . As we a d d more carbons to the h y drox y l rad i c a l . When the a l cohol is burned ,
h y d rocarbon mo l ec u l e , the h y d roxy l combines w i t h a h y d rogen a tom to

the chem i ca I s formed
become I iqu i d s : pentane, hexane, form a mo lecu l e of wa ter. Thus, t h e oxygen
hep t a n e ,
F i gure 2-2: PHYSICAL PROPERT I ES of sl ightly better w i t h 60% of t h e h e a t v a l ue of

ALCOHOL a n d GASOL I N E
g a so l i n e .
TYPICAL
REGULAR METHYL ETHYL
GASOLINE OCTANE* ALCOHOL ALCOIIOL
If the heati n g v a l ue of methy l and ethyl
C hem ica l formula Complex C H CH 0H c2H 0H
8 l8 3 5
a l cohol were consi dered a l one, they wou l d
Molecular Wei ght Complex 114 32 46
lleat:ing Value (Btu/lb) appear to be poor cho i ces as motor f ue l s .

High Value 20,250 20,570 9, 770 12 ,780
Low Value 19,000 19,080 8,640 ll ,550 However, other redeemi n g q u a l i t i es such as
Latent lleat of Vapor-
ization (Btu/lb) 140 141 474 361 " l atent heat of vapor i z a t i o n " and a n t i -knock
°
Specific Cravity (@60 f) 0.745 o. 702 0.796 0.794 va l ues make alcoho l fuels superi or , in some
Stoichiometric Ratio 15:1 15.1:1 6.45:1 9: I ways, to g a so l i ne .
Boiling Temperature (of) 100-400 258.2 148.5 173.3
Octane Number (Research) 80 100 106 106
Energy of Stoichiometric When a fuel i s b u rned, a certa i n amount of

Mixture (Btu/ft3) 94.8 95.4 94.5 94.7
air i s req u i red for comp lete combust i on . When
*Can be considered as "ideal" high-test: gasoline
the q u a n t i t y of a i r a nd the q u a n t i t y of fuel

con t a i ned i n the a l cohol cont r i b u tes noth i n g to are ex ac t l )' balanced, the fue l /a i r m i x ture i s
the f u e l v a l ue . said to b e " s t o i c h i ometr i ca l l y" correc t . Aga i n
referr i n g to F i g ure 2-2, the s t o i c h i ome t r i c
The rel a t i ve a tom i c weights of the atoms r a t i o for gaso l i ne i s 1 5 : 1 or 1 5 pou n d s o f a i r
i n vo l ved are: h y d rogen, 1; carbon, 12; and for each pound of gaso l i ne . The f i g u res for
ox ygen , 16 . S i nce methyl a l cohol has an met h y l and ethyl a l coho l are 6 . 45 : 1 and 9:1
a tom i c we i gh t o f 32 , h a l f the molecu l e cannot respec t i vel y . On a prac t i ca l level , t h i s means
be "bu rned" and does not con t r i b u t e any fuel that to b u r n alcohol effect i ve l y , the fuel j e t s
v a l ue . As expected, methanol has less than i n t h e carburetor m u s t b e c h a n g e d o r adjusted
half t h e h e a t v a l ue (expressed in Btu/ l b ) of to provide 2.3 pounds of methanol or 1 . 66
g a so l i ne. Ethanol , with 35% oxygen, is pounds of ethano I for each 1 5 pounds of a i r .
Referri n g to the I a s t en try in F i gure 2-2, an and thus h as about 90% of t h e h e a t v a l ue of

i n teres t i n g fact is that if we prov i de the gaso l i ne . However, this a l cohol is a sol i d
correct s t o i c h i ometri c m i x ture and then com wax! It can ' t be conven i e n t l y vaporized a n d
pare on the basis of the energy ( in B tu ' s ) m i xed w i t h a i r i n a n e n g i n e a n d so i s useless
con t a i ned i n each cub i c foot of the d i fferent a s a motor f ue l . Consequen t l y , i n con s i deri n g
fue l /a i r m i x tures, the fue l s are a l most i d e n t i a l cohol f ue l s , a comprom i se must be made
c a l : gaso l i ne 94 . 8 Btu per cub i c foo t ; methanol between heat v a l ue a nd vo l a t i l i ty .
94 . 5 and ethanol 94.7! Thi s means that
gaso l i n e and a l coho l a r e about e q u a l in what C l ose l y re l ated to volat i l i ty is a qual ity
i s c a l led " v o l umetr i c eff i c ie n c y " w h e n burned c a l led " l a tent heat of vapor i z a t i on" . When a
in a correc t l y adjusted e n g i ne. l iquid is at i ts boi l i ng po i n t , a certa i n
amount of addi t i onal heat i s needed to c h a n g e
VOLATILITY the l iq u i d to a gas. This addit ional heat is

the l a tent heat of vapor i z a t i on , expressed i n
Another importa n t q ua l i ty in a motor f u e l is Btu/ l b i n F i gure 2-2. T h i s effect i s one of the
" v o l a t i l i t y " , or the a b i l i t y to be vapor i zed . As p r i nc i p l es beh i nd refrigeration a n d the reason
prev iou s l y noted, methyl a l cohol con t a i n s less that water evapora t i n g from your skin fee l s
t h a n ha l f the heat v a l ue of gasol i n e and e t h y l coo l .
a l cohol con t a i n s only about 60%. The next
h i gher a l coho l , propy l a l cohol w i th three Referr i n g to F i gure 2-2, g a so l i n e h a s a l aten t
carbon a toms, con t a i n s o n l y 26 .6% oxygen a n d heat of about 1 40 Btu/1 b ; methano l , 474
t h u s about 74% of the h e a t v a l ue of gasol i ne . Btu/ l b ; and e t h a no l , 361 Btu/ l b . In an
It is apparent that the more comp lex the eng ine, vapor i za t i on o f the gaso l i n e fue l / a i r
a l coho l , the c l oser its heat v a l ue comes to m i x t u re resu l t s i n a temperature drop of about
o
that of gaso l i n e . Cety l a l cohol ( F i g u re 2-1 ) , 4o F arenhe i t . Under s i m i l a r con d i t i o n s , the
for examp l e , con t a i n s o n l y about 6 . 6% oxygen temperature drop for ethyl a l cohol wi I I be
more than t w i ce that of gasol i ne, and for methano l . This power ga i n due to i ncreased
methanol the drop w i I I be over t hree t i mes a s vol umet ri c mass eff i c i ency is the primary
grea t . These temperature drops resu I t in a reason for t h e pop u l a r i t y of met h y l a l cohol a s
cons i derab l y greater "mass dens i ty " of the a racing fue l . With ethanol the effect i sn ' t
fuel enter i n g t h e eng i n e for alcohol a s com q u i te as drama t i c , but the greater heat v a l ue
p a red to gasol i n e . The resu l t is a grea t l y parti a l l y offsets the lower l atent hea t . Over
i ncreased efficiency for a l cohol fue l s . To all, this power i ncrease with a lcohol fue l s
v i su a l ize why, remember that at a g i ven considera b l y m i t i ga tes the l i a b i l i ty of low
pressure, the a mo u n t of space a gas occupies heat v a l ue .
is d i rect l y proport i o n a l to the temperat u r e .
F o r examp l e , i f one pound of a gas f i t s i n to a However, the i n creased coo l i n g due to l aten t
certa i n con t a i ner a t a g i ven pressure a n d t h e h e a t som e t i mes creates a problem i n a n eng i ne
temperature is cut in h a l f , the con t a i ner w i l l converted to run on a l coho l . Once v a p o r i zed , a
now ho I d two pounds of t h e gas a t the same certa i n amou n t of heat i s requ i red to keep the
pressure. In an e n g i ne, a stoich i om e t r i c fuel from conden s i n g back to the l i q u i d state
m i x ture of methanol and air wou l d b e over before i t reaches the cy l i nder. To accomp l i sh
three t i mes c o l der t h a n t h e same gasol i ne/a i r t h i s, an e n g i ne is des i gned to prov i d e t h i s
m i x ture. This means that there is now over heat to the in take m a n i fo l d . Alcoho l , bcause of
three t i mes ( b y wei g h t ) as much met h a no l in its greater l a tent heat, req u i res more heat
the cy l i nder. Now, even though methanol has than g..1sol i n e . T h i s i s o n e of t h e reasons that
only half t h e h e a t v a l ue of gaso l i ne, the net racing e n g i nes h a v e short path m a n i fo l d s and
gain in "vol umetri c m a s s eff i c i e n c y " i s over m u l t i p l e ca rburetors . The shorter the d i stance
three t i mes. So, for examp l e , if the gaso the fuel must travel to the cy l i nd e r , the less
l i ne/a i r m i x ture in a g i ven eng i ne c y l i nder chance of condensation a nd fuel d i st r i b u t i on
produces 1 00 Btu on each stroke, t h e same prob l e m s . On a prac t i c a l level , most e n g i nes
e n g i n e wou l d produce 1 50 Btu per stroke w i th that have been converted to alcohol supp l y
enough heat once they are warmed up . The mean i ncreased power per s t roke and greater
ma i n problem, as with high performance eff i c i en c y , the abi l i ty of a fuel to res i s t
rac i n g e n g i nes, i s i n s t a rt i n g a c o l d e n g i n e . premature detona t i on is a des ir a b l e q ua l i ty .
T h i s prob lem and t h e rel a ted f u e l d i s t r i b u t i o n The "octane" n u m bers a s s i gned to fue l s are
prob l em w i I I b e d i scussed l ater i n more d e t a i I . based on t h e pure h y d rocarbon, oct a n e , w h i ch
i s consi dered to be 1 00 . At the other end of
OCTANE RATINGS the s c a l e , n-hep tane i s consi dered to have a n

octane r a t i n g o f zero. The octane number of a n
If a certa i n fuel i s b u rned t n a n e n g i ne in u n known fuel is based on the percentage
w h i ch the compression r a t i o c a n be v a ri ed and vol ume of a m i x t u re of octane and n-heptane
t h i s r a t i o i s g r a d ua l l y i ncreased, a po i n t w i l l t h a t matches i t i n prei g n i t i on character i st i c s .
be reached when t he f u e l w i I I detonate prema In pract i ce , these tests are conducted in a
t u re l y . This is because as a gas is spec i a l test e n g i n e w i t h v a r i a b l e compress i o n .
compressed, heat is generated . If the As noted in F igure 2-2, a l coho l s have a
exp l os i ve fuel / a i r m i x t u re in an en g i ne rel a t i ve l y h i gh a n t i -knock or octane r a t i n g .
cy I i nder i s compressed enou g h , the resu I t i n g As noted in F i gure 2-3, a l coho l s h ave the
hea t w i I I c a u se i t t o detonate. S i nce gaso l i n e abi I i t y to r a i se considera b l y the octane
e n g i nes are des i g ned so that the m i x ture is r a t i n gs of g a so l i nes with which they are
detona ted b y the spark p I u g a t the beg i n n i n g m i xed . The effect is greatest on the poorer
of the downward movement of the p i ston grades o f gaso l i ne . A 25% b l end of e t h a n o l and
fo l l o w i n g the compres s i o n stroke, prei g n i t i o n 40 octane g a so l i n e w i I I have a net i nc rease of
or "k nock" occ u rr i n g during the compression a l most 30 points! This i n crease i s one of the
stroke is undes i r a b l e . Indeed, severe knock major a d v a ntages of "gasoho l " . The a b i l i t y to
can q u i ck l y overstress a nd destroy an eng i n e . i n crease octane r a t i n g means t h a t : (1) a lower
( therefore cheaper) grade of gasol i n e can be
S i nce greater compression r a t i os i n a n e n g i n e used to ob t a i n a fuel with a cert a i n octane
F i gure 2-3: OCTANE I NCREASE of WATER INJECTION

ALCOHOL/GASOL I NE BLENDS
Du r i n g Wor l d War I I, the m i l i ta r y made

100 r-
�-- - - - - - - --------- - ----- exten s i ve use of w a ter i nj ec t i on in h i gh
------- ----
� - --
� - --
90 - -
-
-
performance p i ston a i rcraft e n g i nes . Later,
--
-- -
�
--
80
- -
-
-
-
-
-- -
water i njection was used by both c i v i l i a n a n d
--
--
--
70
�--
L_ --
mi l i tary j e t a i rcraft t o prov i d e extra t h r u s t ,
---
60 �
---
-
-
-- pr i nc i p a I I y on t akeoff . Even today , water
--
f-
-
50 i njection systems are a va i l ab l e that can be

--
-
�-:---
-
-
-
40 i ns ta l l ed in a u tomob i les . The fact is, that

I
5 10 15 20 25
within cert a i n l i mits, these systems a c tu a l l y
0
Percent (by volume) Ethanol in Blend do i ncrease power. Referr i n g back to

F i g ure 2-2, note that the I a ten t heat of
ra t i n g ; and (2) the use of tra d i t i o n a l vapor i z a t i on for gaso l i ne i s about 1 40 Btu/ l b
p o l l u t i on prod u c i n g a n t i -knock a dd i t i ves such a n d for e t h a n o l about 361 B t u/ l b . Water h a s a
as tetraethy I lead can be el i m i n ated . The l a te n t h e a t of about 700 Btu/ l b! Therefore, if
a d d i t ion of about 1 0- 1 5% e t h a n o l to u n l eaded a l i t t l e w a ter is i njected i n to t h e carburetor
gaso l i ne r a i ses the octane rating enough so in the form of an u l t ra-fine m i s t , the l aten t
that it can be burned in high compression heat of the wa ter wi I I coo I the charge and
e n g i nes that prev ious l y cou l d not use u n l eaded i ncrease v o l umetric ef f i c ienc y . In add i t i o n ,
f ue l . This use of ethanol is not new , of when t h e c h a rge i s f i red i n the cy l i nder, the
course, because ethanol was the ori g i n a l wa ter wi l l turn to hi gh-pressure steam and
gaso l i n e ad d i t i ve for i ncreas i n g the octane prov i d e ad d i t i o n a l power due to the pressure
rat i n g . The term "ethy l " used to describe a exerted by the stea m . There are def i n i te
h i gh-test gaso l i ne comes from ethy l a l coho l , I i m i ts , however, to the amount of water t h a t
not tetraethy I lead! c a n b e i njected . Too much wi l l c a u se excess i v e
coo I i n g and m i sf i r i n g • from i m p u r i t i e s l i k e s u l fur' a n d a d d i t i ves such

as lead or phosphor u s .
The use of water i njection with a g a so l i n e
f u e l ed engine req u ires a separate meter i n g Pure a I coho I when burned u n d er ideal
I!
and i nj e c t i on system because wa ter a n d gaso con d i t ions a l so produces, in theory, on l y
carbon d i o x i d e a nd wa ter. Aga i n , i n p r a c t i ce ,
l i ne do n o t m i x . E t hanol and wa ter , however, I
do m i x and the benef i t s of w a ter i nject i on c a n v a r y i ng amounts o f carbon monox i d e a r e a l so
i
b e had s i mp l y by addi ng the desired amount produced . However, the a mo u n t s of carbon I
of water to the a l coho l in the fuel t a n k . monox i d e are usua I I y much I ower than with )
g a so l i ne . In a d d i t i on , a l coho l f ue l will
EXHAUST COMPO SITION con t a i n no s u l fur a nd no a d d i t i ves, and wi l l
not produce the rel a t e d , undesir a b l e com
In theor y , a h y d rocarbon fuel when burned b u s t i on by-prod u c t s . Pure a l cohol f ue l s are
shou l d produce on l y water and c a rbon d i o x i d e extreme l y c le a n b u rn i n g .
( C0 ) a s e x h a u s t gases. C a rbon d i ox i de, of
2
course, i s comp l e te l y non-poisonous b e i n g the Many s t u d i es h ave been made to determ i ne
gas we exha l e when we breathe, the bubb l es whether a I coho 1/ gaso l i ne b l ends have any
in carbona ted beverages, and the g a s p I a n t s pos i t i v e effect on emi s s i o n s . In genera l , the
turn back i n to oxygen d ur i n g the photo data show that no great changes occur in
s y n thes i s cyc l e . b l en d s of 20% or l e s s . W h a t h appens i s s i mp l y
that in a 1 0% a l cohol/gaso l i ne b l end, for
However, such ideal combustion r ar e l y occurs examp l e ,
,. about 1 0% of the g a so l i n e emi ssions
even i n . t he most perfec t l y adjusted engine. are repl aced with a l cohol emi ss i ons . S i nce
What i s a c tu a l l y produced is a l arge amou n t a l co h o l does burn cons i derabl y c l eaner, the
of poisonous carbon monox i d e (CO) a n d other amou n t of e m i s s i on i mprovement i s proport io n a l
com p l ex ( and u ndes i r a b l e ) em i ss i ons ar i s i n g to the amou n t o f a l coho l i n t h e b l en d .
Pure a l co h o l , as a n a n t i -po l l u t ion fue l , wou l d F i gure 2-4 : ENG I NE PERFORMANCE of
eas i l y meet and exceed all e m i ss i on req u i re ETHANOL vs GASO L I NE
ments without t he need for exo t i c and cos t l y

150 -----
ex h a u st p l umbing and c a ta l y t i c c onverte rs . ---
W i th a l cohol blends, the chief advantage 140
--:
(f)
wou l d be in t he u se o f e t h a n o l to r ep l ace lead

� 130
"'
and other undesirable compounds used to raise "'
:::::>
t h e octane n umb e r . � 120

"'
0..
� 110
E-<
u
ENGINE PERFORMANCE-STRA IGHT A LCOHOL "'
u..
ETHANOL
;;:; 100
GASOLINE
H av i n g l ooked at a few of t he b as i c factors 90

I I I I I I I I I
which i nf I uence the performance of fue Is in an 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50
PERCENT EXCESS All< l'i:RC£NT EXCESS fUEL

engine, let us now ex ami n e some actual engine - ---- LEAN RICH ---- -
tests. F i g u re 2-4 is a plot of 198 proof (99%)
ethyl a l cohol as compared to gaso l i ne . "Mean Note t h a t the M .E P . . oi ethanol i n c re as e s with
Effective Pressure" in t he graph _is a d i rect m i x t u res having up to 40% excess fue l ,
i n d i ca t i on of the power produced . The whereas for gaso l i ne, the max i mu m pressure i s
i ncreased mean effec t i ve pressure ( M . E . P . ) of reached at 20% excess f u e l . I t wou I d seem th at
a l coho l at all m i x t u re r a t i os is the mos t to achi eve maximum power from an a l coho l
noticeable difference between the two fue l s . b u rn i ng eng i ne there wou l d be a temptation to
This i ncrease in M .E . P . i s due ma i n l y to the burn very r i ch m i x tures . Fuel economy a s i de,
greater v o l umet r i c efficiency that results from it sho u l d be noted that t he r i ch mi xtu res
the high latent h eat of va por i za t i on of e t h a n o l n ecessa r y to obta i n max i m u m M.E.P. are
and the resulting greater mass density of the accomp anied by i n comp l ete b u r n i ng of the fuel
f u e l /a i r m i x t u re. and the resu l t a n t lowering of overall therma l

F i gure 2-5: HORSEPOWER COMPAR I SON of F i gure 2-5 com p ares engine horsepower and
ETHANOL vs GASOLINE
a i r/fuel r a t i os for e t hanol a n d g a so l i n e i n a
100
six cy l i nder e n g i n e . The f ue l s in this case
FUll POWER
were 1 90 proof ( 95%) ethanol and "regu I a r "
95 '
�,
/
I \
I \
g a so l i ne h av i ng a spec i f i c grav i ty of 0 . 745.
I \
I \
90 I In the tests, air was
sup p l ied to the i n t ake
\
I I °
I I m a n i fo l d at a constant 1 00 F a renhei t , and the
85 I
2/3 carburetor need l e valve was a d j usted to
1'1
POWER
/ .,.,
- - ......
80 I
'
prov i de the des i red f ue l /a i r r a t i os . The 2/3
'
/ \
i
75
and 1 /3 l oads were estab l i shed by adj u s t i n g
the t h rot t l e to g i ve t h e same m a n i fo l d pressure
I
I
70
for b o t h fue l s .
0
t..l
p..
65
0
...J The sma l l er a i r/fuel r a t i os for ethanol in
t..l
> 60 ___ .......
'
1/3 POWER
t..l /
0 / ' com p a r i son w i t h gaso l i ne are ev i d en t . I n th i s
/ '
"' 55 \ test w i th the air s u p p I ied at the same
t..l \
:3
0 \
p.. \ - --- ETHANOL temperature for b o t h fue l s , the correct fue l / a i r
50
-
L>J \
VI I
"' --- GASOLINE m i x t u re s hou l d produce abou t 2% more power
0
:X: 45
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
from gaso l i ne t h a n e th a no l . However, alcoho l ,
AIR - FUEL RATIO w i th its greater l a tent heat, requires more
m a n i fo l d heat to rem a i n com p l e t e l y vapor i zed .
eff i c iency . The lean l i m i ts for a l cohol and I n a nother test where t h i s a d d i t i on a l heat was
g a so l i ne, therefore, are about the same, and supp l i ed, the correct a l coho l / a i r m i xture gave
both fuels devel op m a x i m u m therm a l eff i c iency 8 . 6% more power w i t h e t h a no l ! Note a l so t h a t
at about 15% excess a i r . W i t h m i x t u res leaner t h e test depicted in F i g ure 2-5 w a s r u n w i t h
than 1 5% both fue l s loose thermal eff i c i ency . a l cohol t h a t con t a i ned 5% w a ter. T h i s benef i t
of water i nj e c t i o n prob a b l y i n f l ated the Many s t u d i e s o n how the v ar i ou s b l en d s affect

a I coho I power resu I t s to a cer t a i n degree. eng i ne performance are con t ra d i ctory . The
However, the m a i n p o i n t i l l ustrated i s t h a t the rece n t " T wo M i II i o n M i le " test in Nebraska,
two fue l s are remark ab l y s i m i l ar in per c l a i ms s l i gh t l y h i gher fue l economy . Other
formance i n a corre c t l y a d j usted e n g i ne . tests c l a i m a s l i gh t decrease. Some tests c l a i m
slight l y better em i ss i o n s , others claim no
s i gn i f i c a n t c h a nge . In re l at i o n to power
ENGINE PERFORMANCE-ALCOHOL BLENDS output, the tests are equa l l y a m b i guous .

However, when aII the data is s i fted , the
A l though a l coho l b l ends c a n be made f rom both overa l l co n c l u s ion i s t h a t i n t h e areas o f fuel
e th a n o l and me t h a no l , the p r i m a ry i n terest econom y , emi ssions, and performance there
seems to be in t he d i rection of ethanol . j us t i sn ' t a ny re a l d i fference.
Methane I and g a so l i n e h ave a l im i ted
m i sc i b i l i ty ( m i xa b i l i t y ) w h i le ethanol and F i gure 2-3, as d i scussed u n der Octane
g a so l i ne can be m i xed in all propor t i on s . Rati ngs, i l l us t r a te s a nother major a d v a n tage
Econom i c re aso n s a l so d i ct a te t h e i n terest in of a I coho I blends,. n ame I y the ab i I i ty of
e th a no l s i nce it is more read i l y made from a l coho l to r a i se t he a n t i -knock q ua l i ty of the
renewable resources. I n a d d i t io n , e t h a n o l i s a gaso l i n e w i th w h i ch i t i s m i xed . T h i s me a n s ,
s l ightly superior motor f u e l a l tern a t i ve under of course, that l ower, cheaper grades of
most cond i t i o n s . gaso l i n e c a n be used to ob t a i n a fuel w i th the
desi red octane r a t i n g , and t he use of po l lu t ion
Econom i cs a s i de, a major a d v antage of b le nds prod u c i n g a d d i t i ves can be e l i m i n a t ed . T h i s i s
is that up to a cert a i n co nce n t r a t i o n a s i g n i f i ca n t a d v a n tage f rom the econo m i c
( somewhere between 1 0 and 20%) they c a n be s t a n d po i n t because t h e m a n u f ac t u re of h i gh
used w i th a b so l utel y no mod i f i ca t i on of the octane b l en d i n g stocks i s expensive. A l so , as
eng i ne . prev iou s l y me n t i o ne d , it is poss i b l e to r a i se
the octane r a t i n g of u n l eaded gaso I i ne so t h a t

it can be used in e n g i nes that prev ious l y Chapter 3
req u i red h i g h-test leaded gaso l i ne . UTILIZATION OF
ALCOHOL FUELS
A l cohol b lends do have one re l a t i ve l y m i nor
drawback . The presence of even sma I I amoun t s
o f water i n the b l end w i II cause a por t i on of
the a l cohol and g a so l i ne to se parate . At room
temperature, less than 1% water can do the
damage. As the temperature is lowered,
amounts as sma l l as .01% can cause METHODS OF UTILIZATION
se p a ra t i on . However, v a r i ous substances such
as benzene ( be n zo l ) , acetone, and butyl A l cohol f ue l s may be u t i l i zed in t h ree b a s i c
a l cohol c a n be added t o the b le nd t o i ncrease ways: as a b le n d with g a so l i ne ; as a
water tolerance. C l osed fuel systems, now in s t ra i gh t , u n b I e nded fue l ; or as a n a l coho l /
use , preve n t mo i s ture from form i n g i n s i de the water m i x ture in an i njec t i on s y s tem . Each
gas tank. 0iI comp a n ies, g iven the proper me_ t hod has certa i n advantages and d i s-
i ncentive, cou l d dry out the i r storage fac i l adv a n tages .
i t ie s and p i pe l i ne s . A l so, extensive use of
al coho I b I ends over the past 50 years i s amp 1 e ALCOHOL BLENDS
ev i dence t h a t the prob l e m can be solve d .
A l cohol b lends have t he a dv a n tage t h a t up to
a 10, 20 or even ZS% conce n t r a t i on of a l coho l
may be used w i thout modif i ca t i on to the
e n g i ne . The actu a l conce n t r a t i on t h a t may be
used v a r i es with e ach e n g i ne type, but
genera l l y a four-cy l inder e n g i n e w i l l t o l erate PURE A LCOHOL

a s t ronger b l end t h a n a s i x o r e i g h t . Sma l l
s i n g l e-cy I inder e n g i nes, such a s I awn mowers, The a d v a n t ages of b u rn i n g rel a t i ve l y pure
can often be r u n o n p ure a l cohol by mere l y 80-95% a I coho I are severa l . F i rst of all,
a dj u s t i n g t h e m i x t ure con trol screw. E ve n w i th because t h e dry i n g step i s un necess a r y , you
l arger e n g i nes, s l i gh t mod i f ic a t i o n such as shou l d be able to produce the fuel for less
a dj u s t i n g the carbu retor and, perhaps, than the cost of gaso l i n e. Second l y , there w i l l
a d vanc i n g the t i m ing a l i t t l e may a l l ow the be l i t t l e , i f any performance pen a l t y , and by
use of b l en d s i n t he 25-40% r a n g e . I f you are leav i n g 5-1 5% or more water i n t h e a l cohol you
p roduc i n g your own b l end, you have the a l so g a i n the benef i t s of water i nject i on . The
a dvantage of bei ng a b l e to u se t h e cheapest only d i sadvantage i s t h e trou b l e and expense
g a so l i n e ava ilable a nd end i ng up w i th a good, of mod i f y i n g your engine( s ) to burn a l cohol
h i g h octane fue I . a n d the I ack of dua 1 -fuel capab i I i t y .
The d i sadvan tage i s t h a t t he a lcohol you u s e The principal engine mod i f i c a t i on is the
m u s t be p erfect l y d r y . As w i I I be d i scussed i n en I argement of t h e carburetor j et ( s ) . I f you
the sec t ion on d i s t i l l a t ion, t h e h i ghest concen are a reasonab l y competent mech a n i c , you
t ra t ion of a l cohol that can be ach ieved by shou l d be a b l e to do the job i n a cou p l e hours
o rd i n ary methods i s 1 90 p roof o r 95%. I n order at a very sma l l cost .
to b l end the a lcohol w i th gaso l i ne , the
rem a i n i n g 5% w a ter m u st be removed. Severa l 1n add i t ion to the carburetor jets, there is
met hods of remov i n g t h i s r es i d u a l water w i I I also the prob l e m of co l d start i n g . As
be d i scussed i n C hap ter 1 2 , a n d one of them mentioned ear l ier, alcohol has a h i gher l aten t
may be p ra c t i c a l for you. However, d r y i n g t h e heat of vapor i z a t i o n than g a so l i ne and
a l cohol does req u i re a separate m an ufac t u r i ng req u i res more m a n i fo l d heat to keep the
s tep a n d the exp end i ture o f a dd i t i ona l energy . m i x ture in the vapor s tate. W i t h most e n g i nes
there w i l l be no prob l e m t h a t c a n ' t be so l ved b e l ow zero weather.

by i n s ta l l i ng a h i gher temperature thermos t a t
s i nce the eng i n e runs f i n e as soon a s it is Another prob l e m , a l so rel a ted t o I a t e n t hea t ,
wa rmed up. However, the eng i ne will be is that of fuel d i stri b u t i o n . Larger engines
d i ff i cu l t to s t a r t , espec i a l l y i n cold weather. are more l i k e l y to encou n ter t h i s problem t h a n
T h e eas i e s t so l u t i o n to t h i s prob lem is s i m p l y sma l l ones. What happens is that there is
to s tart t h e engi n e on gaso l i n e a n d , after i t i nsuff ic i en t heat to keep the fuel vapori zed
has warmed u p , swi tch t o a l coho l . To accom and some of i t l i q uefies before i t reaches the
p l i sh this, mere l y i ns t a l l a sma l l gaso l i ne outer cy l i nders. This c a u ses m i sf i res and
tank I oca ted, perhaps, u nder. the hood a n d a general poor performance. S i mp l e so l u t i ons
s e l ector v a l ve mounted in some conven i e n t i nc l ude i n su l a t i ng the i n t ak e m a n i fo l d or
l oc a t ion near the d r i ver. i n st a l l i n g a h i gher temperature t h ermos t a t .
Hea t i ng the fue I before it en ters the car-
I t is my experience t h a t i t i s a l so des i ra b l e to buretor a l so h e l p s , a s does hea t i n g the i n take
rep l ace the a u t om a t i c choke with a manual air. The u l t i ma t e so l u tion is, usu a l l y , to
contro l . A l so , sw i tc h i n g back t o gaso l i n e p r i or i n st a l l mu l t i p l e carburetors and a short-path
to shutting down the eng i n e wi I I aid in m a n i fo l d . However, you are l i k e l y to encounter
res t a r t i n g . A more comp l e x so l u t ion to this t h i s prob l e m on l y i n engines t h a t a r e , by some
pro b l em wou l d b e t o i n s ta l l a pri m i ng p u mp design fau I t , prone to the same poor fuel
and ma n i fo l d heater glow p l ugs simi lar to d i st r i but i on w i t h gaso l i ne .
those found on d i esel engi ne s . O ther a l terna
t i ves are to preheat the fuel or squirt an It must be s t ressed that, a l t hough most
eas i l y vo l a t ized l iquid such as pentane i n to engines are easi l y converted to a l coho l , each
the carburetor. The a dd i t i on of about 8% engine is d i fferen t . Some peop l e have been
pentane d i rect l y to the a l coho l in the fuel able to successf u l l y run Vol kswagens and
tank will a l so s o l ve s t a rt i ng problems in Hondas on a l coho l merel y b y adj u s t i n g the jets
a n d p l a y i ng w i th t h e t i m i n g a l i t t l e . O t hers , DIESEL ENGINES

espec i a l l y those wi th o l der, u l tra-h i g h
p erformance V-8 e n g i nes, h av e h ad to resort t o Contrary to the op i n ion of most "experts",
more ex tens i ve m o d i f i c a t ions . d i esel e n g i nes can be run on pure a l coho l .
The m a i n prob l em i s i n t he lubri c a t i on of the
A l cohol eng i ne m o d i f i ca t i on i s a re l a t i v e l y " re- i n j ectors . Th i s is sol ved by the add i t ion of
d i scovered" f ield. To the best of my 5-20% vege t a b l e oi I (or other s u i tab l e
know I edge, there is no compreh e n s i v e l ub r i ca n t ) t o the a l coho l . It i s a I so poss i b l e
i nformat ion on the modification of spec i f i c to make a d i esel "gasoho l " with up to 80%
modern e n g i nes, and there are no manu- a l coho l . S i nce a l coho l and oi l will not mix
f ac t u rers m ak i n g con version ki t s . W i t h a l l t h e when water i s present, both t h e a l coho l and
i n terest i n a l cohol f ue!s, however, t h i s shou l d the oil m u s t b e a n h y drous. D i fferent e n g i nes
change i n t h e n ea r fu t ure. A t p resen t , thou g h , may a l so req u i re adjustment of the meter i n g
i t seems t ha t m o d i f i ca t i on s m u s t be made on a n pump for opt i mu m performance. D i es e l e n g i nes,
i n d i v i d u a l bas i s . espec i a l l y t u r bocharged d i ese l s , may a l so be
run w i th an a lcoho l/water i nject i on s y s tem a s
For those w i th s p ec i a l e n g i nes, th ere i s good described l a ter .
news and bad . T u rbocharged eng i nes p resent
no speci a I conversion p rob I ems once the j e t s ,
etc. have been e n l arged. A l cohol and t u rbo ENGINE MODIFICATION
c hargers t hen work very well together. Fuel
i njected e n g i nes are another rna t ter . To T h e fo l l ow i n g are some spec i f i c g u i d e l i nes to
convert t hem can be a s i mple a d j ustment o f the ass i s t in the mod i f i ca t i o n of a carburetor.
meter i ng pump, or it can be v i r tu a l l y Remember that there are many d i fferent types
i mposs i b I e . Very I i t t Ie d ata seems to be and makes of carburetors, and t h a t a cer t a i n
a v a i I a b I e i n t h i s a rea • amou n t of exper i me n t a t i on w i l l be necessary .
F irst, of course, you w i I I have to remove the than to make one s ma l l er , a w i se choice for
c a r b u retor from the eng i ne, clean it, and t h e f i rs t t r i a l i n t h i s i nstance wou l d be a #53
d i sassemble it to a po i n t where you can dr i I I .
remove meteri n g je t ( s ) . This will i nvol ve
remov i n g the a i r horn from the f l o a t v a l ve a n d C arefu l l y dr i l l out the jet, reassemb l e the
d i sconnec t i n g any l i n k ag e . Next you must carburetor, and rei ns t a l l i t on t he veh i c l e .
locate the m a i n j e t ( or j e t s on a m u l t i -throat The v eh i c l e s ho u l d then b e r u n o n a l cohol as
model ) . Most c a r b u retors h a v e removab I e j e t s . a test . S t a rt t he e n g i ne a nd s l o w l y e n r i c h t h e
They are a l most a l wa y s brass and are m i x t ure (using the i d le screw adjustme n t )
t h readed i n to p l ace. until the e n g i ne s ta rts t o s ta l l . T hen a d j u s t
the i d I e un t i I t h e roug hness evens o u t . T a ke
With the jet removed, the nex t step is to the veh i c l e for a short t es t d r i ve , and then
measure i t s d i ameter. T h i s i s best done w i t h a pu l l the s park p l ugs. I f t h e t i ps are w h i te,
m i crometer. You w i l l w a n t to e n l a rge t h e area the m ix t ure i s too l ea n , and the m a i n jet w i l l
of the jet about 27% for e t h a n o l and 40% for have to be further e n I arged. I f t h e y are w e t ,
methano l . Suppose, for examp l e , your jet is the m ix t ure i s too r i c h , a n d y o u have made
. 054" i n d i a meter. The formu l a for the area of the j e ts too l ar g e . I n a dd i t ion, if the m ix t ure
a c i rc l e is 3.14 (pi) t i mes the s q u a re of the i s too l ea n , t h e e ng i ne w i l l backf i re a n d m i ss.
rad i us . The r a d i u s is h a l f the d i ameter, so we I t wi I I a l so b u rn the v a l ves if l eft in this
mu l t i p l y .027 x .027 x 3 . 1 4 to get an area of cond i t ion . O n t he other h an d, if the h o l e i s
. 002289 square i nc h e s . M u l t i p l y t h i s t i mes 1 .27 too I arge, the m ix t ure wi II be too r ic h a n d
( for a 27% . e n l argemen t ) and we get . 00291 you wi l l waste fue l . I t m ay be n ecessary to
s q u a r e i nches. Work i n g the formu l a i n reverse make severa l t r i a l s before t he perfect jet s i ze
we get a d i ameter of .06087 i nches . This is is fou n d for your p a r t icu l ar eng i n e . In
c l ose to a #53 dri I I w h i ch is sl i g h t l y too a dd i t ion t o t h e m a i n j e t , some c arbu retors wi I I
sma l l . S i n ce it is easier to en l arge a hole a l so req u i re a s l i gh t e n l argement of the i d l e
c i rc u i t jet . This i s accom p l ished i n the same it easier to c h a n ge f rom a l cohol to gasol i n e
manner as above except that a sma l l er and v i ce versa shou l d t he need a r i s e .
percentage of en l argement w i l l u s u a l l y suff i ce .
Note that this mod i f i c a t i on i sn ' t a l wa y s ALCOHOL INJECTION
necessary . Often merel y back i n g ou t the idle
adj ustment screw w i l l be enough . A l coho l i nject i on i s a t h i r d a l ternat i ve for the
u t i I i za t i o n of a l cohol f ue l . It is simi Jar to
I f the en g i n e s t i l l doesn ' t r u n proper l y , there water i nject i o n except that a I coho I or an
a re several other t h i ngs you can try such as a I coho I water m i x ture is i njected i n to the
a d v a n c i ng the t i m i ng a l i t t l e, d i scon nec t i n g eng i n e . S i nce the wa ter/ a I coho I i nject ion
the v accum advance I i ne, and c l os i n g the m i x tu re r a t i o c a n b e a s l ow as 50/50%, f i rs t
spark plug gaps a l ittle. I f you want to go run product from a s i m p l e s t i l l c a n b e used .
the who l e route, you c a n i ncrease t h e engi ne ' s T h i s i s a cons i derable s a v i n g because most of
compress i on by m i l l i ng t h e head and i n s ta l l i n g the energy used in a l coho l production is
h i gh compression p i stons because the a l coho l ' s expended in the disti l l ation s tage to ob t a i n
h i gh a n t i -knock q ua l i t i es will a l l ow com- 95% a l cohol . Another- adv a n t age i s t h a t engi nes
pression r a t i os to 1 0 : 1 . F inal l y , i f you h a v e w i th an i nject i on system sti l l reta i n comp l e t e

a n e n g i n e where i t i s impossi b l e to modify the dual fuel capabi l i t y . Finally, a l cohol
carburetor, for one reason or another , ( an i nject i on can be used with f ue l - i njected,
excess of emi s s i o n "p l um b i ng", for examp l e ) turbocharged, and even d i esel e n g i n e s .
you can u s u a I I y rep I ace your carbu retor w i t h
an ea r l i e r model . Usu a l l y , the o I der the F i gure 3-1 i s a schemat i c of a s i mp l e i njec t ion
carburetor, the eas ier it i s to convert . A l so , system . The a l cohol/water m i x t u re i s con t a i ned
it i s pos s i b l e t o purchase adj u s t a b l e j e t s for i n a separate t a n k and i s fed, under a cou p l e
many carburetors, or your carburetor may pounds pressure, t o a m i s t i ng nozz l e located
a I ready h a v e such jets. Adj u s t a b l e j e t s make at the t hroat of the carburetor. The m i x t u re i s
F i g u re 3-1 : BAS I C I NJECT I ON SYSTEM F i g u re 3-2: I NJECT I O N of TURBO ENG I NES
ALCOHOL/WATER MIXTURE SPRAYED INT O AIR F I LTER

AIRSTREAM A S A F I N E M I S T
METERIN G VALVE (CONTRO LLED BY

VACUUM, MANIFOLD PRESSURE,
OR OTHER MEANS)
CHOKE
FUEL PUMP -----..

AIR FROM MANIFOLD
TANK FOR I N J E C T I ON PRESSURIZES TANK
�;;;;;;;::::;;;...;;;(141 ALCOHOL/WATER MIXTURE

L ---- TANK FOR INJECTION M I X T URE
meter i n g system shou l d work i n p a ra l l e l w i th
metered i n to t h e carburetor a i rstream where i t the t h rot t l e . That i s, the f l ow of a l cohol/water
m i xes with the air and is taken i n to the m i x t u re shou l d i ncrease as the load i ncreases.
e n g i ne. There are many ways of meter i n g the F i gure 3-2 d i agrams a s i m i l ar s y s tem for
a l cohol/water m i x t u re. For examp l e , i t can be tu rbocharged e n g i nes . This is an extreme l y
done by mec h a n i ca l l y l i n k i n g a meter i n g v a l ve s i mp l e sys tem . The a l coho l / w a ter tank is
to the t h rot t l e . Other methods i nc l ude u s i n g press u r i zed by b l eed a i r from t h e compressor
com b i n a t i ons of vacuum and/or m a n i fo l d on the t u rbocharger. The m i xture i s metered
pressure. Whatever system is used, the i n to the t u rbocharger a i rstream b y an ori f ic e .

The s i ze of the ori f i ce is determined by

i nd i v i d u a l engine req u i remen t . The meter i n g Chapter4
s ystem operates w i t h the t u rbocharger. As the ETHANOL PRODUCTION
boost i n creases, more pressure is sup p l ied to -GENERAL DISCUSSION
the tank and, thus, more m i x ture to the
engi ne.
On a d i esel tractor rated at 1 25 horsepower

a n d consu m i n g 8! g a l l o n s of fuel per h o u r , the
i nject i on system produced the same power w i t h
on l y s i x ga l i ons of d i esel f u e l a n d two g a l l o n s RAW MATERIALS
of a SO% a l cohol / water m i x t u re . This is an
overa l l sav i n g of 6% i n fuel consump t i on a n d a Ethyl a l coho l may b e made b y the fermen t a t i on
saving of a l most 30% in d i esel f ue l . Other p rocess from three basic types of raw
benef i t s i n c l ude trou b l e-free, a u tomat i c m a t er i a l s , ca l led "feedstock " .
oper a t i o n , i n crease in avai lable power,
l oweri n g of en g i n e oper a t i n g temperatures, The three b a s i c types of feedstock a r e :
and p r o l onged e n g i n e l i fe.
(1) SACCHAR I NE ( su g a r conta i n i n g ) mater i a l s
in w h i ch the carbohydrate ( t he actua I
substance from w h i ch the a l coho l i s made) is
present in the form of simple, d i rect I y
fermen t a b fe six and t we l ve carbon sugar
m o l ecu l es such as g I ucose, fructose, and
m a l tose. Such m a ter i a l s i nc l ude sugar cane,
mol asses, sugar beets, fru i t ( f resh or d r i ed ) ,
c i trus molasses, c a n e sorg h u m , whey and s k i m F i gure 4-1 MANUFACTUR I NG STEPS
mi l k .
that con t a i n more

r�ACCHARJNE� rSTARCHY
( 2) STARCHY MATE R I ALS
comp lex carbohydra tes such as starch and r�ELLULOSE
inu I i n that can be broken down i n to the
CG :�c . MOLASSE S I GRA INS r1c. POl A roe s I
CIC. DAY MAICR!ALS GR£CH MAICAIAL J
:: I j 1
T DllIriON
twe l ve carbon sugars by
s i m p ler six and
[XIRACIION
Mtll(N:; P O(RIN� OR SHR[DOIMG OR
i
I
SIRONG ACID GRIIDING
I
h y d ro l y s i s with acid or by the a c t i on of I�[AIN£11
e n z y mes in a process c a l led ma l t i n g . Such OILUI!ON

I
DiLUTION ( I f
I
'
I
11'
nec.essa,.y) I
grain sorghum, I
I
materi a l s i n c l ude corn, '
I
bartey, whea t , pot a toes, sweet potatoes, pH AOJUS I pH AOJUSI
L
.
1 '
I
jerusa l em a r t i chokes, cact i , m a n i oc , arrow- coo NG

I
'
(with pru:ah I
I
root, a n d so on . or liquefying I
enryu)
lr ·I
e
pH JUSI
(3) CELLULOSE MATER I ALS such as wood, wood
waste, paper , straw, corn stalks, corn cobs, COHVCRSl Oll COHVC RS I OH
(ldd, ·11 i' i t: (add or
cotton , etc . , w h i ch con t a i n materi a l that can or t
nzy11t) z•
en y )
- - - - - --
be h y d ro l y zed w i t h a c i d , enzymes or otherw i se

converted i n to fermen t a b l e sugars c a l led pH AOJUSI
g l ucose. I
HRNCNIATIOH
�I
OI IILLAIIOI
MANUFACTURING STEPS DRYING ( i f

necessary)
I
OCNAIURIHG
The basic steps in the manufacture of fuel I

ethanol from each of the three groups is
ou t l i n ed in F i gure 4-1 . It can be seen that
cer ta i n mater i a l s req u i r e less process i ng t h a n PROCESS DESIGN

others. Genera l l y , sma l l sca l e prod u c t i on is
easiest ( and most econom i c a l i n terms of l abor There are a great many v a r i a b l es in the
and energy consump t i o n ) from the saccharine manufacture of e t h a no l . Even mater i a I s from
mater i a l s . However, starchy m a t er i a l s usua l l y the same basic group can requ i re rad i ca l l y
produce t he most a l cohol on a w e i g h t/we i g h t d i fferent process i n g . The fo l l o w i n g c h a p ters
basis, and cel l u l ose m a t er i a l s are the cover the i nd i vi d u a I manufact u r i n g steps for
cheapes t . process i n g each of the t h ree m a i n groups of
f e e d s t oc k . In ad d i t i o n , C h a p ter 1 0 con t a i n s
Manufactu r i ng a l coho I f rom sacc h a r i n e feed "recipes" and i nd i v i d u a l p rocessi n g req u i re
stocks gener a l l y req u i re s : (1) extraction or ments for spec i f i c materi a l s from each of the
crush i n g to make the sugars a va i l a b l e to the t h ree grou p s .
yeast enzymes d u r i n g fermen t a t i on ; (2) d i l u-
t i on, w h i ch is only req u i red w i th cert a i n The reader is urged to study all of the
mater i a l s ; (3) fermen t a t i·on; and (4) dist i l i nforma t i on presented before a t temp t i n g to
l a t i o n . Starchy materi a l s req u i re the steps o f : choose a spec i f i c process for a materi a l .
(1) m i l l i n g to free t h e s tarchy materi a l from,
for examp l e , grain kerne l s ; ( 2 ) d i l u t i on ; (3)
cook i n g to d i sso l ve and " ge l a t i n ize" the
s ta rc h ; and (4) conversion of the starch to
fermen tab l e s u gars by malting, enzymes, or
aci d hydro I y s i s in a d d i t i on to the steps of
fermen t a t i o n and d i s t i l l at i o n . Cel l u l ose
mater i a l s are s i m i l ar to s tarchy mater i a l s i n
that they must be converted prior to fermen
tation.
Chapter5
PROCESSING
STEPS COMMON
TO ALL MATERIALS
11
DILUTION
D i l u t i on is simp l y t he ad d i t i on of water to
adjust the amount of sugar in the mash or r I
( u l t i ma t e l y ) the amo u n t of a l coho l i n the beer.
It is necessary because the yeast , used l a ter
in t h e fermen t a t ion process, can be k i l l ed b y
too great a conce n t r a t i on of a l coho l . A l so ,
d u r i n g t h e mash i n g a n d conversion o f starchy
materi a l , d i l u t i on is necessary to make the
mash eas i er to s t i r a nd hand l e . The object of
d i l u t i on is to end u p w i th a beer a s c l ose to
( bu t not more t h a n ) TO% a l coho l when fermen
t a t i on i s comp l e te . The opt i m u m d i l u t i o n , then,
is a comprom i se between the h i ghest a l cohol
concen t ra t i on and the po i n t where the
part i c u l a r yeast strai n being used wi l l be sugar content of a mash is, at best, an
k i l ied. approx i ma t i o n , the amount of d i l u t i on can be
" f i n e t u ned" b y measu r i n g the a l cohol content
Optimum d i l ut i on requirements for each of t h e beer after fermen t a t i o n . A h ydrometer i s
materi a l are I i sted 1 n Chapter 1 0 . A ru l e of used for this measurment a l so , but the
t h u mb for an u n k nown mater i a I , thou g h , is read i n g s are much more accurate. N a t u ra l l y ,
that the final a l cohol concen trat i on wi I I be i f the a l cohol content of the beer i s less t h a n
about half the sugar content p r i or to fermen the t o l e r a t i on l evel of the yeast you are
tation. To determ i ne t he amount of fermen tab l e using, the mash is overd i l u ted .
sugar in a mash, it is best to have the
materi a l tested b y a l aboratory . I f t h i s is n o t pH CONTROL
poss i b l e , the s u g a r content c a n be est i mated
w i t h a h y d rometer. The use of h y d rometers and T he pH is a measure of the a c i d i ty or
tab l es for conver t i n g spec i f i c grav i ty read i ng s a l k a l i n i t y of a n a q ueous s o l u t ion e x p ressed on
to a pprox i m a te s u g a r content are covered l a ter a sca l e of 1 -1 4 . Neutral i s pH 7, p H 1 -7 i s
in t h i s chapter. I t shou I d be noted that a n y acid, and p H.-7-\4 i s a lka l i n e . T he p H i s most
so l u t i on bei ng tested w i th a h y d rometer m u s t con ven i en t l y measu red w i th test papers t h at
be f i l tered t o remove any und i sso l ved so l i d s . change c o l or acco r d i n g to the pH of the
Otherw i se the read i n gs will be i n accurate. so l u t ion being tested. T hese p apers are
Sugar content of a so l ut i on can a l so be a va i l ab l e from s w i m m i n g poo l supp l y houses,
determined w i th the use of an o p t i c a l i nstru g arden shops , and l aboratory supp l y
men t cal led a sugar refractometer. These compan i es .
dev i ces, however, cost several h u n d red
do l l a r s . Con t ro l o f p H d u r i n g the m as h i n g and fermen
t a t i on p rocess is i mportant for t wo reason s :
S i nce the use of a h ydrometer to measure The g rowth o f harmfu I bacter i a i s reta rded b y
a c i d so l u t ions, a n d y eas t w i II g row on l y i n a n checked d u r i n g t h e cook i n g and convers ion . I f

( s l i g h t l y } a c i d so l u t i o n . i t i s much above 5 . 0 , i t shou I d be reduced b y
t h e add i t i on o f ac i d .
M o s t g r a i n mashes h a v e a n a tu r a l l y a c i d pH of
between 5.4 and 5.6 after malting or The acid most commo n l y used is sulfuric,
conversion has been accomp I i shed . Other a l though any m i neral ac i d is perfect I y
materia I s , nota b l y saccharine s u b s t ances I ike s u i tab l e . H y d roch l o r i c (muriatic) acid, for
mo l asses and fru i t pressi n g s , have a exam p l e , is avai I able from swimming pool
n a tu ra l l y a l ka l i n e pH and must be ac i d i f ied s u p p I iers . The acid shou l d be added
p r i or to fermen t a t i o n . cau t i ous l y , the mash s t i rred, and the pH
i
I
checked, because it i s very i mporta n t not to
r
The principal bacter i a l contam i n a n t s in a add too much . I f you happen to a d d a l i tt l e
d i st i l l e r y are those that form lactic ac i d . too much , the pH c a n be ra i sed with sod i u m
A l though t h e prod u c t i on of fuel a l cohol i s not h y d ro x i de ( ca u s t i c soda ) so l u t i on or with
'I
'
concerned w i t h the t as t e of the product, any ord i n a r y l i me. But af ter a cer t a i n po i n t , this
l a c t i c a c i d formed s u b t racts from t h e y i e l d of i s use I ess a n d the mash must b e scrapped .
a l coho l . The prod u c t i on of l a ct i c acid and
other contam i n a n t s shou l d therefore b e avoided Wh i l e a d j u s t m e n t d u r i n g mas h i n g i s des i r a b l e ,
as much as pos s i b l e . The development of these the proper pH dur i n g ferme n t a t ion is
m i cro-org a n i sms is sever e l y repressed at pH abso l u t e l y essen t i a l . As soon as the pH in
v a I ues under 5.0. Above 5 . 0 t h e i r growth is fermen t a t i o n fa l l s b e l ow about 4 . 1 , t h e fermen
r ap i d . The op t i mum p H range then is 4.8 to t a t i on stop s . If t h i s occurs p r i or to complete
5.0. Any t h i n g below about 4.1 to 4.4 is conversion of the sugars, the yield will be
d e t r i men t a l to other ( desirab l e ) p rocesses l o w . On t h e other h a nd , yeast needs a s l i g h t l y
t a k i n g p l ace d u r i n g the mash i n g and fermen- aci d env i ronment in order to grow.
t a t i on . Conseque n t l y , the pH shou l d be Consequent I y , the pH shou I d be kep t between
4 . 8 and 5 . 0 for opt i m u m resu l t s . previous sec t i o n } i s t h e a djustment of t h e p H

to con trol b a c ter i a g row th . Secon d, the
There are t w o ways of adj ust i n g p H . The f i rs t , s t i l l ag e p rovi des n ut r ients t h a t a r e needed by
as d i scussed, is the a d d i t i on of ac i d . The the yeas t for r ap i d g row th . T he t h i rd reason
seco n d , and probab l y the best, i s the add i t ion is that the s t i I I age p rov i des a " b u ffer i n g "
of the n a t u ra l l y acid residues left from a a c t i on .
previous disti l l ation. These residues are
ca l i ed "st i I I a g e " , and add i n g them to the mash Gra i n mashes a n d s t a r chy mater i a l genera l l y
is c a l led "backs I opp i n g " . Back s l ap p i n g is p rov ide enough n u tr i en t s for t h e g rowth of the
d i scussed i n more d e ta i l in the next sec t i on . y e as t . Other m a teri a l s , notab l y mol asses and
other sacchar ine m ateri a l s , often do n o t . The
It shou l d be s t ressed that the pH shou l d be a dd i t ion of s t i l lage c an p rov ide these
checked period i ca l l y during the fermen t a t ion n u t r i e n t s where t hey are n eeded.
a s wel l a s before. Cert a i n ferme n t a t i on s wi I I
produce s u b s tances that a I ter the pH duri ng The b uffer capac i t y of the m as h is i mportan t .
the ferme n t a t i on . Once t h e p H goes beyond t h e When an acid and a b ase a re m ix e d together,
opt i mum range, a ttempts to s a l vage the they react v i o l en t l y to produce a sal t .
process by add i n g acid o r cau s t i c soda do Buffer i n g can be thoug h t of as a b a r r i er
more harm t h a n good . S o keep a c l ose w a t c h between the acid and the b ase that a I lows
and a d j u s t before t he p H goes out of r a n g e . on l y I i m i ted con ta c t a nd thu s modera tes the
reac t i o n . Gra i n mas hes are genera l l y wel l
BACKSLOPPING b uffered between pH 5.0 to 6 . 0, poo r l y
b uffered between 4.4 and 5. o , and wel l
Backs l o p p i n g , or the a dd i t i on of s t i l l res i dues b uffered between 3 . 5 a n d 4 . 4 . T he a dd i t i on of
from the previous b a tch , has severa l s t i I I age a i ds in b uffer i n g t h e mash between
advan tages . F i rs t ( as d i scussed in the 4.4 and 5.0. This p rov i des s t ab i l i ty and
gener a l l y h i gher y i e l ds than mashes w i thout d i 1 uted 20: 1 or more. Be adv i sed t h a t form
s t i l l ag e . a l dehyde i s a horr i b l y fou l smel l i n g chem i c a l
that is i n tense l y irritating to the s k i n , nose
D i fferent materi a l s can t o l e r a te d i ffer i n g and eyes . The fumes a l so shou l d not be
amou n t s of backs lapp i n g . It is poss i b l e to i nh a l e d . An a I tern ate to forma I dehyde is
I
have too much of a good t h i n g , and too much ammon i a ( ammo n i u m h ydrox i de } so l u t i o n , but
b a sk s l op p i n g can be detri men t a l . The l i m i ts the same cau t i on s a pp l y .
I
!I
for v a r i ous mater i a l s are d i scussed in
Chap ter 1 0 . After d i s i nfec t i n g with form a l dehyde or
I
�
ammo n i a , the apparatus shou l d be thorou g h l y
CLEANLINESS washed out w i th c l ear w a te r . It is best to
j
I
c l ean equi pment after every ba tch , but in I
T he c l ean i n g of fermen t i n g t ubs, p i pes, and some c l i m a tes a n d a t cert a i n t i mes o f t h e year
the I ike i s e x t reme! y i mportan t . I f mash a nd when the bacter i a count i s low, c l ea n i n g every
ferme n t a t ion res i d ues a re a I lowed to t i me m i ght be a l l r i gh t . In
second or third
accumu I a te, bacteri a l con tam i n a t ion wi I I be at the f i rs t s i gn of p rob l em s , a
any event,
r a m p a n t a nd wi I I g rea t l y reduce a l cohol y i e l d .
thorough c l e a n i n g i s abso l u t e l y necessary .
C l ea n i n g of the mashing and fermen t a t ion

a p p ar a t u s is u su a I I y done w i th s team in
HYDROMETERS
commerc i a l opera t i ons . However, in a sma l l
p l a n t , a t horough w as h i n g w i th d i si nfectant i s
As i l l ustrated in F i gure 5-1 , h y d rometers are
usua l l y a deq u a te . An y d i s i n f ec t i n g c l ea n e r c a l i b ra ted stems used to
l ittle f l oats with
can b e u sed, b u t, i n t he i n terest of economy,
measure the spec i f i c grav i ty of a l i q u i d . The
i t i s best to b uy form a l dehyde s o l u t ion from a dev i ce used to
most f a m i l i ar examp l e is the
chem i c a l s upp l y house. For u se i t shou l d be
check b a t tery charge or a n t i -freeze protec t i o n .
F i gure 5-1 : HYDROMETER F i gure 5-2: SUGAR CONTENT v s

SPEC I F I C GRAV I TY
This table represents percent dissolved sucrose i n water a s

°
expressed in Speci f i c Gravity @68 Farenheit.*
PERCUII SPECIFIC PERCE�T SP£CIFIC PERCENT SPECIFIC PERC£H1 SPECIFIC
GRADUATED SUGAR SUGAR GRAVITY

SUGM GR AVITY GRAVITY SUGAR c.AAVITY
0 1 . 0000
1 1 .0039 11 1 .0441 22 1 .0918 42 1 . 1889
2 1 .0078 12 1 .0483 24 1 . 1009 44 1 .1972
J 1 .0 1 1 7 13 1 .0525 26 I .1102 46 1 . 2100
4 1 .0156 14 1 .0568 28 1 .1195 48 1 .2208

1 .0 1 9 6 15 1 .0610 30 1 .1290 50 1 . 2371
5
52 1 .2428
:<-:!",::�-- R EADING IS TAKEN A T 6 1 .0236 16 1 .0653 32 1 .1386
7 1 .0 2 7 7 17 1 . 0697 34 1 .1484 54 1 .2 540
P O I N T WHERE H Y D R O M E T E R 8 1 . 0317 18 1 .0741 36 1 . 1583 56 1 . 2654
S T E M FLOATS I N L I Q U I D 1 .0358 19 1.0785 38 1 . 1683 58 1 • 2 77 0

9
1 .0400 20 1 .0829 40 1 . 1785 60 1 . 2887
10
°
t 68 Farenhe i t .
*Figures are accurate only for readings taken a
I�
For readings a t pther tempera t u r e s , u se correction table-
i n water.
N01E: T h i s t a b l e w i l l g i v e values ( o r p u r e sucrose
the liquid mash w i l l contdin o t h e r s u g a r s , starches,
Because
and i ner t solids, t h e readings w i l l b e approximat e and may
not necessarily reflect the true sugar co nt en t . However, most

readir1gs w i l l be within a few l?crccntagc p o i n t s .
H y d rometers can be ca l i b rated in a n u mber of t r a t i on of a l coho l before or a f ter d i st i l l a t i o n .

d i fferent sca l es , depe n d i n g on t he i r purpose. For measu r i n g the so l i ds di ssolved i n a mash,
The most common c a l i b r a t i on is for spec i f i c the h yd rometer is c a l i b rated in degrees
grav i t y . Water has a spec i f i c grav i ty of " Ba l l i ng " . One degree on t h i s sca l e i s e q u a l to
1 .000 . L i q u i ds I i g h ter than water have about 1% d i ssolved so l i d s . O t he r h y d rometers
spec i f i c gra v i t i es less t h a n 1 . 000, and those can be purchased to show a l coho l content in
heavier, greater t ha n 1 .000. The h y d rometer p roof or percen t . To ob t a i n accurate measure
can be used to measure t he approx i m a t e men ts, a set of h y d rometers, each cover i n g a
d i ssolved so l i ds in a mash or the concen- sma l l range, is better than one h y d rometer
F i gure 5-3 : ALCOHOL CONTENT vs F i gure 5-4: CORREC T I ON TABLE

SPEC I F I C GRAV I TY
Step 1 :
°
Figures given a s percent by volume @60 Farenhe i t , Estimate the approximate percentage o f water in the sample t o
per U. S. Bureau o f Standards. determine correction factor l i s t e d below.
A LCOHOL SPECIFIC ALCOHOL SPECIFIC ALC!llOL SPECIFIC AlC OHOL SPECIFI C 0 57. = • 00047 687• .00035 82% .00019
PE RCEN T GRAVITY PERCE IIT GRAVITY PERCEIIT GRAVITY PER
CEN T GRAVITY 6 167. .. .00048 69% .00034 837. .00018
0 1 .0000 17 29% .00047 707, .00033 84% . .00017
1 .9985 26 .9698 51 .9323 76 .8746 30 37% = . 00046 717• .00032 85% .00016
2 .9970 27 .9687 52 .9303 77 .8720 38 43% = .00045 72% .00031 86% .00015
3 .9956 28 .9676 53 .9283 78 .8693 .00044 73% .00030 87% .00014
44 - 49% =
4 .9942 29 .9665 54 .9263 79 .8666 .00043 74% .00029 88'1. .000 1 3

50 537. a
5 .9928 30 .9653 55 .9242 80 .8638 56% , . 00042 757• .00028 897. .00012
54
6 .9915 31 .9642 56 .9221 81 .8610 57 587. = .00041 76'1. .00026 90 - 917. = .00011
7 .9902 32 .9630 57 .9200 82 .8528 59 617. = .00040 77% .00025 92 - 93% = .00010
8 .9890 J3 .9617 58 .9178 83 .8553 . 00039 7 87 .00024 94 - 95% .00009
627. •
9 .9878 34 .9604 59 .9156 84 .8524 6 3 - 64'1. .00038 797, .00023 95 -1007, = .00008
10 .9866 35 .9591 60 .9134 85 .8494 65% . 00037 807• .00022
11 .9854 36 .9577 61 .9112 86 .8464 66 - 67% • 00036 817• .00020
12 .9843 37 .9563 62 .9089 87 .8434
13 .9832 38 .9548 63 .9066 88 .8402 Step 2 :
14 .9821 39 .9533 64 .9043 89 .8371 M u lt ipl y the g
corr ction factor by the number o f degrees greater
15 .9810 40 .9518 65 .9020 90 .8338 or lesser than 60
16 .9800 41 .9502 66 .8997 91 .8305
17 .9789 42 .9486 67 .8973 92 .8270
!! I
Step 3:
18 .9779 43 .9469 68 .8949 93 .8235 I f temperature l s greater than standard, add the correction
19 .9769 44 .9452 69 .8924 94 .8198 to the specific gravity reading t o obtain t he ' t empera t u re
20 . 9760 45 .9435 70 .8900 95 .8160 corrected reading. If temperatur e is less than scandard , the
21 .9750 46 .9417 71 .8875 96 .8121 should be subtracte d from the readi ng .
correctio n
22 .9740 47 .9399 72 .8850 97 .8079
23 . 9729 48 .9381 73 .8824 98 .8036
24 .9719 49 .9362 74 .8799 99 .7989
25 .9708 so .9343 75 .8773 100 .79389
in temperature, correct i ons must be made for
*Figures a re accurate only for readings taken at 60
°
Farcnhc i t . rea d i n g s ta ken a t temperatu res other than t h a t
For readings a t other temperatur e s , use correction t a ble .
for w h i ch the h ydrometer i s ca l i brate d . More
cover i n g a I arge range. H y drometers can be often than not, the temperature of the sol u t i on
purchased from any l aboratory s u p p l y house. you are t es t i n g w i l l n o t be the same as the
So that you do not h a ve to purchase several h y d rometer c a l i b ra t i on . F i gure 5-4 is a
sets, F i gures 5-2 and 3 convert sugar and correc t i on table for non-standard temper-
a l cohol content to spec i f i c grav i t y . a t u res. Note t h a t this table i s very accurate
for determi n i ng the correc t i on for aqueous
Because I i q u i d s change den s i t y w i th chan ges ethanol so l u t i on s and less accurate for sugar
or d i sso l ved so l i ds concen trat i on .

Chapter6
An a l tern a t e method of determ i n i n g sugar PROCESSING
content is the use of a sugar refractometer. STEPS SPECIFIC
These i n struments a re a va i l ab l e f rom l abor-
TO SACCHARINE
a tory supply houses, but are expens i v e .
MATERIALS
However, the read i ngs a re very accurate.
Spec i f i c grav i t y can a l so be deter m i ned by
we i gh i n g exac t l y one l i ter of the l i q u i d at the
proper temperature. The weight in grams,
d i v ided by 1 000 w i l l be the spec i f i c g r a v i t y . GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Due t o t h e d i ff i cu l t y of measur i n g exact l y one
l i ter of the so l ut i on bei n g tested, the we i g h i n g As stated ea r l ier, saccha r i n e mater i a l s require
method is usua I I y not as accurate as the the least processi n g of any of the ethanol
method u s i n g a h y d rometer. feedstocks. Referri ng to F i g u r e 4-1 , i t can be
seen t h a t mo•asses a nd other sug ar-con ta i n i ng
syrups need only to be d i l uted and pH
a d j u s ted p r i or to fermen t a t i on . Other
mater i a l s , such as grapes and other fru i ts,
need to be e i ther crushed or extracted to make
the sugar read i l y access i b l e to the yeast
enzymes.
In a d d i t i on to extrac t i o n , t h e req u i rements of
pH contro l , d i l ut i o n , backstopp i n g , and

c l ea n l i n ess as d i scussed in Chapter 5 a l so
ap p l y . Recipes for spec i f i c mater i a l s are t a k e the residue from the f i r s t press i n g , soak
con t a i ned i n Ch apter 1 0 . it in a m i n i m u m amount of water to d i ssol ve
more of the sugar, and then press i t aga i n .
EXTRACTION However, this method creates a d d i t ion a I I

d i l ut i on w h i ch l owers the a l cohol content of
I
P r i or to fermen t a t i o n , sacc h a r i n e mater i a l s ,
are usua I I y
the fermented mash ( ca l led "beer" ) req u i r i n g
d i s t i I I a t i on I
i
such as fru i ts , beets, etc . , put more energy and t i me in t he
II '
t h rough an ex trac t i on process. This means process . If a fru i t j u ice con t a i n s , for
that the suga r-con ta i n i n g j u ice is separated examp l e , 1 0% s u g a r , the f i n a l a l cohol concen
from the rest of the materi a l . T h i s i s usua l l y t ra t i on going to t he s t i I I wi I I be about 5%.
done in a press l i ke those used for cru s h i n g Any water used to wash a d d i t i on a l sugar from
grapes o r m a k i n g c i der. E x traction , per se, is the residue will f u r ther d i l u te this final
not abso l u t e l y necess a r y . The materi a l s can concen tra t i o n . The l ower the a l coho l con
a l so be s i mp l y crushed to expose the j u ices for cen t ra t i on , the more water must be removed
the fermen t a t i on proces s . - However, w i th most from the a l coho l d u r i n g d i s t i l l a t i on . However,
d i st i l l a t ion e q u i pmen t, the s o l i d s w i I I have to i n many i n stances, the greater tot a I amou n t of
be removed p r i or to g o i n g i n to the s t i I I . a l coho l ga i ned j u s t i f i es the ad d i t i on a l
d i l u t i on .
There are cer t a i n problems a nd considera t i ons
associated w i t h e i t her extrac t i on or crush i n g . Crus h i n g t h e mater i a l i nstead of extrac t i n g i t
E x tract i o n rn a press, at best, leaves an in a press leaves a l l the s u g a r a va i l a b l e for
apprec i a b l e amount of fermen tab l e mater i a l fermen t a t i on , a l t hough the mater i a l usua l l y
beh i n d . T y p i ca l l y , o n l y 75% of the sugars can must b e s trai ned p r i or to d i s t i l l a t i on . Aga i n ,
be extracted f rom app I es a n d about 80% from some of the v a l ua b l e l i q u i d w i l l be retai ned i n
grapes . One tech n i q ue t ha t can be used w i t h the res i d u e and the on l y so l u t ion i s to wash i t
press extraction to i ncrease the yield is to w i th a l i t t l e water. I f you are u s i n g a s i m p l e
pot st i l l , such as described in this book,

f i l teri n g the residue i sn ' t a b so l u t e l y Chapter?
necess.;�ry as long as the s t i I I pot i s c l eaned PROCESSING
o u t after each run . I n t h i s case, the crush i n g
STEPS SPECIFIC
method i s superior.
TO STARCHY
Cer t a i n mater i a l s such as sweet corn s ta l k s ,
MATERIALS
sugar cane, and the I i ke, req u i re heavy
h ydrau l ic presses to effec t i ve l y extract the
j u ice. The a l ternate process here i s t o shred
the m a ter i a l and then heat it with as little PREPARATION OF STARCHY MATERIALS
water a s poss i b l e t o d i s so l v e out the s u g a r .
Note that to ob t a i n comp J e t e recovery o f t h e Starchy mater i a l s fa l l i n to two main cate-
sugar, t h e process described must b e repeated gories : (1) materi a l s , such as grains, in
several t i mes. Aga i n , a p o i n t i s reached where which the s tarch i s e ncased o r protected by
d i l u t i on offsets t h e amo u n t of s u g a r rel eased gra i n hu l l s ; a nd ( 2 ) those m a t er i a l s , such a s
a n d some comprom i se must be m a d e . Note a l so · potatoes , where the s t a rch is more read i l y
that two ex t r a c t i o n s of one g a l lon each wi I I a v a i l ab l e . M i l l i ng o r gri nd i n g the mater i a l to
d i ss o l ve more s u g a r t h a n a s i n g l e two g a l l o n expose t he s t a rch i s n ecessary for the former
extract i o n . grou p , but not the l at t e r . Otherw i se , all
s t a rc h y materi a l s requ ire a certa i n a m o u n t of
cook i n g and conversion of t he s t a rch to s u g a r
p r i or to fermen t a t i on .
There are two basic methods of convers i o n .

The first uses malt or an extract of the
enzy mes con t a i ned i n mal t a n d the second uses A l most any k i nd of g r a i n-m i l l i n g equ i pmen t
d i l u te acid in a process c a l l ed "acid can be used, or the g r a i n can be m i l l ed by
h y d ro I ysi s " . your loca l feed p l a n t . Unfortu n a te l y , there i s
n o a l ternate process, and i f you are g o i n g to
use gra i n as your feedstock, it wi I I have to
MILLING be m i l ied .
Gra i n s a n d s i m i I ar s tarchy mater i a I s must be COOKING

m i l led to expose t h e s tarches to the cook i n g ,
conversion and fermen t a t i on processes. The Cook i n g is necessary for aI I starchy
i de a l is to grind the materi a l as f i ne as mater i a I s . The object i s f i rst to d i sso l ve a l l
pos s i b l e w i t hout produc i n g an exces s i v e t h e water so l u b l e s tarches a n d t h e n , as much
amount o f f l ou r . This i s because f i ne ( f l o u r ) as poss i b l e , g e l a t i n ize them.
p a r t i c l es are d i f f i cu l t to remove if the
mater i a l must be f i l tered p r i or to d i s t i l l a t i o n . In commerc i a l operati ons, cook i n g is a l most
Aga i n , i f you are u s i n g a s i mp l e pot s t i l l , the a l wa y s done w i t h steam, under pressure, and
mater i a l need not be f i l tered and the presence usua l l y i n a con t i n uous process. Water boi l s
of fine f l our p a r t i c les is not objec t i on a b l e . a t 2 1 2° Farenhei t a t sea level and at a lower
Large amounts of f l our can a I so make the mash temperature as a l t i tude i n creases. By us i n g
too v i scous ( thick) and hard to hand l e . Th i s pressure cook i n g e q u i pmen t , h i gher temper-
is only objec t i on ab l e if it must be pumped atures and shorter cook i n g t i mes can be
from con ta i ner to con t a i ner or otherw i se obtained. At 1 50 pounds pressure, for
h a n d led . I f you are do i n g every t h i n g 1n the examp l e , g ra i n s ta rches can be cooked in six
same p o t , the v iscousness c a n often b e tol er- m i n utes o r l e s s . Large sca l e pressure cook i n g
a ted . Otherw i se , prema l t i n g , as d i scussed equ i pment i s expen s i v e a n d , in t h i s manua l ,
l a te r , w i I I so l ve t h e prob l e m . the cook i n g t i mes for v a r i ous mater i a l s w i I I be
g i ven for the "atmospheric" p rocess where t a n eous l y cook the g r a i n . I t is all done i n a
temperatu res a re in the 208-21 2° range. spec i a l l y desi g ned g r a i n m i l l .
Cook i ng t i mes for d i fferent m a teri a l s a r e l i s ted
under the i n d i v i d u a l feedstocks i n C hapter 1 0 .
CONVERSION
Because a l ot o f energy i s needed to boi I the
w a ter used in the cook i n g p rocess, i t i s best Conversion i s the process of conver t i n g starch
to cook w i th a s I i t t l e w a ter as poss i b l e . Then , to fermen t a b l e s u g a r s . I t can be accomp l i shed
after cook i ng , a dd i t iona l w a ter may be added e i ther by the use of ma I t , ex tracts of the
to d i l u t e the m as h t o o p t i mum concen t r a t i on for enzymes con t a i ned i n m a l t , o r b y t h e treatment
fermen ta t ion. I f the a dd i t i ona l water i s added of the starch ( or cel l u lose ) w i th acid in a
at a t i me when it is desi rab l e to cool the process c a l l ed " a c i d hydrol y s i s " . Each method
mash, for examp l e a f ter cook i ng and p r ior to i s d i scussed separatel y .
ccnvers i o n , coo l i n g t i me i s saved. Mos t g r a i n s
c a n b e cooked w i th a s I i t t l e a s 1 5-20 g a l lons MALTING
of w a ter per b ushe l . Note t ha t when cook i n g
w i th m i n i mum w a te r , spec i a l a t ten t ion must b e Starch can be converted to fermen t a b l e sugars
g i ven t o s t i rr i n g t h e m as h . O t h erw i se l u m p i n g by the a c t i o n of enzymes i n rna I t . When the
a nd b u r n i n g m ay occ u r . seeds of any cereal gra i n a r e moistened and
a I I owed to sprout, cert a i n enzymes ( amy I ases )
New methods o f cook i ng are being d e v e l oped a r e produced w h i ch have the a b i I i t y to convert
that h eI p to conserve energy . T he most starch to a farm of feC'men t a b l e s u g a r ca l l ed
i n teres t i n g is a method that com b i nes m i l l i n g rna I tose. All cereal grains produce these
a n d cook i n g i n to o n e o pera t i on w i thout t h e use enzymes to a greater or lesser degree.
of water . T he p rocess u ses heat generated by However, b a r l e y produces by · far the most and
f r i c t ion in the m i l l ing p rocess to simul- i s usu a l l y t h e most econom i ca l to u s e .
You can e i ther purchase d r i e d , ground b a r l ey T he average m a l t i n g rec i p e ca l l s for t he use
ma I t , or you c a n produce your own from the

of between i to 1 pound of d r ied ma l t for each
10 pounds of g rai n . Again , spec i f i c recipes
gra i n . However, undried or "green" ma l t , such
are covered l a ter . T he dried m a l t is usua l l y
as that you might produce yourse l f , will not
keep u n l ess d r i ed . On a sma l l sca l e , it is
m ixed w i th w arm w a ter a t a r a t i o of about 2-i
pounds per g a l lon to form a s l urry . This
often better to use the commerc i a l product .
s l urry shou l d be m ixed about a n hour ahead
of t i me a nd a dded to t he m ash w hen i t coo l s to
the proper t empera tu re . I II
In conve r t i n g starch to s u g a r , m a l t enzymes
exert two forms of chem i ca l acti v i t y : l i que
Because bar l ey mal t is expens i v e , usua l l y
fact i on and sacch a r i f i c a t i on . The i n ten s i t i es of
more expens i ve t han t he m a ter i a l i t i s used to
these two act i v i t i es depend on the temperature
convert, i t i s b est t o u se as I i t t l e as poss i b l e .
of the mas h . The l i q uef y i n g power is greatest
at about 1 58° Farenhe i t . I t beg i n s to weaken
T he m i n i mum amount can b e determ i n ed after !I
° severa l t r i a l convers ions . To do t h i s , make a
at 1 75 ° a nd ceases at about 200 . The
trial m a l t i ng u si n g the amou n t s I i sted in
sacch a r i f y i n g ( su g a r making) power is
° Chapter 1 0 . T hen t ake a I i t t le o f t h e converted
s t rongest between 1 20-130 F . and is
mash and f i l ter it t h ro u g h a cheesec loth or
destroyed comp l e tel y a t 1 75° . Both of these
some simi lar m a teri a l . P l ace a l i t t l e of the
a c t ions are des i rab l e . Therefore a comprom i se
f i I tered I iquid in a w h i te d i sh and add
must be made. The conversion process is
several drops of a s o l u t ion composed of 5
therefore usua I I y b eg u n after t h e cooked mash
g rams potass i um i o d i d e a n d 5 grams of i od i ne
i s a I I owed to coo I to about 1 50° F . The
crysta l s i n one q u a r t o f ( d i s t i l l ed) w a ter . An y
mater i a l is held at thi s temperature for a
b l ue c o l or p roduced i n d i cates t h e p resence of
certa i n length of t i me ( depen d i n g on the
unconverted starch . Natu ra l l y , if the test
materi a l ) and then a l lowed to cool to the
i n d i cates no b l ue c o l or, the n ex t t r i a l shou l d
op t i m u m fermen t i n g temperature.
76 ALCOHOL MANUAL 1 ALCOHOL MANUAL 77
be r u n w i t h less m a l t a n d v i ce-vers a . The test P R E PARAT I ON OF MALT

so l u t i on can be compounded by your l oc a l
druggist or the chem i ca l s can be p u r c hased The fo l l ow i n g is a b a s i c p rocess for m a k i n g

from any l aboratory s u p p l y house. maI t , for those who p r efer to p r ep a r e their
own . A n y gra i n c a n b e used t o m a k e m a l t , b u t
as stated before, barley i s b y f a r t h e bes t .
PR EMAL Tl NG : However, if you are work i n g with corn , for
examp l e , you can s i mp l y set a s i d e about 20%
D u r i ng the cook i ng p rocess, t h e s t a rch i n t h e of the gra i n , prepare a ma I t as described
g r a i n i s g e l a t i n ized. When t he m as h is coo l ed, below, and use i t in the same way you wou l d
it may become too t h i ck to be s t i rred and use b a r l ey ma l t . The same i s true of s i m i l ar
h a n d led effec t i v e l y d ur i ng the m a l t i ng m a teri a l s .
opera t ion . T he techn i q ue o f p rema l t i n g cures
this p rob l em by tak i ng a dvan tage of the Ma l t is s i mp l y sprouted grain . The basic
l i quefy i n g p roper t i es of ma l t p r ior to the re q u i remen t s for sprou t i n g a re moi s t u re ,
convers ion . T o p rem a l t , s i m p l y a d d about 1 0% w a rm t h , and d a r k n ess_ G r a i n c a n be sprouted
of the tot a l mal t weight to the m as h p r ior to in an y t h i n g from a f i ve-ga l l on p l as t i c pa i l to
cook i n g . T h i s c a u ses s uff i c ient I i quefact ion t o a 55-ga l l on d r u m . The con t a i ner s hou l d e i ther
f ac i l i ta t e h an d l i n g the mash during h a v ,., s ma l l holes poked i n t h e bottom or, w i t h
s u bseq u e n t opera t i ons . I t a l so hel p s to l a rg e r co n t a i ners, a v a l ve protected by a
p revent therma l destruc t i on of the malt screen or mesh t h a t w i l l a l low water to d r a i n
e n z y mes I a ter on and so reduces the b u t ret a i n t h e materi a l bei n g sprou ted .
p rod u c t i o n of u nd es i ra b l e b y - p ro d u c t s . After
cook i n g , the r em a i n i ng 90% of the mal t s l u rry Beg i n by soa k i n g t he g r a i n u n t i l t he k e rn e l s
is added, and the conversion is con t i n ued as can be crushed between the f i n gers a n d the
u su a l . i ns i d e is sof t . T h i s takes a bo u t 8-12 hours for
b a r l e y a n d con s i d er a b l y longer for corn . ·Then Fresh, u n d r i e d m a l t i s c a l l ed " green" m a l t . 1 t

drain the water. Thereafter, spri n k l e the m u s t be used i mmed i a t e l y or d r ied because i t
gra i n several ti mes a day with warm water. wi I I rot i f s tored wet. I t s ho u l d be u sed in
T h e object i s to keep the g r a i n moi s t b u t not the same m a n n er a s d r ied m a l t , a n d i t i s n o t
wet . If too wet, the g r a i n will rot . After a u su a l l y necessary to a d j ust t h e r e c i p e to a l l o w
w a t er i n g , the water wi l l work i ts w a y down for t h e g reen m a l t ' s m o istu re con tent because
t h rough the gra i n a nd out the h o l es (or v a l ve ) the green m a l t i s s l i gh t l y more poten t .
in the con t a i ner. The sprou t i n g w i l l generate
some hea t . The
optimum
°
temperature for
sprou t i n g i s about 80 F . b u t the most enzymes
ENZYME CONVERSION
I 'i
li
° ,,,,
T he enzymes con t a i ned i n
seem to be produced at abou t 60 F . When m a l t a re a va i l a b l e f:, ,
sprou t i n g i n l arge con t a i ners, be carefu l t h a t commer ci a l l y from severa l manufa cturer s . T he i.
t h e g r a i n doesn ' t g e t too w a r m . I f i t does, it p roced u res for u s i n g them are very s i m i 1 ar t o
can be spread out on a concrete f I oor in a malt convers i o n . I n a dd i t i o n , the u se of

d a r k p l ace and the sprou t i ng con t i nued . Sma l l enzyme extracts i s u sua f l y superior to m a l t .
con t a i ners will not have the problem of too F i rst o f a l l , t h e enzyme extracts ar·e u s ua l l y
much hea t . chea per . T hey are a l so spec i f i ca l l y des i gned
for the job at hand, and they genera I I y
Sprou t i n g w i l l take about 4 d a y s . The m a l t i s p roduce more p red ictab l e resu l ts and h i gher
ready when the sprout i s about � i nch l o n g . y ie l ds .
P r i or to use, the malt wi l l have to be T he t h ree b as i c t y pes of commerci a I I y

crushed . T h i s c a n be done i n a mi I I or, on a a va i l a b I e enzymes a re a lp h a , beta, and g l uco
sma l l sca l e , a heavy duty garbage d i sposal amy l ases. A l p h a a my lases r andom l y sp l i t t h e
can be a d a pted . I t i s a l so poss i b l e to use an starch m o l ecu l es t o p roduce a t y pe of s u g a r
ordi nary b l ender or food processo r . c a l l ed dextrose. Beta amy l ases a c t s i m i l a r l y to
80 ALCOHOL MANUAL T ALCOHOL MANUAL 81
p roduce m a I tose . To get her, these t wo enzymes This process is rel a t i ve l y s i mp l e , but it
can convert about 85% of the starch to req u i res acid proof e q u i pmen t , high temper
fermen tab l e sugar. G l uco a my l ases c a n reduce atures, and the h a nd l i n g of ac i d . For these
the rema i n i n g starches, and the use of aI I reasons, it is not rea l l y recommended for
t h ree can ach ieve a l most t ot a l conversion of sma l l sca l e produc t i o n .
t h e s t a rch .
Bas i ca l l y , d i I ute m i neral ac i d ( usua l l y
T he t wo p r i nc i p a l man ufacturers of enzymes su l fu r i c ) i s added to the g r a i n s l u rr y prior to
s u i ta b l e for starch convers ion are M i l es cook i n g at a conce n t r a t i on of 1 -4% as c a l cu-
! . aborator i es a n d Nova Laborator i es, as l i s ted l a ted on a w e i g h t/we i g h t b a s i s . The mash is
in the appen d ix . E nzymes are u sed i n much then cooked a t a temperature of about 350° F .
the same m an ner as m al t . However, because Cook i n g and conversion of the starch take
d i fferent e n z y m es req u i re s l i gh t l y d i fferent p l ace s i m u I t a neous I y . The mash is then
pH, t i mes , and tempera t u res , it is best to i mmed i a tel y neu t ra l i zed with ca l c i um
f o l low the recomme n d a t ions of the h y d rox i d e ( I i me) , or some other base, and
manufacturer. fermented in the ua l manner.
us
A ty p i ca l recipe for the use of M i l es The high temperatures essen t i a l in this

La bora tor i es "Taka-Therm" and "0 iazyme process are ob t a i ned by the use of pressure
L - 1 00" for t he conversion o f corn i s i nc l uded cook i n g . The s team pressure requ i red i s about
i n C hapter 1 0 . 1 50 pou n d s per square i nch . This, together
with the neces s i t y for a c i d proof e q u i pment,
make this process unsu i t a b l e for sma l l sca l e
ACID HYDROLYSIS
use. However, it i s a n exce I I en t process for
Starch ( a nd cel l u lose) may a l so be converted l a rge opera t i on s because cook i n g a n d fermen
to fermen t a b l e s u g a rs by the act i on of ac i d . t a t i on t i mes are short and the method is
read i l y a d a p t a b l e to con t i nuous opera t i o n . make a coo l i n g co i l as i l l ustrated in

Chapter 1 3 . The coo l i ng co i l i s t h e best long
MASH COOLING term so l u t i on , but if the prob l e m on l y occurs
occasion a l l y , as d u r i n g the summer mon t h s , a
Ma l t i n g i s conducted a t a temperature of about p l as t i c bag f u l l of i ce and suspended i n t h e
1 45-1 50° F. As is d i scussed l a ter, ferme n t a t i on mash mi ght do the t r i ck . Just be s u re the
is commenced at an optimum temperature of p l as t i c bag doesn ' t leak and d i l u te your
l
70-80° F arenhei t . Between the two steps the mash ! I
I
mash must b e coo l ed .
t
I
I
O n e of t h e b i ggest prob lems affec t i ng a l coho l
yield is bacter i a l c o n t am i n a t i on of the mash
e i t her before or d uri n g fermen t a t i o n . The c h i ef
protection a g a i nst this is the pH or a c i d i t y
control of the mash i n g and fermen t a t i on
ope r a t i o n s . However, even with pcrfec t pH
control bacteri a l i nfections can set in. This
happens most I y during the coo l i n g stage
between mash i ng and fermen t a t i on .
If bacteri a l con t ami n a t i o n becomes a prob l e m ,

the on I y so l u t i o n ( o t her than the obv i ous need
for c lean l i ness ) i s to s horten the coo l i n g t i me
as much as poss i b l e . The l ess t i me at the
temperatures cond u c i ve to bacter i a growth the
bet ter. Therefore, i t m i g h t become necessary to
Chapter S
PROCESSING
STEPS SPECIFIC
TO CELLULOSE
MATERIALS
CELLULOSE CONVERSION
C e l l u lose feedstocks , w h ich i n c l ude a w i de

v a r i ety of materi a l f rom corn stalks, wood,
s traw , a n d cotton, to o l d newspapers ( paper )
and t r as h2 are potentia l l y good sources of
a l coho l . I f f u l l y converted, for examp l e , a ton
of o l d newspapers wou l d y i e l d up to 70 g a l lons
of a l coho l . C e l l u l ose m a t er i a l s are a l so
extreme! y c h e a p a nd, often, free.
C e l l u l ose is converted by e i ther enzymes o r

ac i d h y dro l y s i s . Nova La bora tori es p rod u ces
spec i a l enzymE;:s c a l l ed " C e l l u l as t " and
" C e l lobi ase 250L" for convers ion of c e l l u l ose to
fermen t a b l e g l ucose. Ot her m a n uf a c t urers make
s i m i l ar prod u c t s . The acid process i nv o l ves Commerc i a l processes are bei n g devel oped to
ei ther s t rong acid and rei a ti vel y low temper process c e l l u l ose i n to a l cohol w i t h the use of
a t u res, or weak acid and h i g h temperatures. strong acid w i t ho u t destroy i ng the ce l l u lose.
T h e strong a c i d process has the problem that However, the process is comp l i cated and
the g l ucose is destroyed a l most as fast as i t econom i ca l l y feas i b l e only on a very l arge
i s formed u n l ess t h e contact t i me w i th t h e ac i d sea I e .
i s very b r i e f . T h e weak process requires a c i d
proof pressure cook i n g equ i pment as described The o n l y a l ternat i ve to d i ssol v i n g the l i gn i n
earl i e r . Aga i n , for the obvious reasons, these i s to reduce the cel l u lose materi a l to as f i ne a
methods are not recom mended on a sma l l sca l e . s t a te as possi b l e so t h a t a t l e a s t some of the
cel l u l ose may be recovered. This i s done by
The m a i n problem w i t h cel l u lose as a n ethanol powder i n g , g r i n d i n g or press i n g . The y i e l d of
feedstock is get t i ng a t the cel l u lose i t se l f . In cel l u lose i s d i r ec t l y proport i o n a l to how f i ne l y
a p l an t , cel l u lose i s encased in a substance t h e s t arti n g materi a l i s reduced .
c a l l ed " l i gn i n" in much t h e same way t h a t a
steel rei nforc i n g rod i s encased in concrete. Other cel l u lose m a t er i a l s are somew h a t easier
Lignin is the s u b s tance that g i ves wood its to process than those w i th h i g h I i g n i n conten t .
s t ren g t h . To ge t a t the cel l u l ose, the l i gn i n Some forms of paper, I i ke newspaper, are
must be d i sso l ved awa y . The paper i nd u s t ry a l most pure cel l u l ose and are easi l y converted
uses substances l i ke s u l fur d i ox i de, ca l c i um by ei ther the enzyme or a c i d process.
b i su l f i te , sod i um su l fate, sod i u m su l f i de, and
sod i u m h y d rox i d e ( l ye) to d i ss o l v e l i gn i n . Also, i n order for a p l a n t to produce cel l u
Concentrated m i neral ac i d , menti oned ear l i e r , l ose, . i t must f i rst produce g l ucose, w h i ch is
a l so di ssolves l i gn i n . Unfort u n a te l y , as it is t h e s u g a r we are t ry i n g t o obta i n . Therefore,
d i ssol v i ng the l i gn i n , the strong acid a l so p l a n t s t h a t are processed w h i l e they are s t i l l
con verts and then destroys the g l u cose. wet a n d green have t he a d v a n tage of hav i n g
I
fermen t a b l e sugar a l ready avai l a b l e . These

mater i a l s can be s i mp l y fermented w i thout Chapter 9
conversion a nd considered as low-y i e l d YEAST AND
sacch a r i n e feedstocks . FERMENTATION
YEAST
Yeast is an org a n i sm belong i n g to the

vegetab l e fami l y . The yeast i tse l f does not
take a d i rect part i n the ferment a t i on process,
but it secretes a comp •ex of enzymes t h a t act
upon the sugar and convert i t to a l cohol and
carbon d i ox i de g a s .
T h e yeast used i n a l coho l i c fermen t a t i on i s a

spec i a l s t ra i n bred to be t o l er a n t to
vari ations in pK and res i s t a n t t o a l coho l . In
the past, d i s ti l leries bred and propagated
thei r own yeast s t r a i n s . The yeast was kept
a l i ve in cu l t u res a nd grown in batches of
ever-increas i n g s i ze to be used in the
fermenters. Keep i n g yeast a l i ve a n d grow i n g preca u t i on s . Above a l l , the cond i t i on s m u s t be

cu l tures is a t r i ck y b u s i ness that requi res abso l u t e ! y steri l e . Ordi n a r y bo i I i n g water does
precise control of temperature, nutrients, and not ki l l all of the bacte r i a presen t . It is
the l i ke. However, a s i mp l i f ied method is necessary to use a pressure cooker. Make a
described l a te r . Fortu n a te l y , spec i a l act i ve so l ut i on of ( proport i on a tel y ) one cup sugar,
dry yeast i s a v a i l ab l e . To use i t , you mere l y o n e c u p f l our a nd t w o quarts w a t e r . P l ace t h e
a d d warm water to reacti v a te i t a n d then add so l u t i on i ri a pressure cooker and boi l at
i t to the mash i n the fer men ter. Two pounds i s e l evated pressure for at least 45 m i n u tes.
suff i c i e n t for 1 000 g a l lons of mash . It is W i t hout open i n g the pressure cooker, coo l the
a va i l a b l e from U n i versal Foods Corpor a t i on as so I u t i on to about room temperature. Then open
l i sted in the append i x . T h i s yeast shou l d be the con t a i ner a nd add a cake of baker ' s or
rehydrated m i nutes p r i or to use a t a
for 15 d i st i l l er ' s yeast . C l ose the con t a i ner a n d keep
tempera t u re of 1 00-105 ° Farenhei t , or i t can be it in t h e refri gerator. The yeast w i l l s l ow l y
added dry to t h e ferme n t a t i on tank p r i or to grow. Some carbon d i ox i de w i l l be g i ven off,
fi I I i ng. so be s u re to l eave t he v e n t open . I f des i re d ,
the yeast s I urry c a n b e t r ansferred to j ar s .
In a p i nch, it is poss i b l e to use ord i nary J u s t be s u re t h e y are s teri l e and remember to
baker ' s yeast from your grocer ' s she I f . poke a s m a l l h o l e i n t h e I id to l e t the carbon
However, this yeast is not bred for a l cohol d i ox i de escape.
to I erance, and you wi I I probab I y not get the
y i e l ds assoc i a ted w i t h the d i st i l l er ' s yeast. To use the yeast c u I ture, mere l y remove a
teaspoon o r so, p l ace it in another ( steri l e )
YEAST PROPAGAT I ON con t a i n e r , feed i t some s u g a r a n d warm i t to
room temperature. When i t becomes a c t i v e , it
It i s poss i b l e to grow and propagate you r own is ready for the fermenter. If at any t i me
yeast c u l t u res if you observe cert a i n your refrigera ted c u l ture goes bad ( due to
bacter i a I con t a m i n a t i on ) i t m u s t b e thrown o u t v a r i es w i t h t h e materi a l bei n g fermen ted, the

and the p rocedure s tarted a ga i n . A l so , yeast pH, temperatur e, and several other factors . It
c u l tures shou l d not be frozen . c a n take from one to four d a y s . You w i I I know
that the ferme n t a t i on is comp l et e when the
FERMENTATION mash ceases b u bb l i ng and the yeast cake,

w h i ch forms on top, s i nks to the bot tom . At
Al l that i s necessary to b eg i n ferment a t ion i s t h i s point, the fermented l iq uor i s known as
to m ix the a c t i v a ted yeas t a nd the cooled, "beer" and it is ready to be d i st i l led .
p H- a d j u s ted mas h in the fermen t a t ion t ank .
As i de from the con s i dera t i ons of pH as I t i s a d v a n t ageous to d i s t i l l t h e beer a s soon
d i scussed ear I ier, the most i mportant thing a s poss i b l e . Occasion a l l y , if i t i s a l lowed to
d u r i ng t h e ferment a t i o n i s t emperature con tro l . sit, i t w i l l t u r n to v i negar. V i negar i s a l cohol
W h e n t h e fermen t a t ion beg i n s , carbon d iox i d e that h a s been o x i d i zed to ace t i c a c i d . Cert a i n
g as wi I I be g i ven off. At the height of enzymes present after fermen t a t i o n act as
fermen t a t i o n , the m as h wi I I I i tera l l y " bo i I " c a t a l ysts and a l low any air present in the
from t he c a rbon d iox i de p roduced . T he mash so l u tion to react w i th the a l cohol to form
reac t ion a l so p roduces some hea t . The o p t i mu m ace t i c aci d . In fact, i f you want to produce
temperatu re for the fermen t a t i on p rocess is v i negar, all you have to do to s t a rt the
0
between 70-85 F., a n d i t i s des i ra b l e not to rea c t i on is to bubble air through the
l et t h e tempera t u re go much a bove 90-95 ° F . fermented m a s h . Once the v i negar react i on has
C oo l i n g i s read i l y done w i th the use of i ce set i n , the mash i s l os t . There i s no cure. The
bags, as d iscussed ear l ier, or b y the use of a only preven t i o n is to separate the beer from
coo l i n g coi I . A l ess desi rab l e method of the mash sed i me n t a nd d i st i l l i t as soon after
control I i n g tempera t u re i s to d i l u t e t h e m a s h . fermen t a t i o n i s com p l e te as poss i b l e .
The actual t i me req u i red t o ferment a mash It i s a l so a d v a n t ageous to use a fermen t a t i on

l ock as described in Chapter 13, to prevent made i n to dry ice. Another use for the g a s
a l cohol vapors from escap i n g t h e fermen t e r . wou l d be to p i pe it i n to a greenhouse. The
Otherw i se , g a s c a n c a r r y w i th i t a
the C0 p l an t s w i I I then u s e it in t h e photosyn th e s i s
2
considerable a mo u n t of a l coho l . Note t h a t t h e cycle, remov i n g the carbon and giving off
smal l , g l ass ferme n t a t i on l oc k s a v a i l ab l e from ox y ge n . Lack i n g a use for the carbon d i ox i de ,
w i ne-ma k i n g supp l y houses are s u i tab l e , at i t can b e s i mp l y ven ted i n to t h e a i r as i t i s
most, for a 5-ga l l on con t a i n e r . Larger tota l l y non-po l l u t i ng and non-tox i c .
con t a i ners must h a ve propor t i on a te l y l arger
Jl
ferme n t a t i o n l ocks o r a d a ngerous amou n t of
pressure wi I I bu i l d and the vessel cou I d What w i l l be left i s a l ot of water a n d so l i d s .
exp l od e . A por t i on of the w a ter can be used for
b a ck s l opp i ng . The rema i n i n g so l i ds con t a i n
It is permi ss i b l e to open the fermen ter to protei n s , v i tami ns, m i nera l s , fats, a n d yeast
check progress a nd take samp les for pH cel l s . Al l of the n u t r i t i on v a I ue of the
a n a l y s i s, etc. as l o n g as care i s taken not to ori g i na l feedstock, except the s t a rch or s u g a r
i n t roduce bacter i a t h a t cou l d contam i n a t e t h e that has been turned i n to a l coho l , s u r v i ves
mash . i n ta c t . I t may be fed to c a t t l e , or i f s u i t a b l y
processed it can be used for human con
sump t i o n . However, in the wet s t a te, it will
FERMENTATION BY- PRODUCTS keep for a max i m u m of 3-5 d a y s depen d i n g on
cond i t i on s . After this it wi l l beg i n to rot .
The pri n c i p l e products of fermen t a t ion are T h e refore, for l on g term storage these residues
a l coho l , carbon d i ox i de, and ferme n t a t i on ( s t i l l age ) must be d ried . T h i s c a n be done by
res i du e . The a l cohol i s d i st i l l e d from the beer s t ra i n i n g out the so l i ds a n d sprea d i n g them i n
a n d used as fue l . The carbon d i ox i de gas i n a thin l ayer to dry in the sun, b y use of
l a rge d i st i l l e r i es is usua l l y compressed or rotary gra i n dryers, or s i m i l a r equ ipmen t .
NOTE OF CAUTION
Chapter 10
A l cohol produced for human consu m p t i on is INDIVIDUAL
made under spec i a l cond i t i ons a n d p u r i f i ed to RAW MATERIALS
a h i gh degree. E th a n o l that is produced
accord i n g to the procedures i n t h i s book w i I I
con t a i n fusel oils ( h i gh boi l i n g a l coho l s ) ,
a l dehydes, and ketones. None of these
chem i c a l s affect fuel performance but, if
i ngested, cou l d cause f a t a l p o i son i n g a t worst
or a horr i b l e h a ngover a t best. I n add i t i o n , I NDIVIDUAL RAW MATERIALS
i f t h e d i st i l l at i on e q u i pm e n t used l a ter on i s
not t i nned copper or s t a i n less stee l , many Th i s c h a p ter con t a i n s spec i f i c proces s i n g
tox i c met a l o x i des can be i n t roduced t o the i nform a t i on and recipes for individual raw
a l coho l . Solder, for examp l e , con t a i n s a lot of mater i a l s . I f a materi a l you are i n terested i n
l ead and can react to form p o i sonous lead u s i n g i s not L i.sted, you can usua l l y ap prox i
ox i d e s . So besides being i l l ega l , drinking mate an approp r i a t e process by using the
your fuel cou I d be h azardous to your hea I t h ! i nform a t i on a bout a s i m i l ar m a t e r i a l . Note t h a t
feedstock mater i a l s are n o t con s i stent in the
amoun t of fermen t a b l e m a t er i a l s , moisture
con te n t , and many other factors . The f i gures
g i ven here are averages . More spec i f i c i nfer-
· m a t ion about. particurar materi a l s can be
obta i ned from your s t a t e a g r i cu l tu r a l serv i ce ,
or t h e m a teri a l in quest i o n c a n b e tested by
an a g r i cu l t u r a l l a boratory for a modest fee.
Remember, then , the fo l l ow i n g i nforma t i on is i s u s u a I I y not necessary because t h e extracted

i n tended on l y as a g u i de. j u i ces often con t a i n less than the 20% m a x i m u m
of fermen t a b I e rn a teri a I . Except i o n s to the
SUGAR/STARCH CONTENT vs ALCOHOL above a r e t h e vari ous types o f m o I asses t h a t
I
do n o t req u i r e ex tract i on , b u t usua l l y requ i re
On the average, the amount of a l cohol that d i I u t ion . I
can
be
be produced from
about half (on a
a g i ven feedstock w i l l
wei ght/we i g h t b a s i s ) of FRU I TS
I
I
the conver t i b l e '"
!
s t a rch or sugar conten t .
E t h a n o l w e i g h s a bout 6 . 6 pounds per ga l l on . A The fo l l o w i n g are some fru i ts and their
ton of grapes, for examp l e , w i t h a 1 5% sugar average sugar conten t : grapes, 1 5 .0%;
content is capa b l e ( assu m i n g 1 00% · ex t ract i on ) bananas, 1 3 . 8% ; apples, 1 2 , 2%; p i neap p l es ,
of prod u c i n g about 1 50 pounds or 2 2 . 7 ga l ions 1 1 .7%; pears, 1 0 . 0% ; peaches, 7 . 6% ; oranges,
of a l coho l . Corn, w i t h 66% conver t i b l e starch 5 .4%; prick l y pear, 4 . 2% ; watermelon, 2 . 5% ;
shou l d produce 660 pounds or 1 00 ga l l on s . and tom a toes , 2 . O% .
Remember, this is only a n a p prox i m a t i on a n d
act u a l yield depends on many i n terre l ated Al lowing 75% extraction with app l es , for
factors . examp l e , the tota l fermen t a b l e mater i a l wou l d
be about 9% of the ori g i n a l wei g h t . On this
SACCHARINE MATERIALS bas i s, a ton of a p p l e s wou l d yield about . 1 3

ga l lons of a l coho l . Assu m i n g an 80% extraction
The process of fermen t i n g sacch a r i n e mater i a l s w i th grapes, a ton shou l d yield about 17
i s re l at i v e l y s i m p l e a n d s t ra i g h tforw a r d . The g a l l on s . With watermelons and a 90%
steps i n vo l ved are usua l l y : ( 1 ) extrac t i n g or extrac t i on , a ton wou l d y i e l d on l y about 3 or
crush i n g , (2) p H adjustme nt through acid or 3! g a l l o n s . C l earl y , some mater i a l s are better
backs I opp i ng, and ( 3) fermen ta t i on . D i I u t i on than others.
1 00 ALCOHOL MANUAL ALCOHOL MANUAL 1 01
In aI I the above cases, the percen tage of a l coho l .

fermentab l e materi a l i n t he extracted j u i ce i s
l ow enough so that d i l u t i on is un necessary Mol asses with a sugar content above 1 5-20%
and undes i r ab l e . To ferment these m a t er i a l s , w i l l need to be d i l ut e d . S i nce most molasses i s
the j u ice need on l y b e adjusted t o the proper l ow in the n u t ri e n t s necessary for proper
pH ( between 4 . 8-5 . 0 ) and the yeast added a t yeast gro w t h , backslapp i n g i s of p a r t i cu l a r
the u s u a l rate o f 2 pounds per 1 000 g a l l on s of a d v a n tage. Up t o SO% s t i I I age ( b y v o l u m e ) may
mash . To prov i de proper n u t r i en t s to the be used . A l so , most mo l asses is n a t u ra l l y
yeast, backslapp i n g of about 20-25% by v o l u me a l k a l i ne , and a c i d w i l l be needed i n a dd i t i on
i s des i r a b l e . to the s t i l l age to ob tai n the proper pH va l ue .
A l so, a l l of the above m a ter i a l s may b e s i m p l y CANE SORGHUM

crushed or p u l ped i nstead of extracted in a
pres s . This way the total sugar content is Cane sorghum i s a good a l cohol source because
a v a i l ab l e for fermen t a t i on . I f you are u s i n g it is eas i l y grown a nd averages about 1 4%
s i mp le batch d i st i l l a ti on e q u i p m e n t that does fermen t a b le sugar conten t . T h e m a i n drawback
not req u i re the beer to be strai ned, this to using t h i s materi a l is that the extrac t i on
method i s recommended. requires heavy-dut y shred d i n g and press i n g
equ i pmen t . An a l ternate process is t o shred
MOLASSES the s ta l ks as much as poss i b l e and d i ssol ve
the sugar by hea t i ng ( not q u i te to a boi l )
Beet or c a n e m o l asses i s t he residue f rom t h e with a m i n i mum amou n t of w a t e r . The process
man ufacture of sugar. T hese rna ter i a 1 s , if m u s t be repeated several t i mes to retrieve most
avai lab le, are exce l l ent sources of a l coho l . of the sugar. Note that in this type of
They con t a i n 50-SS% fermen t a b l e s ug a r , and a process, two extract i ons of one g a l lon each
ton shou l d y ie l d between 70-80 g a l lons of are better t h a n one ex tract i on of two g a l l o n s .
A conserva t i v e 65% extract i on shou l q yield s h redded and extracted in a m a n ner s i m i l a r to

about 1 3- 1 4 g a l i ons of a l coho l per ton . sugar cane or sorg h u m sta l k s . A rel at i v e l y
Ac i d i f i ca t i on to proper pH is necessary and eff i c i e n t ope r a t i o n shou l d y i e l d 8 -1 8 ga l l on s of
backs l ap p i n g t o about 25% c a n be tolerated . a l coho l per ton of materi a l . Aga i n , back-
s l op p i n g to 20-25% and a c i d i f i ca t i on are
SUGAR BEETS necessary .
Sugar beets a re an exce l l e n t mater i a I for STARCHY MATERIALS

I
ethanol
sugar,
prod uc t i o n .
82% wa ter,
They
and
con t a i n
the rest
abou t
in
1 5%
various Starchy mater i a l s genera l l y req u i re m i l l i ng,
' I'I
I
I
sol i d s . T h e j u ice c a n b e extracted i n a press, cook i n g , a n d conversion p r i or t o fermen t a t i on .
o r the beets c a n be crushed and fermented as Excep t i ons a re materi a l s, such a s potatoes a n d
decribed in t h e section on fru i ts . Because the sweet p o t a toes, that do not req u i re m i I I i n g ,
beets con t a i n
t lI
a cert a i n amou n t of starch, the a n d mater i a l s , such a s a r t i chokes, t h a t d o not
a d d i t i on of sma l l q u a n t i t i e s of m a l t ( 1 -2% b y req u i r e convers ion . R e l a t i vel y high a l cohol
we i gh t ) or enzyme will grea t l y i mprove the y i e l ds often offset the necessary a d d i t i on a l I
a l coho l y i el d . Adjustment of pH i s , of course, manufactu r i ng step s , and most s t a rc h y
necessary, and back s l a p p i n g in the 20-25% materi a l s a re good a l cohol sources.
r a n ge is des i r a b l e . A ton of beets shou l d
produce 20-25 g a l l on s o r more of a l coho l . G R A I NS
SUGAR CORN WASTES Gra i ns m u st be m i I I ed, d i I uted, cooke d , and

converted p rior to ferme n t a t i o n . However, t h e y
Sta l ks from sugar corn con t a i n 7-15% sugar con t a i n l arge amou n ts of p o t e n t i a l l y ferment-
a n d shou l d b e consi dered as a n a l cohol source ab l e m a t er i a I . T he a verage con ten t of
if they are a v a i I a b l e . The s t a l k s need to be convert i b l e s t a rch a nd s ugar in some t y p i c a l
gra i ns a r e : barley, SO% ; m a ize ( i n d i an corn ) , pounds of d r i e d or green m a l t per g a l lon of
66% ; oa t s , SO% ; rye, 59%; sorgh u m seed, 67%; w a t e r a s described i n the sec t i on o n m a l t i n g .
and whea t , 65%. A l cohol yield per ton is On a wei g h t/we i g h t b a s i s , corn o r wheat w i l l
dependent on how com p letel y the s tarches are requ i r e about 8-1 0 pounds of malt per 1 00
converted to fermen tab l e s u g a r , but shou l d be pou n d s of g r a i n . R y e w i l l require about 1 0- 1 2
between 70-100 g a l l on s . pounds of mal t for t h e same 1 00 pounds of

gra i n . Other grains will fa l l somewhere in
After m i l l i n g , t h e gr a i n m u s t be d i l uted p r i or between . T h e m a l t s l u r r y i s st i r red consta n t l y
to cook i n g and ferme n t a t i o n . The average d u r i n g convers i on . For wheat , the conversion
d i I u t i on is between 56-64 ga l i ons per 1 00 wi I I be comp l e te in 5-1 5 m i n u tes. Corn wi I I
pounds of gra i n , d epend i n g on moi s ture a n d req u i re about 30 m i n utes, and rye between
s t a rch conten t . The method of cook i n g w i th 30-60 m i n u t e s . The a c t u a l t i me, as wel l as the
mi n imal water a nd a d d i n g t h e b a l ance p r i or to m i n i mu m amou n t of ma l t necessary, can be
convers i o n , as descri bed prev i ou s l y , has the determ i ned through tri a l mashes and the
dual advan tage of red u c i n g the energy needed starch test as descr i bed in the section on
for cook i ng and shorten i n g the coo l i ng time. m a l t i ng .
Prema l t i n g w i t h m a l t o r e n z ymes i s genera l l y

des i r a b l e . When the conversion i s com p l ete, the mash i s
cooled to 70-75° F . and yeast s l urry i s added .
Cook i n g i s accomp l i shed b y hea t i n g the d i l u ted Note t h a t most gra i n mashes have a n accept
a n d premal ted mash to a s l ow boi I and ho l d i n g ab I y I ow pH and often do not need much
at this temperature for 30-60 m i n utes . adjustmen t . Back s l ap p i n g shou l d be l i m i ted to
Genera l l y , the mash is suff i c i en t l y cooked 20-25%.
when it i s soft a nd mush y . The mash i s then
° The fo l low i n g i s . the genera l procedure for
cooled to 1 45- 1 50 a nd the m a l t s l urry i s
added . The mal t s l u r r y con s i s t s of about conv e r t i n g corn with M i les Laboratories
enzymes. The procedure for other rna teri a I s water i s added to comp lete d i l u t i on a n d cool
and other enzymes will d i ffer s l ightly, and the mash .
the manufacturer ' s recommenda t i on shou l d be
0
fo l l owed . When the mash h a s cooled to 1 35-1 40 t h e pH i s
adjusted to 4.2 w i t h acid and D i azyme L-100
After m i l l ing, the gra i n i s p a rt i a l l y d i l u ted enzyme i s added a t a r a t i o of 4 ounces per 1 00
( s I u rr i e d ) at a ratio of 35 g a I I on s of w a te r pounds of grai n . This enzyme comp l etes the
per 1 00 pounds of gra i n . The pH i s a d j usted conversion in
about 30 m i n u tes a n d , after
above 5.5 with an opt imum range of 6.0 to °
coo l i n g to 70-80 , the mash is fermented in the
6.5. " P rema l t i n g " or l i q uefact i o n , is accom u s u a l manner.
p l i shed by the addition of 0.3 o u n ces of
Taka-Therm enzyme. JERUSALEM A R T I CHOKES
The mash is then s l ow l y heated. Ge l at i n i za t i on Jerus a l em a r t i chokes deserve spec i a l men t i on

w i l l beg i n a t a b o u t 1 5 0° F . and the mash w i l l as a source of a l cohol because they con t a i n
rap i d l y t h i cken . Constant stirring is between 1 6-1 8% fermen t a b l e materi a l . In
°
necessary at this poi n t . At about 1 60 the add i t i o n , the s t a rches present can be con-
l i quefy i n g a c t i on of the enzyme will beg i n . verted w i thout the use of ma l t o r enzymes i f
Hea t i n g may be more rap i d after the l i que- cooked for a s u f f i c i e n t length of t i me . A ton
f y i ng act ion of the enzyme beg i ns to take shou l d y i e l d about 25 ga l lons of a l coho l . To
effec t . After the mash reaches 200-2 1 2° an prepare a r t i c hokes for ferme n t a t i o n , they
addit ional 1 . 3 ounces of T a k a-Therm enzyme i s shou l d be crushed to a p u l p and cooked for
added . 2-3 hou r s . If the s t a rch test ( desc r i bed 1n
C h a p ter 7 ) i n d i cates that some u nconverted
After the mash has been held at a s l ow boi I starch is sti l l present, conversion w i t h sma l l
for 20-30 m i n u tes, a n a d d i t i on a l 33 g a l l on s of amou n t s of e i t her ma l t or enzyme might be
neede d . Shorter cook i n g t i mes are possi b l e i f a t h e cooker a nd s team un t i I t h e pot a toes are
greater amou n t of m a l t or enzyme i s use d . For reduced to a soft mass. Pre m a l ting to reduce
examp l e , a 30 m i nu t e cook i n g t i me shou l d be v i scousness is a def i n i te a dvan tage . After
s u ff i c i e n t w i t h a conversion us i n g 3-6% m a l t or cook i n g , t h e m a s h i s c oo l ed to t h e conversion
the equ i v a l en t amount of enzyme. D i l u t ion is temperature. Usu a l l y on l y 3-4 pounds of m a l t
the root per 1 00 pounds of pota toes are all that is

not necessary because usua l l y
req u i re d . T he m as h m u st b e constan t l y s t i rred
con t a i n s 79-80% wa ter. After cook i n g , the pH
d u r i n g conversion, w h ic h w i I I take about 1 5-20
i s adjusted a n d ferment a t i on commenced i n the
u s u a l m a n ne r . m i nu tes.
Because cook i ng and conversion t i mes wi l l

POTATOES
vary, depen d i n g on starch con tent and the
I ike, test m as h i n g s a nd the use o f the starch
Pota toes con t a i n between 1 5- 1 8% fermen t ab l e
m a t er i a l test is recommended. Once converted, the p H
and are a t radi t i o n a ! source of
shou l d be c hecked and the m as h fermented i n
a l co ho l . O n t h e average, a ton of pota toes w i I I
the u s u a l manner .
y i e l d about 22-25 g a l l on s of a l coho l . Damaged
or sprouted potatoes are not objec t i on a b l e ,
and t h e use of sprouted potatoes w i I I reduce For spec i f i c p rocedures for t he use of enzymes
to convert potatoes, consu l t t he m anufacturer.
the amount of malt or enzyme req u i red for
Otherw i se , about half the amou n ts 1 i s ted in
conversion .
the corn r e c i p e shou l d be s u ff i c i en t .
Commerc i a l l y , pota toes a re usua l l y cooked w i t h

SWEET POTATOES
steam, u nder pressure. An acceptab I e a 1 ter
n ate method Sweet potatoes average about 22% starch and
i s as fo l l ows : T h e pota toes shou l d
5-6% s u g a r for a total of 27-28% fermen tab l e
be shredded or cut up and p I aced in the
mater i a l . A ton shou l d y i e l d u p to 40 ga l l ons
cooker w i t h a s l i t t l e water a s poss i b l e ; cover
\
of a l coho l . Sweet pota toes are cooked and After s h red d i n g , or w hatever, the m a teri a l is
converted i n a manner s i m i l ar t o potatoes w i th m ixed w i th a s I i t t l e w a ter as poss i b l e to make
the excep t ion t h a t they con t a i n o n l y about 66% a thick, soupy mass. T he p H is a d j usted to
w a t e r a n d some d i l u t i on i s necessary . between 4 . 5-6 . 0, and the e nzymes are added.
It will be i mposs i b l e to determ i n e the exact
CELLULOSE MATERIALS amount of "access i b le" c e l l u l ose, and the

amoun t of enzyme n eeded must be e s t i mated.
The fo l l o w i n g "recipe" for the conversion of ' Genera I I y, dry ce l l u l ose mater i a l s such as
cel l u l ose i s based on t he use of two enzymes wood, straw , corn cobs, e tc . wi I I have the
a va i l ab l e f rom Novo Laboratori es . "Cel l uc l as t " l owest y i e l ds . T h i s i s b ecause t h e c e l l u lose i s
enzyme is produced f rom a variety of the encased in I ignin, and the amount that is
T r i choderma v iride f u ngus and is act i ve in u l t i ma t e l y access i b l e t o t h e enzymes i s p ropor
break i n g cel l u l ose i n to cel l obo i se and g l ucose. t iona l to how f i n e l y the m ater i a l i s d i v i ded.
The former is not a fermen t a b l e sugar, M a ter i a l s s uch as g rass c l ipp i n gs and all
therefore, a second enzyme, "Ce l l o b i ase" is moist, g reen ce l l u l ose con ta i n i n g m a ter i a l s
used i n conj u n c t i on w i t h Cel l uc l as t to convert wi l l have the next h i g hest y ie l ds . T h is is
the cel l ob i ose. Together the t wo enzymes have par t l y because t he l i gn i n con tent i s l ower a nd
the abi I i ty to convert cel l u lose to s u g a r w i t h pa r t l y because some fermen tab l e g l ucose is
near 1 00% eff i c i ency . a I read y p resen t . T h e h i ghest y ie l ds w i I I come
from materi a l s such a s p aper a n d cotton t h a t
However, i n order for the enzymes to work, the are a l most pure c e l l u l ose .
cel l u l ose must be access i b l e . Any cel l u lose
mater i a l shou l d be shredded, grou n d , or A t r i a l a mo u n t of enzyme for a I I o f the above
otherw i se reduced to as f i ne a s t a te as m a teri a l s wou l d be about 2% C e l l uc l as t and
pos s i b l e . 0 . 2% C e l lob i ase on a wei g h t/ wei g h t ratio to
1 12 ALCOHOL MANUAL l ALCOHOL MANUAL 113
a v a i I ab l e cel l u l ose. Thus, i f wood ch i ps were fol lowed by fermen ta t ion . As noted ea r l i e r ,
e s t i mated to have S% by wei g h t a v a i I ab l e pI ants f i rst produce g I ucose (a fermen t a b I e
c e l l u l ose, about 0 . 1 % of the f i rst enzyme is sugar) and then convert the g l ucose to
needed and 0.01% of the seco n d . T h i s wou I d cel l u lose. Y i e l d s w i l l be based en t i re l y on the
work out to 32 ounces of C e l l uc l ast a n d 3 . 2 amount of g l ucose present as cel l u lose i s not
ounces of C e l lobi ase per ton of wood . News converted b y t h i s method .
papers, on the other hand m i g h t have 50-80%
ava i I a b l e cel l u lose a n d the amount of enzyme MULTIPLE ENZYME TREATMENT
needed wou l d b e greater.
A l l mater i a l s used i n the prod uct i on of e t h a n o l
O p t i m u m temperature for the enzyme reaction i s will con t a i n some cel l u lose. Therefore, it
1 40° F. The mash shou l d be hel d a t t h i s tem- m i g h t be wort h w h i l e to experi me n t w i t h sma l l
perature for about 1 6 hours . The temperature amounts of cel l u lose enzymes in conj u n c t i on
shou I d then be reduced to 80-90° and fermen- w i t h the o t h er processes. Sacchari n e m a t e r i a I s
t a t i on commenced in the usual manner. P r i or might benef i t from a separate cel l u lose
to a d d i n g the yeast, t h e pH shou l d be checked conversi.on step . S.tarchy mater i a l s cou l d have
and adjusted to the opt i m a l range for the the cel l u l ose enzymes a d ded d u r i n g conversion
y e a s t s t ra i n . in a d d i t ion to the starch enzymes . Depen d i n g
on the amo u n t of avai l a b l e cel l u lose, this
It is sug.9ested that tri a l conversions and procedure cou l d drama t i ca l l y i ncrease y i e l d s .
fermen t a t i o n s be made to determ i n e the
m i n i mum amou n t of enzyme needed to produce
max i m u m y i e l d .
A s i mp I i f i e d "recipe" for green c e l l u l ose

m a teri a l of a l most any k i nd is shred d i n g
Chapter 11
DISTILLATION
DISTILLATION THEORY
The object of d i st i l l a t i on i s t h e sep a r a t i on of

t h e a l coho l from t h e other i n gre d i e n t s i n the
beer, mos t l y w a t e r . I n mak i n g fuel a l coho l , it
is necessary to get all of the a l coho l and
water separated if the a l coho l i s g o i n g to be
m i xed w i th gaso l i ne, and most of the a l coho l
and water separa ted i f t h e a l coho l i s g o i n g to
be burned in a converted e n g i n e . As w i I I be
seen, the p u rer the a l coho l , the h a rder i t is
to make.
The sep a r a t i o n of the a l coho l and water b y

d i st i l l a t i on i s made poss i b l e b y t h e fact t h a t
°
a l cohol boi l s a t about 1 73 F . and w a t e r a t
1 16 ALCOHOL MANUAL ALCOHOL MANUAL 117
F i gu re 1 1 -1 : S I MPLE D I ST I LLAT I ON APPARATUS 2 1 2° F . When the m i x t u re of water and a l cohol

i s boi l e d , vapors w i t h a greater conce n t ra t i on
of a l cohol wiII be formed a n d I iquid w i th a
lesser concen t r a t i on of a l coho l wi I I rema i n
14---- THERMOMETER
beh i n d . However, because water and a l cohol
do not form what is c a l led an " i d ea l " m i x tu re ,
t h e sep a r a t i on c a n not be done in one clean
step .
S T I L L HEAD
F i gure 1 1 - 1 i l l us trates a s i m p le d i st i l l a t ion
apparatus using l aboratory-type equ i pmen t .
Note t h a t the eq u i pmen t cons i s ts b a s i c a l l y of a
con t a i ner for the l i quid to be d i st i l l e d ( st i l l
pot ) , a heat source, and a condenser to turn
the d i s t i l i ed vapors back i n to I i q u i d form. The
thermometer is necessary to moni tor the
tempera t u re of the v apors .
In F i gure 1 1 -2 , the heavy sol i d curve

represents the composi t i on of the l i q u i d phase
of water/e t h a n o l m i x t u res p l otted a g a i nst the
temperature at w h i ch the m i x t u re boi l s . The
dotted curve represents the vapor phase.
Using the apparatus i I I us tra ted, a n d s t a rt i n g
SOURCE
8%
HEAT
with a conce n t r a t i o n of a l cohol i n water,
the I iquid wi I I bo i I a t a bout 200° F . Read i n g
F i gure 1 1 -2 : BO I L I NG PO I NT COMPOS I T I ON for a n d the vapors w i I I con t a i n about 68% a l coho l .

L I QU I D and VAPOR PHASES
Each t i me the condensed vapors are redis
ti l led, they w i l l b e s l i gh t l y p u r e r , b u t many
separate d i st i l l a t i ons a re needed to produce
rel a t i ve l y p u re a l coho l . Fortu n a tel y , a type of
/
d i s t i l l at i on a p p a r atus, c a l l ed a ref l u x (or
,,
/
,
/
rect i fy i n g col umn ) , i n effect, performs s i m u l
,
VAPOR PHASE "' /
taneous d i s t i I l a t i ons a nd wi I I be described
,/
,
l a ter.
,
/
' /
,
/
However, w i th the e q u ipment descr i bed, no
/
m a t ter how e l aborate, t h e p u rest a lcohol that
c a n b e p roduced i s 95 . 6 % . T he rem a i n i ng 4 . 4%
w a ter is i mposs i b l e t o remove because a t t h i s
ratio, w a ter and a l cohol form a constant
b o i I ing m ix t u re ( ca l l e d a n "azetrope") whose
boi l ing po i n t i s a frac t i on of a d egree b e l o w
that of p ure a l coh o l , and sep a r a t i o n by
95.6% 68% 43% 8%
ord i n ary d i s t i l l a t ion is i mposs i b l e . Spec i a l
PERCENT ETHANOL
tech n i ques t h a t c an r emove t h i s res i d u a l w a ter
across, the vapors wi I I con t a i n abou t 43% are o u t l ined l a ter i n C hap ter 1 2 .
a l coho l . C l earl y , for fuel p urposes, a purer
we must
product is needed . To this end , THE REFLUX COLUMN
red i s t i I I the condensed vapors from the f i rs t
d i sti l l a t ion w h i ch con t a i n 43% a l cohol a n d 57% F i gure 1 1 -3 i l l us t rates a ref l u x co l umn
w a ter. T h i s m i x tu r e w i l l bo i l a t a b o u t 1 8 1 ° F . i ns t a l l e d on the s i m p l e a p p a r a t u s described i n
F i gure 1 1 -3 : R E FLUX D I ST I LL I NG APPARATUS F i gure 1 1 -1 . In this l aboratory version, the

ref l ux co l umn consists mere l y of a g l ass tube
f i l led w i t h pack i n g materi a l . I n t h i s case, the
pack i n g is short lengths of sma l l - d i ameter
g l ass tub i n g . The purpose of t h e pack i n g i s to
prov i d e as l arge a n i n te r n a l surface area as
possib I e .
As the v a pors from the sti l l pot ascend

t h rough the co I u m n , they condense on the
pack i n g m a t er i a l and drip downward .
Add i t i o n a l ascen d i n g vapors con tact the
D E T A I L OF
descen d i n g I iquid ( cal led "ref l u x " ) and
revapori ze it. Thus, as the vapors s l ow l y
work their way up the co l umn, they become
r i cher a n d dcher in a�cohol u n t i l , when t h e y
reach the top, they are rei at i vel y pure .
Mea n wh i l e , the descen d i n g I iquid i s s t r i pped
of i t s a l coho l . The overa l l effect i s t h a t m a n y
" d i s t i l l a t i on s " are performed s i m u l t a n eou s l y
and the I iquid i n the s t i I I pot i s s t r i pped of
i ts a l cohol i n one con ti nuous operat i o n .
Ref I u x co I u m n s c a n be constructed to operate

on e i ther a b a tch or con t i n uous b a s i s a n d are
described in Chapter 1 4 .
Chapter 12
DRYING
THE ALCOHOL
I
i
I
'I
I
I
!
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
As s t ated e a r l i e r , i f t h e a l cohol you produce

i s goi n g to be b u rned i n an eng i n e mod i fi e d to
burn "pure" a l coho l , w a ter content of 5 , 1 0 or
even 1 5% i s not objec t i o n a b l e . However, if the
a l cohol is going to be m i xed w i th gasol i ne ,
the water will e i t her h a v e t o b e removed or
"neu t r a l ized " .
Dry i n g the a l cohol is a separate m a n ufac

t u ri n g step req u i r i n g ad d i t i on a l l abor, energy
a n d/or expense. It wou l d be w i se to con s i der
all factors before d ec i d i n g whether this
procedure i s necessary .
ABSORPTION METHODS ethanol wi I I not . Therefore, wa tcr can be

removed ( a l though not e n t i re l y ) by f i l teri n g
If you are able to ob t a i n a l cohol from you r the a l cohol/water through dry sa l t . A l most a n y
sti l l that is c l ose to 1 90 proof ( 95% ) , the " h y d rosco p i c" ( water absorbi n g ) mater i a l such
easiest method of prod u c i n g "gasoho l " is to as c a l c i u m s a l t , v a r i ous su l phates, phosphates
mix suff i c i e n t benzene ( be n zo l ) w i th the and s i m i l ar m a t eri a l s will work . However,
a I coho I to keep the water f rom separa t i n g . common rocksa l t , such as used in water
Usua I I y , benzene i n a r a t i o of about 2-3 t i mes softeners is cheap and avai l a b l e . An
the amo u n t of water in the a l cohol is apparatus such as descr i b ed in Chapter 7 for
suff i c i e n t . For examp l e , to prepare 1 00 ga l l on s sprou t i n g m a l t c a n be used . F i l l the d r u m or
o f 1 O% gasoho I , m i x 1 0 g a I I o n s o f 95% a I coho I con t a i ner w i t h rock s a l t . The a l cohol/water is
w i th 2 ga l l o n s of benzene. Then add 88 poured i n a t the top and f i I ters down through
ga l i ons of gaso l i ne . Note that water the sa l t . Rel a t i vel y wa ter-free a l coho l is
percen tages greater than 5% require the col l ected through ho l e s or a v a l ve at the
a d d i t i o n of much I arger amoun ts of benzene. It bot tom of the con t a i n e r . Remember that the
i s suggested t h a t experiments on a sma l l sca l e sal t m u s t be dry. Atter a b sorb i n g water from
be done before attemp t i n g to mix l arge a cer t a i n amo u n t of a l coho l , the s a l t m u s t be
q u a n t i t i es of gasoho l . Prepare a m i x ture re-dried e i ther in an oven o r by spread i ng i t
accord i n g to the above proport i on s and see if out i n the s u n .
i t separates. You may w a n t to p u t a samp l e i n
the refrigerator to test co l d weather tolerance . A good system might be to use both of the
At any rate, if the m i xture separates, more methods described above. F irst, mast of the
benzene i s needed . water in the a I coho I i s removed by the sa I t
method, and then the b l end i s prepared w i th
A second method takes a d v a n tage of the fact benzene. The more w a ter t h a t c a n be removed
that water will d i sso l ve in most sal ts, but from the a I coho I , the less benzene wi I I be
needed. Benzene wi I I have to be purchased sett I es to the bot tom .

( th e cheapest tech n i ca l grade i s f i n e ) a n d can
be used on l y once. The rocksa l t c a n be d r i ed The usua I method of separa t i n g the I i me a n d
a n d used many t i mes. calcium h y d rox i de from the a l cohol is by
d i s t i I I a t ion . A l ternatel y , but less d es i rab l e ,
DRYING WITH LIME the a l cohol can be carefu I I y d ra w n off

( decanted) and f i l tered to remove any
The o l dest method of drying a l cohol is suspended part i c l es that g i ve it a mi l ky
d e h y d ra t i on with l i me . This p rocess is sti I I appearance.
used on a l aboratory scale. It i s s i m i l ar to
the sal t absorption method just described An apparatus based on a 55-ga l l on drum
except that, with this method , water is ( s i m i l a r to that in F i gure 1 3-1 ) can be bu i l t .
removed by a chem i ca l reac t i on . O r d i n ary l i me A sti l l head with thermometer ( no ref l u x
( ca l c i u m ox i d e , form u l a CaO) reacts w i th co l umn is needed) and condenser shou l d be
w a ter to form calcium h y d rox i de ( formu l a added to a l low simple d i st i l l at i on . A l so, a
C a ( OH )). The process is simp l e . The sma I I gate v a I ve I oca ted 6-8 i nches from the
2
w a ter-con tai n i ng a l cohol is m ixed w i t h I ime a t bottom ( above t h e level of the l i me ) w i l l a l l o w
a r a t i o of about 35 pounds ( or more) of I ime the a l cohol to b e decanted, i f des i red .
for each ga l ion of water to be removed ( as
determined w i t h a h y d rometer) a n d a l lowed to After slaking in the apparatus, the a l cohol
"s I ake" for 1 2-24 hours with occa s i on a l shou l d be d i st i l led off through the s i mp l e s t i l l
stirring. The l i me reacts with the water to head and condenser. Duri n g d i st i l l at i o n , the
form ca l c i um h y d rox i de . The c a l c i u m h y d rox i de temperature s ho u l d rema i n exact l y at the
is i n so l u b l e in the a l cohol and so the boi l i ng p o i n t of p ure a l coho l . Rema i n i n g after
re l a t i v e l y pure ( 9 9 . 5%) a l cohol goes to the top the pure a l cohol has been d i s t i l led or
of the con t a i ner a nd the calcium h y d rox i de decanted is wet c a l c i um h y d ro x i de a n d l i me.
Some a l coho l will a l so be trapped in the m ix t u re , a tern a r y ( th ree part) azetrope is

res i d u e . To recover it, con ti nue the d i st i l formed .
l a t i on . The s t i l l head temperature w i l l r i se
above 1 73 ° i n d i ca t i n g t h a t water i s com i ng T y p i ca l l y , t r i ch lore thy l e n e is m i xed as a
over w i th the rema i n i n g a l coho l . When the vapor w i th the 1 90 proof a l coho l / w a ter vapors
sti I I head reaches 208-21 2° F . a l l of the com i n g from the recti f y i n g co I u m n . These
a l cohol has been removed . The water/alcohol vapors are passed to another co I umn . The
d i s t i I l a te shou l d be added to the beer for the w a t e r/ t r i c h l oreth y l ene/a l coho l azetrope boi I s
next ru n i n the ref l ux d i s t i l l a t i on a p p a r a t us . ° F . w h i ch i s lower than the
a t about 1 53
boi 1 i ng poi n t o f p ure a l coho l . Therefore, the
T h e c a l c i u m h y drox i de m ay be converted back water, t r i ch l orethy l en e , and some a l cohol wi l l
i n to c a l c i u m ox i de a nd re-used . However, the vaporize f i rst and ex i t the top of t h e co l u m n
tempera t u res r eq u i red are q u i te h i g h u n l ess a wh i le pure a n h y d rous a l cohol w i II ex i t the
vacuum dry ing oven is u sed . S i nce l i me is bottom. The w a t er and t r i ch lorethy l e n e will
rel a t i v e l y c hea p , this p rocess is not separate i n to two I ayers upon s t an d i n g in
recommended. much the s a m e way t h a t w a ter a n d gaso l i ne
w i I I separate. Because of t h i s sep a r a t i o n , the
AZETROPIC METHODS t ri c h I ore thy I ene can be recovered a n d reused .
The water ( recovered f rom the t r i ch lor-
Commerc i a l a l coho l d i st i l l e r ies usu a l l y use a n eth y l en e ) con t a i n s some a l cohol and is passed
"azetrop i c " d ry i n g system. The fact t h a t water back i n to the m a i n a p p a r a t u s a n d red i st i l l ed .
and a l coho l form a b i n ary ( two-p a r t ) S y stems using benzene and g a so l i n e work in
azetrope, or con s t a n t boi I i n g m i x t u re , was exac t ! y t h e same way except t h a t the boi I i ng
descr i bed ear l i e r . If a h y d rocarbon sol ven t points are s l ightly d i fferen t . If g a so l i n e is
such as benzene, t r i ch lorethy I ene, or even used as the solvent, gasohol is produced
gaso l i n e is added to the water/ a l cohol a u t om a t i c a l l y !
I t is poss i b l e to mix benzene or g a so l i ne in a
ref l u x batch sti l l , a s described in C h a p ter 14, Chapter13

and boi I off the w a t e r/ so l ve n t t h ro u g h the MASHING AND
rec t i fy i n g co l u m n leaving p u re , dry a l cohol FERMENTATION
beh i n d . However, in do i n g this you wou l d be
EQUIPMENT
bo i l i n g a highly f l a m ma b l e m i xture of so l ve n t
and a l coho l . This cou l d be extreme l y
d a ngerous, espec i a l l y if an open f i re were
used to heat the sti II. P l ease do not a t te m p t
this procedure u n l es s you are a b so l u t e l y sure
you know what you are doing and the GENERAL DISCUSSION
eq u i pm e n t is p r o pe r l y d es i g n e d .
Mi l l ing, extract i n g , cook i n g , convers i o n , and
fermen t a t i o n eq u i pm e n t can be d es i g n e d to
operate on e i ther a b a t c h o r con t i n u o u s b as i s .
Batch e q u i p me n t can be bu i l t in a l mo s t any
s i ze . However, it does not lend i tse I f to
comp l e t e a u tom a t i o n and, thus, is more l abor
i n te n s i v e . C on t i n uous e q u i pment can be fu l l y
a u t om a t e d , but it i s expensive to e n g i n ee r a n d
c o n s t ru c t .
An examp l e of continuous cook i n g is a "jet"
cooker. The mash sl urry is i n j ec t e d i n to a
p i pe a l ong with steam at about 1 50 pou n d s
pressure. I t is q u i ck l y cooked ( usu a l l y in a

1 32 ALCOHOL MANUAL l ALCOHOL MANUAL 133
m a t ter of m i n u tes ) a n d emerges from the o t her high pressure steam achieves the necessary
end of the p ipe ready for coo l i ng and degree of steri I i z a t i o n , most other processes do
convers i o n . I f t h e m as h s l urry i s a c i d i f i e d ( as not.
described in C hap ter 7 ) , cook i n g and
convers ion t ake p l ace s i m u l ta n eou s l y, and the Con t i n uous systems, in general , are best
mash emerges from the cooker ready for s u i ted to p rocess i n g homogenous feedstocks of
fermen t a t ion . con s i sten t q ua l i t y . Batch opera t i on is more
a d v a n tageous when there are v a r i ab les in
S l i g ht l y I ess comp I icated is the use of h i g h feedstock qu a l i t y that requ i re a d j u stmen t of
p ressure s team for b atch cook i n g . Here a cook i ng , conversion a nd fermen t a t i on
p ressure vesse I is u sed i n s tead of the jet processes. Conti nuous e q u i pment is a l so
cook e r . A I though t he opera t i on is not extreme l y expe n s i ve, whereas batch systems
con t i n uo u s , cook i ng t i mes a re very short a n d are less comp l i cated a nd e a s i e r to construc t .
s i m u l taneous cook i ng and conversion are The fo l l o w i n g pages d i scuss the cons t r u c t i on of
poss i b l e w i th the a c i d hydro l y s i s p rocess. batch e q u i pment of d i fferent s i zes and degrees
of sophistication_
Fermenters c an a l so be r u n on a con t i n uo u s
b a s i s . T hey a r e s i m p l y connected i n series so BATCH COOKING AND MASHING EQUIPMENT
that the m a s h f l ow s from one con t a i ner t o t h e
next . Con t i nuous fermen t a t ion i s best s u i ted to Cook i n g and mash i n g equ i pm e n t can be as
con t i n uous cook i n g and convers ion systems s i mp l e or as e l a borate as you wish. F i g ure
w here a l l t h e v ar ia b les a re contro l l ed . I t is 1 3- 1 shows a 55-ga l l on dru m w i t h a l arge g a te
very i mporta n t that t he feed go i n g i n to a v a l ve i n s t a l led at the bottom . F i g ure 1 3-2
con t i n uous ferment a t ion s y stem be abso l u t e l y shows the same 55-ga l l on d r u m mounted over a
s t er i l e , other w i se the w ho l e s y s tem can s i mp l e f i rebox . T h i s s i ze a p pa r a tus i s cap a b l e
q u ickl y become con tam i n a ted. Cook i n g w i th of proces s i n g about a bushel ( 56 poun d s ) of
F i g u re 1 3-1 : SMALL APPARATUS F i gure 1 3-2: APPARATUS ADAPTED for COOK I NG
FERMENTATION
TRAP
R E M O V A B L E COVER
FOR
PADDLE F O R
S T I RR I N G
55-GALLON
DRUM I N F I RE B O X DOOR
ETC.
gra i n on each ru n . After cook i n g and
convers i o n , the gasket-sea I e d top and fermen
t a t i on t ra p wou l d a l l ow the same con t a i n e r to
be used for fermen t a t i o n . After ferme n t a t i o n is
com p l e t e , the a d d i t i on of a simple ref l u x
co l u m n as described in C h a p t e r 1 4 wou l d a l l o w
the same drum to be used for d i st i l l at i o n .

P I P E FLANGE WELDED T O DRUM
Used in this manner, a single 55-ga l l on
apparatus wou l d produce about 3 g a l lons of
J
1 36 ALCOHOL MANU A L ALCOHOL MANUAL 1 37
a l cohol every 3 or 4 d a y s . By a d d i n g 2 or 3 F i gure 1 3- 3 : LARGE APPARATUS

separate fermenters of 50-ga l l on capa c i t y a n d
cook i n g and d i st i l l i n g one batch per day,
"MANHOLE" W I T H REMOVABLE COVER
a l cohol production cou l d b e i ncreased .
WATER SUPPLY LINE
F i gure 1 3-3 shows a l arge apparatus with

FERMENTATION LOCK
certa i n i mproveme n ts . Here a 3-4 i nch
cen t r i fuga l p ump is used to s t i r the mash .
PRESSURE
Note t h a t when u s i n g a pump for s t i r r i n g , the RELIEF
CENT RIFU GAL PUMP
I arger the d i ameter of the pump, the I es s F O R S T I R R I N G AND
REMO VING
chance of c l og g i n g . However, even w i t h l arge CONT ENTS------,
d i ameter pumps, fu l l d i I u t i on a t the cook i n g
stage is someti mes necessary to i n sure
adequate a g i ta t i o n . A 3000 ga l l on apparatus
cou l d prepare up to 200 ga l l on s of a l cohol
every 3-4 days. The add i t i on of separate
fe r men t ers wou l d a l l ow production of t h e same
amount each d a y .
T a n ks can a l so be r i gged with p a d d l e-type

s t i rrers e i t her ver t i ca l l y or hor i zo n t a l l y .
A l so, a "jet" m i xer, w h i ch l ooks a l i t t l e l i ke
· -.'"� : . . . .·,
an outboard motor, i s e as i l y c l amped to the

s i de of an open tank .
Aside from t he simple " ta n k over a f i re"

a p p a r a t u s shown here, mash can be cooked b y F i g u re 1 3-4: COOL I NG CO I L
a n y other conve n i e n t source of hea t . Perhaps

the best wou l d be t he use of d i rect stea m .
This method requires only the abso l u t e
m i n i mum initial d i l ution, or no d i l u t i on at
all . Steam is simp l y p i ped i n to the bottom of
the cooker and ge l a t i n izes the mash . This CHAIN TO SUSPEND -----1��"'
APPARA TUS I N
method is parti c ul a r l y a d v a n tageous with FERMENTER OR
pot atoes where t he 80% mo i s tu r e content makes COOKER
d i l u t i on undes i r a b l e .
One final note is that w h a tever source of

energy you use for cook i n g , the apparatus
sho u l d b e i n s u l ated as m u c h a s possi b l e . T h e
bet ter i n su l a ted the cooker, t h e less h e a t w i l l
be rad i a ted a w a y and wasted .
FERMENTATION EQUIPMENT
A fermenter can be made from j u s t abou t a n y

s u i ta b l e tank . On a s ma l l sca l e , heavy d u t y
44-g a l lon p l as t i c trash cans w i t h sea l a b l e l i ds
a n d f i t ted w i t h a fermen t a t i on lock work very COIL OF SOFT COPPER TUBING
we l l . On a l arger sca l e , p l as t i c storage SUPPORT FRAME
tanks, avai I able up to 6000 g a l lon c ap ac i ty
are a l so exce l l e n t . The p l as t i c has the
advantage of being rus t-free and easi l y F i g ure 1 3- 5 : FERMENTAT I O N LOCK

c l eaned . Ho wever, if kept c l ean, ord i n ary
steel tanks or drums shou l d pose no prob l e m .
E X P A N S I O N CHAMBERS
The other requirements for a fermenter are
some sort of ag i ta t i on a n d a means of cool i n g .
A g i t a t i on keeps fresh n u trients avai lable to
the yeast cel l s . Ag i t a t i on can be achieved
w i th ei ther pumps or mech a n i ca l s t i rrers as
described in t he previous sec t i on . Coo l i n g is
necessary , especi a l l y in l arge fermen ters, to CARBON D I O X I D E
BUBBLES THROUGH
keep temperatu res w i th i n the prescr i bed
WATER
I imi ts. F i gure 1 3-4 shows an eas i l y
constructed coo l i n g coi l . The u n i t shown i s a
co i l of soft copper p i pe on a s u i ta b l e support
� CARBON DIOXIDE FROM F E R M E N T E R E N T E R S H E R E
frame that can be moved, for examp l e , from
fermenter to mash cooker, etc . A l ternate l y , an water. The water traps any esca p i n g a l cohol
o r d i nary garden hose c a n be coi l ed i n s i d e the vapors. E x p a n s i on bu l b s keep the water i n the
fermenter to a c h i ev e much the same resu l t . trap from e i ther being b l ow n out or sucked
back i n to the fermenter.
Carbon d i ox i de gas w i l l be g i ven off d u r i n g
t h e ferme n t a t i on . If it is a l lowed to escape E x t reme l y I arge amounts of gas are g i ven off
u n i mpeded , i t c a n carry off a l a rge amount of by l a rge fermenters . The dev i ce i l l ustrated i n
a l cohol vapor. F i gure 1 3-5 shows a fermen F i gure 1 3-5 shou I d not b e used on apparatus
t a t i on l ock a v a i l a b l e from w i n e mak i n g sup p l y l arger than about a 5 g a l lon capaci ty .
houses. The escap i n g co 2 i s b u b b l ed t h ro u g h F i gure 1 3-6 shows a fermen t a t i on l ock
ALCOHOL MANUAL 1 43
1 42 ALCOHOL MANUAL
constructed from metal or p l as t i c p ipe f i t t i n g s .

F i gure 1 3-6 : LARGE F E R MENTAT I O N LOCK
Such a unit constructed from 3/4 i nch p i pe
wou l d be adequate for a 50 ga l l on fermenter.
Two i nch p i pe s hou l d be used on a 500 ga l lon
...,..-� 111 PIPE (COPP ER OR unit, and 3-4 i nch p i pe on a 1 000 g a l lon
PLASTIC)
fermen ter. Remember that pressure c a n bu i I d
q u i ck l y within the apparatus and, if not
a l l owed to escape, cou l d cause an explosion .
Therefore, a safety v a l ve, i n a d d i t ion to the
fermen t a t i on l oc k , wou l d be a w i se i n v estmen t .
Con t i n uous fermenters are s i m p l y a number of

separate fermen t a t i on t a n ks in seri es . The
mash shou l d enter a t the bot tom of the f i rs t
fermen ter, ex i t t h e top , enter the bottom of the
second, and so on . Total fermen ta tion t i me i s
I determined by dividing the t o t a l c a p a c i t y of
Q e e the fermenters b y the f l ow rate. For examp l e ,
•· � �
1 000 ga l l on fermenter capac i t y a n d a 2 0 ga l l on
per hour f l ow rate wou l d g i ve a tota l
fermen t a t ion t i me of so hou r s . As noted
F I T T INGS
ADAPTER TO F I T FLANGE earl i e r , ster i l e feedstock i s necess ary .
O N DRUM L I D
ALCOHOL MANUAL 1 45
1 44 ALCOHOL MANUAL
Chapter14
DISTILLATION
EQUIPMENT
DISTILLATION EQUIPMENT
D i s t i l l at i on equ i pmen t can be d i v i ded i n to

several c a tegories. S i m p l e a p p a r a t u s , such a s
i l l us t r a ted in F i gure 1 1 -1 can be constructed
on a l arge sca l e . However, such a s i m p l e "pot
s t i l l " wou l d ach ieve less t h a n 1 00 proof on the
f i rst run from an average beer and many
separate d i s t i l l a t ions wou l d be necessary to
ach i eve 1 90 proof or 95% a I coho I • For the
production of fuel a l cohol such a unit i s not
econom ica r either in terms of energy i n p u t or
l abor. The only excep t ion wou l d be if the
a l cohol were used i n a n i nject i on system where
l ow proof is accep t a b l e .
Rect i fy i ng co l umns, on the other hand, can F i gure 1 4-1 : CROSS SECT I ON of LARGE COLUMN
ach i eve 1 90 proof on the f i rst run . Sti l l s
i ncorpora t i n g rec t i fy i n g co l um n s can be
des i gned to run e i t her on a batch or
con t i n uous b as i s . A batch operat i on sti l l is
s i mp l y a ref l u x rec t i f y i ng co l umn a t t ached to
VAPORS BUBBLE UP
a s u i ta b l e bo i l e r . The bo i l er is loaded w i th T H ROUGH CONDENSED
beer, the a l coho l i s d i s t i l led out of the beer,

""'-----�-- L I QU I D V I A PERFORATED
PLATE
and then the s ti l l is sh u t down while the
CONDENSED L I Q U I D
sti I I age i s emp t i e d from t h e boi l er a n d a fresh FLOWS DOWN T O N E X T
S E C T I O N THROUGH
b a tch of beer run in. C o n t i nuous operation
OVERFLOW DOWNPIPE
s t i l i s, on the other hand, do not have to be
s h u t down p e r i od i ca l l y . They can be operated
·I
24 hours a day and, with proper a u tomat i c
con tro l s , req u i re very l i t t l e a t ten t i on .
The b a s i c packed ref I ux co I u m n desc r i bed in ascen d i n g vapor. Thus, a cer t a i n amount of
C h a p ter 1 1 is only eff i c i e n t up to a certa i n l i q u i d i s " t rapped" on each p l a t e a n d , as the
poi n t . F i gure 1 4-1 i l l u s t r a tes a cross section vapors b u b b l e t h rough it, a l cohol i s removed
of a I arger a p p a r a tus that operates on the from the descend i n g l iq u i d . The effect is
same pri n c i p l e . Here, ascen d i n g vapors r i se s i m i l ar to t h e packed ref l ux co l umn in that a
t h rough holes in a perforated p l ate . The separate " d i s t i l l a t ion" is performed at each
descend i n g l iquid f l ows downward f rom p l a te p l ate. The p l ate des i g n shown i s o n l y one of
to p l ate throu g h down-p ipes . The l i q u i d does several possi b i l i t i e s . V a r i ous forms of b u b b l e
not f l ow t h rough the ho l es in the p l ate caps, for examp l e , are used on l arger
bec a u s e of the pressure exerted by the co l um n s .
F i g ure 1 4-2: CON T I NUOUS ST I LL F i gure 1 4-2 is a con t i n uous d i st i l l at i on

apparatus i n corporati n g the p l ates described
in F i gure 1 4-1 . The apparatus i I l ustra ted
consists of two co l um n s , a l t ho u g h there i s no
reason why t h e u n i t cou I d n o t be constructed
BEER IS FED NEAR as a s i n g l e co l u m n . The l i q u i d to be d i st i l led
TOP OF STRIPPING
( beer) is pumped i n to the f i rs t col umn near
COLUMN
the top . Steam i s p i ped in at the bot tom . As
the beer descends, the steam "strips" it of
a l coho l . The a l cohol vapors pass over to the
next col u m n , and the a l cohol -free l iquid
( s t i l l ag e ) exits from the base. The next
S T I L L SECTIONS- co l u mn a l so c o n t a i ns p l ates s i m i l ar to those li n
the f i rs t . In t h i s col umn t h e a l cohol vapors
are s t r i p ped of most of the rema i n i n g water
( or " recti fied" } and exit as 1 90 proof ( 95% )
STRIPPING
ALCOHOL
PROD UCT
J a I coho I .
( 1 90 PROOF ) The d i st i l l a tion e q u i pment described so far

uses the pri n c i p le of a d d i n g heat to boi l the
BEER TO BE
beer and prov i d e vapor for the d i s t i l l at i on
process. A l t ernatel y , vapor can a l so be
----
S T I LLAGE produced by reduc i ng pressure. I n a vacuum,
STEAM ....
�
... °
'l_ BACK TO S T R I P P I NG COLUMN
�;:;;=;;;;;" it is easi l y possi b l e t o bo i l i ce w a t e r a t 32
CONDENS ED L I Q U I D PUMPED F. Sim i l ar l y , a l coho l/water m i x t u res can a l so
be bo i l ed at "room" temperature and below
simply by red u c i n g pressure. The equ i pmen t Chapter 1 5 .

con s i sts of a vacuum pump , condenser, and a
sti l l pot bu i l t to w i t hstand the external
pressure created b y the v a cu u m . AI though the SIMPLE REFLUX COLUMN
energy req u i red to run the vacuum p u m p is
probab l y equal to the amount of energy F i g ure 1 4-3 shows a s i mp l e rect i f y i n g ref l ux
req u i red to operate a conven t i o n a l sti I I , this co l u mn . The co l umn i s s i mp l y a l e n g t h of p i pe
t y pe of equ i pm e n t meri t s considera t i on . f i l l ed with a pac k i n g mater i a l to prov i de a
I arge i nterna I surface a rea. Aside from the
The sel ec t i on of d i st i l l a t i on e q u i pmen t is p i pe to ho I d the pack i n g , some sort of screen
I argel y a m a t ter of econom i c s . Con t i nuous or reta i ner is needed at the base of the
operation sti l is must be proper l y eng i n eered co l umn to keep the pack i n g from fa l l i n g i n to
and are cos t l y to construct. However, the the bo i l e r . The thermometer a t the top of the
advan tages of a u t om a ted operation and low co l umn i s necessary to check the temperature
l abor req u i rements make them very at trac t i ve . of vapors g o i n g to the condenser.
For opera t i ons prod u c i n g a l arge amount of
f ue l , a con t i n uous sti l l c le a r l y makes sense. A 3 i n c h d i ameter co l u mn of t h i s des i gn shou l d
B a tch sti l i s, a l though l abor i n te n s i v e , can be be about 4 feet long . I t wou l d be capa b l e of
b u i l t by the l a y m a n w i t h rel a t i ve ease a n d for produci n g about g a l l on per hour, depen d i n g
a sma l l amount of money . The b a l ance of t h i s on the i n i t i al conce n t r a t i o n of the beer.
chapter describes the construc t i on and S i m i l ar l y , a 4 i nch co l umn sho u l d be about 6
opera t i on o f such equ i pmen t . feet long and s ho u l d de l i ver about 2 g a l lons
per hour; a 6 inch co l umn shou l d be a t least

Note t h a t s o l a r energy can b e used i n several 1 0 feet in l e n g t h and shou l d b e capa b l e of 5-6
ways to prov i d e heat for the d i st i l l a t i on g a l lons per hou r . C o l umns of t h i s des i g n do
proces s . So l a r sti l is are d i scussed in not work w e l l i n d i a meters above 6 i nches .
F i gure 1 4-3 : S I MPLE REFLUX COLUMN

CONDENSERS
THERMOMETER (OR The top of the c o l umn will have to be

THERMOCOUPLE FOR connect ed to a condenser. to cool the vapors
REMOTE READ I N G )
back i n to the l i q u i d form. The condenser can
t::\'!r_._
_______ CORK HOLDS THERMOMETER
be a co i l of soft copper p i pe i ns i de a s u i t a b l e
con t a i ner as i l l ustrated in F i gure 1 4-4. Here
water i s used as the heat exchange med i u m .
TEE O n sma l l s t i l l s , a i r coo led condensers are a l so
poss i b l e . An old a u t omob i l e r a d i ator shou l d
work very wel l . The main thing i s that the
condenser be l a rge enough to cool al l of the
v a pors from thesti I I bel ow 1 00 ° F. and,
°
preferab I y , to abou t 60 F .
A l so , i f t h e v apors goin g i n to t h e condenser

are impeded in any great degree, pressure
•------ 3-611 COPPER CONDUIT

cou l d bu i l d up i n s i d e t he co l umn and bo i l e r .
Therefore, the d i ameter of tub i n g in a
condenser for a 3 i nch co l umn shou l d be no
sma l l e r t h a n 3/8 i nch d i ameter. For a 4 i nc h
co l u m n , 1 / 2 i nc h t u b i n g wou l d be the abso l u t e
m i n i.mum, and for a 6 i nch co l u m n , the
SCREEN OR PERFORATED m i n i m u m wou l d be 3/4 i nch d i ameter. Note t h a t
PLATE T O HOLD PACKING
the effect i v e d i ameter o f a condenser c a n be
i nc reased by connec t i n g two or more
F i gure 1 4-4 : CONDENSER CONSTRUCT I ON best p l aced on i ts side to a l low maximum

� VAPORS E NT E R HERE surface area for hea t i n g and t h e production of
SOLDER OR BRAZE vapor. A l ternatel y , a s ma l l col umn cou l d be

a t tached to the cook i n g and mash i n g drum
i l l ustrated in F i g u re 1 3-1 . A more eff i c i e n t
b o i l er cou l d be made from a h o t water heater.
Hot w a ter heaters are a v a i l ab l e t h a t can be
f i red w i th wood , coa l , e l ectr i c i t y , or gas.
They are usu a l l y g l a ss l i ned and i n s u l ated .
--�-��---- C O I L O F SOFT Ser v i cea b l e u n i t s c a n often be found i n a j u n k
COPPER T U B I N G
y a rd a n d rebu i l t . Other types of b o i lers can
a l so be adapted for use as a s ti l l pot . An
1....
1-- ----- CONTAINER FOR
COOLING WATER
examp l e m i gh t be cert a i n t y pes of home or
I '
I
commerc i a l hot water furnaces.
REFLUX CONTROL
SOLDER OR BRAZE Successf u l operation of the simple ref l u x

co l u mn described earl ier depends on caref u l
condens i n g coi l s i n p a ra l l e l . reg u l a t i on o f the amount of vapor goi n g to the
co l u m n . However, it is of ten d i ff i cu I t to
BOILERS control the amou n t of vapor produced by
bo i l ers that a re fue l ed by wood, coal and
To comp l e te the basic apparatus, you wi l l s i m i l ar mater i a l s . The ref l ux control coi I
need a boi l e r or "s t i l l pot" . A 55-ga l l on drum i l l ustrated i n F i gure 1 4-5 c a n be added to the
can be adapted to t h i s purpose. The drum i s co l umn and used to reg u l ate temperatures a t
F i gure 1 4- 5 : REFLUX CONTROL C O I L ref l u x . Adjustment of coo l i n g water in the

ref l ux coi I s must be very precise. Smal I n eed l e
SOLDER OR BRAZE
v a l ves designed for prec i s i o n meter i n g of
I iquid shou l d be used. Sem i -au toma t i c
operation of the sti I I cou l d be achieved by
rep l ac i ng the coo l i n g control need l e v a l ves
w i th so l e n o i d v a l ves contro l led by temperature
COIL OF SOFT COPPER ------+��-==:.... sensors w i t h i n the co l umn .
TU B I N G
COPPER CONDUIT SAME ---�

SIZE AS S T I L L COLUMN HYDROMETER SUMP
There are several i m p rovements that can be

added to the basic sti I I . One of them is a
h y d rometer sump as i l l ustrated i n F i gure 1 4-6 .

It is constructed of ordi n ary p i pe and
the st i I I head with a great degree of fittings. �o use7 the product from the con
accuracy . The ref l ux control u n i t i s s i mp l y a denser i s a d m i tted a t the bottom a n d f l ows out
condens i n g coi l p l aced i n t h e col umn and used of the top . The h y drometer and thermometer
to control the a mo u n t of ref I u x . It is con- a I I ow a const a n t check of the proof of the
structed by wrap p i n g soft copper tub i n g a l cohol bei n g produced by the s t i I I . The v a l ve
around a suitable form. The copper coi l is a t the bottom of the sump a l l ows the un i t to be
then p l aced i ns i de a section of t h e co l umn . drained.
In use, coo l i n g wa ter is c i rc u l a ted through

CONSTRUCTION OF A REFLUX COLUMN
the coi I to condense a portion of the ascen d i n g
vapors and , thus, i ncrease the amount of F i gure 1 4-7 i I I ustrates a ref l ux co l umn
1 58 . ALCOHOL MANUAL ALCOHOL MANUAL 1 59
F i gure 1 4- 6 : HYDROMETER SUMP i n corporat i n g 2 ref l ux control co i l s , a h y d ro

meter s u m p , and rel a ted p l um b i n g . The l ayout
of the condenser, p i pes, v a l ves, etc. i s for
clarity in the i l l us t r a t i on a nd not necessar i l y
the best conf i gurat i o n .
INLET ( LIQUID FROM
-;-]
CONDENSER)
The co l u mn can be constructed from copper,

THE R MOME TE R
HYDROH£ T E R l� iron,
not
or steel
suitable
p i pe and f i t t i n g s . A l u m i n u m i s
because i t c a n react chem i c a l l y
w i th t h e a l coho l . The use of cer t a i n types of
rubber and p l as t i c t h a t are a t tacked by the
a l coho l shou l d a l so be avoided . Copper p i pe
and f i t t i ngs, a l though expensi v e , are easy to
work w i t h and are recommended.
To construct, for examp l e , a 4 i nch co l um n ,

beg i n by cu t t i n g a 6 foot l e n g t h of p i pe for
the rect i f y i n g sec t i on, a 2-3 foot l e n g t h for
the s t r i p p i n g sec t i on, and 2 l en g t h s about
foot long for the ref l ux control sec t i o n s . Note
that the use of two ref l ux control sect i on s
a l lows very precise control of temperatures
within the co l u mn . However, if an easi l y
HYDR O M E T E R S U M P
� contro l led heat source, such as gas or

OUTLET ( L I Q U I D TO T A N K )
e I ec t r i c i t y , is used for the boi l e r , the lower
co i l can be el i m i n a ted . The ref l ux control
F i gure 14-7 : I MPROVED REFLUX COLUMN coi l s are soft copper tub i n g , 3/ 1 6 to 3/ 8
i nches in d i ameter wound around a sui table
T H E R M OME T E R
form and p l aced i n s i d e t h e short sections of
� k
I
} RECTIFIER
REFLUX
pipe.
Both the rec t i f y i ng and stripping sec t i ons

,..
""'---� "
CONTROL
t-- shou l d be packed . The pack i n g can be

1"'1r----.. m a r b l es, peb b l es , broken g l ass, short p i eces
..,.,
I of met a l or gl ass tu b i n g , or whatever.
CONDENSER
1- Any t h i n g that won ' t rust or react w i th the
'-.JI I
I
RECTIFYING
SECTION
a l cohol
for this
wi I I
type
wor k . However,
co l u mn is
the best pack i n g
proba b l y copper or
DIAL T H E R M O M E T E R----
..... s ta i n l ess steel scour i n g p a d s . Ordi nary steel
.......
}
HYDROME T E R � .......
wool wi I I not work because it w i II quickly
SUMP
� . �' r u s t . Some sort of screen o r ret a i n er i s needed
'
�
�
: at the base of each packed section to keep the
COOLING WATER ' STRIPPING
i u
OUT 'I R EF LUX pack i n g materi a l from f a l l i n g i n t o the bo i l e r .
� CONTROL
The s i mp l est retainer is a sec t i on o f coarse
- t--. .;,
screen i ng cut to the col um n d i ameter and
7
3-WAY VALVE-
PRODUCT {ALCOHOL) so l dered i n to p l ace.

OUT b
COOLING CONT RO L � > STRIPPING Once packed) the en t i re unit can be
- SECTION
VALVES
'� --- ( c assemb l ed . The draw i n g shows the sec t i on s
COOLING WATER
IN
_/
I
� --
�: -------
�--
�
-
-
''
'
j o i ned b y p i pe cou p l e r s .
801 LER ___:.

�-- F i g u re 1 4-3 shows the thermometer (or other
i
162 ALCOHOL MANUAL ALCOHOL MANUAL 1 63
tempera t u re sen s i n g dev i ce ) bei ng held in are needed. As wiI I be exp l a i ned in the
p l ace b y a cork . T h i s i s i n tended as a safety section on sti I I oper a t i on , the low proof tank
dev i ce . Excess i v e p ressure w i l l pop the cork . shou l d be set u p so that i ts con te n t s can be
I f some o t her a rran gement i s used to ho l d the run back i n to the s t i l l pot a t the beg i n n i n g of
tempera t u re sensor, a p ressure rel i e f v a l ve, each success i ve r u n .
s u c h a s u sed on hot w a ter heaters, shou l d be
added e i ther i n t h e c o l u m n or the b o i l er . OPERATION OF THE STILL
A worthwh i l e i mprov ement wou l d be t h e use of I n oper a t i on , t h e bo i l er or s t i l l pot i s f i l led

remote sen s i n g thermometers ( thermocoup I es or to no more t h a n t h e 3/4 level w i th the beer to
therm i s tors ) w i th the read-out located i n some be disti l led. As the l iquid beg i n s to boi l ,
conve n i en t p l ac e , for examp l e , near the ref l u x vapors r i se i n t h e co l u mn . After a w h i l e , the
con tro l n eed l e v a l ves . As men t ioned ear i i er, co l um n wi I I come up to temperature, and an
the u se of so l eno i d v a l ves, contro l l ed by equ i l i b r i u m w i l l b e estab l i shed . For a norma l
remote tempera t u re sensors, in p I ace of ( or beer concen t r a t i on of about 8%, the initial
p refera b l y in con j u nc t ion w i th ) the ref l u x temperature of the vapors i n the s t i I I pot w i I I
con tro I °
need I e v a l ves wou l d a l low semi-auto- be about 200 F . T h e v apors w i I I cool as they
matic opera t i o n . A thermometer to measure r i se in the column and, at the top , they
vapor tempera t u re i n t he b o i l er ( no t shown ) i s shou l d s t a b i l i ze at 1 73° F. which is the
a I so necess a r y . approx i ma te boi l i n g p o i n t of the water/ a lcohol
azetrope.
The th ree-way v a l ve l oca ted below the
h y drometer s u mp a I l o w s t he i mpure p roduct to I f the bo i l er is supp l y i n g more vapor than the
be r u n b ack i n to t he b o i l er for red i s t i l l a t i o n . co l um n can handle, the temperature at the
0
I n a d d i t io n , t wo c o l l ec t i on t a n ks , one for h i g h sti l l head will r i se above 1 73 a n d the proof
p roof p roduct a nd one for l o w p roof res i du e , of t h e product g o i n g to the condenser w i I I be
reduced. Converse! y , if the boi l e r is not As the d i s t i l l at i o n progresses, the vapors in
prod u c i n g enough vapor, the t e m p e r a t u re at the sti l l pot wi l l co n t a i n a greater and
the sti II head wi II be low and no vapors wi I I greater percentage of water and a c o rre
be going to the condenser. On a sti I I w i thout spond i n g l y lesser proportion of a l c o h o l· . The
ref l u x control coi l s , the heat source at the sti I I pot vapor temperature will r i se .
b o i l er must be adjusted to keep the amou n t of Eventua l l y , a po i n t wi I I be reached where
vapor within the r a n ge that can be h a n d l ed there is too l i ttle a l co h o l in t h e vapor for the
by the co l u m n . On sti l ls with ref l u x control , co l u m n to a c h i eve effec t i v e sepa r a t i on . The
the boi l e r is adjusted to produce an excess temperature at the s t i l l head will r i se s l i g h t l y
amount of vapor. The lower ref l ux control co i l and the p roof of the product wi I I be lower . At
is adjusted so that the thermometer located this po i n t , it is best to col lect the product
°
just above it reads 1 80 F. and the top com i n g from the condenser in the low p roof
ref l u x control coi l is a d j u s t ed to ma i n t a i n the con t a i n e r m e n t i oned ea r l i e r .

°
sti I I head temperature at exact l y 1 73 F.
The d i s t i I I a t i on s ho u I d be con t i n u e d u nt i I the
After the col umn has s t a b i I i zed , the 3-w a y temp.erature.. at the sti I I head equa I s the
v a l ve is op.ened to l et the product flow to the temperature of the vapors in t h e bo i l e r , which

°
h i gh proof tank . Note that when you beg i n a wi l l be near 208-2 1 2 F. depen d i n g on
d i s t i l l a t i on run, ce r t a i n l ow boi l i ng vapors a l t i tude, atmospheric pressure, and the
may come over, and a sma l l amou n t of l iquid amou n t of d i sso l ved m a t er i a l in the beer. Note
may come out of the condenser that is not that when sw i t ch i n g to the low proof p h a s e of
e t h a nol . This l iquid i s composed o f s u b s t a n ces t h e d i s t i l l a t i on , t h e ref l u x c o n t r o l co i l s shou l d
in the beer that h a ve a l ower boi l i ng po i n t be t u rned off and the co I u m n temperatures
than e t h a no l . However, they do not affect fuel a l lowed to r i se n a tura l l y .
va l ue and , for all p ra c t i c a l p u rposes, can be
i g nored . When aI I the a I coho I has been removed from

the beer, as i n d icated by boi l er and sti l l

head vapor tempera tu res, as m e n t ioned before, Chapter 1 5
the d i s t i l l a t ion is comp l e t e . T he beer, now SOLAR
c a l l ed "s t i l l ag e " , i s d r a i ned f rom t h e bo i l er , STILLS
and a fresh charge of bE.-er run in. The low
p roof " t a i l" from t he p rev ious r u n i s added to
the fresh charge of beer, and the sti I I is
ready for a nother r u n .
I I
.I
CAUTION
GENERAL DISCUSSION
I\
There are several i n herent dangers in the
construction a nd use of the equ i pmen t Sol ar sti l l s can be s i mp l e or e l aborate. The
described in this chapter. A l coho l , and so l ar a n a l og y to a s i mp l e pot s t i l l is easy to
a l co h o l vapors, are f l amma b l e . M i x tures of construct and operate. So l a r sti l is that
a l cohol vapors a nd a i r can be ex p l os i v e . The i n corporate s t r i p p i n g a n d ref l ux sections are
e q u i pmen t shou l d be located in a n area t h a t a l so poss i b l e , b u t they are d i ff i cu l t to operate
receives a d eq u a te v e n t i l a t i o n , and preferab l y w i thout sop h i s t i cated i nstrumen tat i on and
ou tdoors or i n a s i m p l e shed a w a y f rom other contro l s . This i s because there is a del i cate
b u i l d i n gs . The s ti l l shou l d be e l ec t r i ca l l y b a l ance between temperature, feed rates, and
grounded to prevent the bu i l du p of stat i c the amount of vapor in the co l u m n . The
e l ec t r i ci t y . Above all, reason a b l e care and s l i ghtest v a r i a t i on in the i np u t of so l a r
common sense shou l d b e exer c i sed . I f y o u are rad i a n t energy will destroy t h i s ba l ance. To
not sure about some t h i n g that cou l d be operate comp lex so l a r s t i I I s, all of the
poten t i a l l y dangerous, f i nd ou t before you v a r i a b les must be sensed and contro l led w i t h i n
procee d ! very c l ose tolerances. This, u n fo r t u n a te I y ,
means expensive e l ectron i c sensors, contro l s F i gure 1 5-1 : BAS I C SOLAR ST I LL

and v a l ves. The overa l l eff i c i ency of a
comp lex sol a r s t i l l is l ow a n d , to offset the
cost of i ns t r u men t a t i o n , the s t i I I must be very
l ar g e .
It is usua l l y better, for l a rger i nsta l l at i ons,

to use so l ar power i n d i rect l y . For examp l e , a
sol a r i ns t a l l a t i on cou l d be used to preheat the
water used for cook i n g or a s o l ar boi l e r cou l d
b e used to s u p p l ement a reg u l ar bo i l er for the
production of steam.
\ TR ANSPARE N T DOME
ADMITS RADIATION BUT
, I
Simple solar sti l l s have the d i sadvantage of RETAINS HEAT
prod u c i n g l ow proof a l coho l . However, they
��
are ent i rei y adequate when used to produce
fuel for an i nject i on system . An examp l e of a COLLECTS
simple fermen t a t i on set-up and so l a r s t i l l to R I M -----#-�
produce f u e l for a n a l cohol i nj ected eng i ne i s

described i n Chapter 17. I n t h i s app l i c a t i o n ,
t h e sol ar s t i I I makes a l o t of sense.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION I>

6 S UN ' S RAYS ABSORBED O N DARK
b
BOTTOM HEAT LIQUID TO BE
L DISTILLED LIQUID
F i g u re 1 5-1 i l l us t r a tes a solar sti l l of the DISTILLED
type used in surv i va l gear to disti l l fresh
water from sea w a ter. The sun ' s rays pass F i gure 1 5-2 : PASS I VE SOLAR ST I LL
free I y through the transparent dome and are

absorbed b y t h e d a r k bottom of the s t i I I . The
l iquid in the bot tom of the s ti l l i s heated .
Vapors r i se , contact the i ns i de of t h e trans
paren t dome ( w h i ch rema i ns re l at i v e l y cool ) ,
and condense. The d i s t i l i ed I i q u i d co l l ects i n
the t rough around the rim and is col lected ALCOHOL CONOENSES r----..U
O N GLASS ANO .j
through the a t tached t u b e . COllECTS I H
I
l
LOWER TROUGH
The st i I I i l l us t ra ted cou l d just as eas i l y ..-----1.1-4-BLACK OY£0

l
BURLAP
dis ti I I a l cohol as wa ter. Such sti l l s are
ava i l ab l e from vari ous supp l i ers and are r- �'-/--- --BEER TO BE
�-�L--.
� DISTILLED
fa i r l y i nexpen s i ve. However, before
p u r c h a s i n g one of these u n i t s make sure t h a t
the a l cohol v apors w i I I not d a m a g e whatever
p l as t i c i s used i n the s t i I I ' s construct ion . 9 ..-- OPTIMUM ANGLE
(S££ TEXT)
CONSTRUCTION OF SOLAR STILLS
F i gure 1 5-2 shows a cross sec t i on of an eas i l y Otherw i se , the a l coho l vapo rs wi I I esca pe.
constructed so l ar st i l l . The box is made of Therefore, the inside of the box shou l d be
p l y wood and is about 6 i nches deep . The sea led and p a i nted with f l a t b l ac k , chem i c a l
overa l l height is 2-3 fee t . It can be res i s t a n t , epoxy p a i n t . The g l az i n g shou l d be
cons t ructed in any conven i e n t l e n gt h . It is sea l ed with a gask et of s i l i cone . A chea per
i mp o r t a n t that the box be vapor t i gh t . a l tern a t i ve to g l ass i s t r a n s l ucen t f i berg l ass
used i n the construction of greenhouses. I t is F i gure 1 5-3 : VAPOR TRAP DRA I N

a v a i l a b l e from most b u i l d i n g supp l y houses i n
rol l s t h a t are 48 i nches w i d e . A v a l ve shou l d
be provided to f i l l and d ra i n the beer trou g h .
The d r a i n open i n g i n the lower a l coho l trough
m u s t be left open to rei ieve i n terna l pressure.
To prevent uncondensed vapor l oss, a s i mp l e
r-----JL.....,'--r- LEVE L OF li OU I D
"U" trap , as i l l ustrated in F i gure 1 5-3, can IS DETERMINED BY
HEIGHT OF "U" TUBE
be i n s ta l l e d . The opt i mum ang l e for the box as
f a r as the s u n i s concerned i s your l a t i t ude
p l us 1 5° in t h e w i nter and m i n u s 1 5° i n the
summer. In the s p r i n g and fa l l the op t i m u m
a n g l e i s e q u a l t o your l a t i tude.
In opera t i on , the beer travels up the initial temperature w i l l be about 1 75° F . and
b l ack-dyed burlap by cap i l l ary act i on , the t h e proof of the d;sti l l a te w i l l be about
a l cohol evaporates, condenses on the g l ass, 1 00 - 1 2 0 , depend i n g o n t h e a l cohol concen-
and col l ects in the lower troug h . The t ra t i on of the beer. As the a l cohol is removed
temperature in t h e box is sel f-reg u l a t i n g or from the beer, the temperature i ns i d e the tank
"pass i ve" because as the box heats up, more wi I I r i se and the proof of the a I coho I col l ected
a l cohol wi I I evaporate. Th i s has a coo l i n g wi I I decrease. Therefore, after about 1 /2 to
effec t . Converse l y , if the temper a t u re in the 2/3 of the a l cohol ha.s been col l ected, the
box drops, less a l coho l wi I I evaporate, and d i st i l l ate can be run i n to a second conta i ner
the temperature will r i se . The vapor for red i st i l l a t i on w i t h the nex t ru n .
temperature i ns i de the box shou I d , therefore,
rema i n rel a t i ve l y stable. T y p i ca l l y , the W i th s l i ght mod i f i ca t i on the sti I I in F i gure
-,
ALCOHOL MANUAL 1 75
IIII
1 74 AL CO HO L MA NU AL
batch F i gure 1 5-4: ACT I VE SOLAR ST I LL

be con ver ted fro m p a s s i ve
1 5-2 can
more or less con t i nuous
ope r a t i o n to a
i n s t a l l e d acr oss the
ope ra t i on . A d r i p t u b e i s
0
of t h e bee r f l ow i n g up
top o f the s t i l l . I ns tea d
a c t i o n , i t i s a l l owe d I
the b ur l ap by c ap i l l ary om ' "' ----#-lbJ'->
--. I
l�
the b u r l ap from above.
to drip down
r s t i l l set u p for th i s
F i gur e 1 5-4 sho ws a s o l a
-----..fl----J/1
BLACK-DYED
BURLAP ,, , I
t h a t the h e i g h t of the
typ e of ope r a t i o n . Not i ce I I
I
I
ut 8 fee t. The obj ect

s t i I I i s muc h gre ate r, abo
ol eva por ate d fro m GlASS OR
i s to hav e a l l of the a l coh TRANSlUCfiiT FIBERGLASS ----IJ
rea che s the low er j;I
t h e bee r by the t i me i t
re-
t ro u g h . is
Th i s not a l way s pos s i b l e . The
rec irc u l a t i ng the bee r t
mea ns of
fore, some 11
pro v i ded . Con tro I of the
us ua l l y mu st be flOW CONTROL----
is no longer VALVE
tem per atur e within the sti l l
com p l e t e l y To a gre ate r ext en t , i t

" p a ss i ve" .
led b y adj u s t i n g the
m u s t be " ac t i vel y " con tro l
i n cre ase d f l ow rat e
f l ow rat e of the bee r. An
i ns i d e the box a n d
w i I I low er the tem per atu re
tem per atu re. An
a red uce d r a t e w i I I r a i se the
f l ow rat e wou l d be
a l ter nat e to con tro l l i ng the
de, act i va ted by a ----.1
to i n s t a I I I ouv ers or a sha
ALCOHOl

therma I sen sor , t o c o n t r o l i n ter na l tem per
o
re to 1 73 F.,
a t u r e . The c l ose r t h e tem per atu
a I coho I . Bec aus e
the h i ghe r the proof of the
si st e n t , som e mea ns
the s u n 1 s ene rgy i s not con
of automa t i ca l l y contro l l i ng t h e f l ow rate to I ow, the energy f rom the sun i s "free" and
mai ntain opti mum temperature is a l most s t i l l s of t h i s des i gn can be bu i l t as l arge as
m a n d a tory . des i red .
T h e pass i v e s y stem has the advan tage of b e i n g

s e l f-regu I a t i n g as far as temp era tu re is
concerned and t h e d i sadvantage of prod u c i n g
l ower and lower proof as the d i s t i l l a t i on
con t i nues. Because of the f i xed v o l u me of the
beer trou g h , it can only process a l i m i ted
amou n t of beer a t one t i me . The act i ve s y stem,
i f properl y reg u l a ted, is capab l e of a h i gher
overa l l proof on t h e f i rst run and, w i th a
reci rcu I a t i n g tank, can p rocess a l arger
amount of beer. It has the d i sadvantage of
requ i r i n g act i ve control of the i n ternal sti l l
temperature.
Both sti l i s produce a h i gh enough proof for

i nj ec t i on system s . However, i f the f u e l i s to be
burned i n p I ace of gaso l i ne, the a I coho I must
be red i s t i l ied to a c h i eve an accep t ab l e proof .
There is no reason, however, why several
s t i I I s can not be connected i n series w i th the
product from the f i rs t b e i n g fed to the seco n d ,
a n d so on . A l s o , a l t ho u g h over a l l eff i c i en c y i s
ALCOHOL MANUAL 1 79
1 78 ALC OHO L MA NUA L
Chapter 16
GOVERNMENT
REGULATIONS
FEDERAL REGULATIONS
Federal l a w ( I n ternal Revenue Code of 1 954, 26

U.S.C. 5171 } s t a tes : " E very person sh a l l , Ii
before commenc i ng the b u s i ness of a d i s t i l l e r ,
m a k e app l i c a t i o n for a n d rece i v e n o t i ce of the
reg i st ra t i on of his p lant". This means,
s i mp l y , that you must reg i ster your p l a n t a n d
get your perm i t before you beg i n prod u c i n g
a l coho l ! V i o l a t i on is a federal offense
p u n i sh a b l e , poss i b l y , by a j a i l sentence.
The . Bureau of A l coho l , Tobacco and F i rearms

of the U.S. Treasury Department has the
respons i b i l i t y of adm i n i steri ng the l a ws
concern i n g ethanol prod u c t i on . They maintain
p rodu.c i n g a lcoho l ;
sever a I reg i on a I o f f i ces t h rough out t h e c o u n t r y ( 2 ) t h e p l a n n ed uses o f t h e
a l cohol ( u se
a n d the a ddress es a re I i s ted i n t h e appen d i x . in t ractor s , l awnmo wers, a u to
m ob i l es , e tc . ) ;
T h e ATF B u reau has con s i derab l y rel axed a n d (3) the p roper ty on which
veh i c l es using
s tream I i n e d the p rocess for reg i s teri n g s m a I I the a l cohol as fue l will be
opera ted; ( 4 ) the
a l cohol p l a n t s . For ex amp l e, u n t i l recen t l y the p rocess you wi 1 1 use to
p roduc e the a l cohol m a ter1· a 1 s ,
m i n i mu m bond req u i remen t was $ 1 0 , 000 . 00 . Now ( raw yeas t ,
p l a n t s p roduc i n g l ess enzym es, d i s t i l l a t ion metho d, e tc . ) ;
it is o n l y $ 1 00 . 00 for (5) how
t h a n 2500 g a l lons p er year . you wi I I d i spose of the waste m a t er i a l s '
II
s t i l l a ge, e tc . ( i.e.
feed i t t o l ivesto ck } ; a n d
( 6) the t y p e o f secur i t y y ou w i I I p rov ide t o
There are two b as i c t y pes o f a l cohol perm i t s .
preve nt t heft o f the a I coho I .
The f i rs t i s a n "opera t i ng " perm i t t h a t a l lows
sale and d is t r i b u t ion of the ( p roper l y
produc t . T he second i s an "ex p e r i Your f et ter s hou l d a l so s t a te h o w much a l cohol
d e n a t u red)
you w i l l p roduc e i n an "aver age" 1 5 d a y
menta l " perm i t wh ich does n o t a u thorize s a l e
a l coh o l . Q u a l i fy i n g for an opera t i n g p e r i o d . N a t u ra l l y , i f y ou w i s h t o q u a l ify for
of the
the m i n i mum bond7 the
p erm i t i s a n extensi v e p rocedur e t h a t req u i res tota l y ear l y amoun t
forms and an i nv es t i ga t i on to shou l d be l ess t h a n 2500 g a l l on s . When your
n umerous
app l i cat ion i s appro ved,
d e term i n e w hether opera t ion of the p l an t can you w i l l need to f i l e
a d i s t i l l er ' s bond.
be l ega l l y approve d. Howeve r, q u a l i f ic a t i on of T he bond form ( A TF 2601 }
w i I I be sent b y the r e g i ona l office .
a n exper i me n t a l p l a n t i s a s im p ler p rocess .
Unden a t u red a l cohol

To a pp l y for a n exp eri ment a l p erm i t , w r i te to may on l y be used on t h e
t h e n e a rest regi ona l o ff i ce o f the ATF Bureau. " p rem i ses" descr i bed i n your l e tter. To use t h e
Your l et ter m u st com p l et e l y describ e: ( 1 ) a l l a l cohol o n p ub l ic roads o r a w a y from your
l an d , b u i ldings and e q u i pment (sti l ls, p roper ty, i t m u st be denat u red as descr i bed
f ermen ters , t a n ks , e tc . ) to be used in l a ter i n t h i s c hap ter.

STATE AND LOCAL LAWS DENATURING
with Federal law in no way The government is e x t remel y concerned that

Com p l i ance
I
exempts you from com p l i ance w i th state and a l cohol i n tended for non-potable use may be
local t aw s . You wou l d be w i se to check these turned i n to "drinking" a l coho l . The present
!
t o produce a l coho l . Penn- tax on pota b l e a l cohol is about $ 1 0 . 50 per
I
before starting
used to req u i re a gal lon, wh i l e a l coho l , for f u e l and i nd u s t r i a l
.. ...Ii
sy l v a n i a , for examp l e ,
$ 2 , 500 00 b on d ·, n a d d i t i on to the Fede ral p urposes, is not s i m i l a rl y taxed . To i nsure
,
•
req u i remen t s . Happ i l y , this l aw has been that non-pot a b l e a l cohol stays that wa y , it
c h a n ge d . Many other s t a tes are a I so
i n the must be "den atured " . Den a t u r i n g is the
of rev i s i n g and updat i n g their add i t i on of cer t a i n subst a nces that are
process
req u i reme n t s . Howe ver, a rc h a i c l a ws are s t i l l d i ff i c u l t to remove from the a l coho l , a n d make
t h e book s i n man y area s. Lette rs to your i t u n f i t for d r i n k i n g .

on
l oc a l repr esen t a t i ves cou l d he l p to
s t a t e and
get them c h a n ged . Because ethanol is used for many d i fferent
p u r poses, and because t he chemi c a l s used to
denature t h e a l cohol may i n terfere w i t h l a ter
A I so, many of t h e l aws concern i n g motor fuel use of the a l coho l , there are d i fferent
on both the s t a te and federa I l ev e l were denat u r i n g formu l a s . The government d i v i des
w r i t ten w i t h gaso l i ne i n m i n d . For examp l e , it these form u l as i n to two c a tegori e s . T h e f i rs t ,
m a y be i I lega l for y o u to operate you r veh i c l e "Comp l e te l y D e n a t u red A l coho l " ( CDA ) form u l as
w i thou t a c a ta l y t i c converter even though such make it v i r t ua l l y imposs i b l e tq separate the
a dev i ce is u n necessary w i t h a l coho l . Ag a i n , a l cohol f rom the chem i c a l s used to render it
it wou 1 d be w i se to check beforehand and unfit to drink. CDA a l cohol can be hand l ed
benef i c i a l to wri t e l e t ters to get the ou t moded and so l d w i thout restr i c t i on . The second c l ass
l a ws c h a n ged . of form u l as , "Spec i a l l y Denatured A l coho l "
1 84 ALCOHOL MANUAL
ALCOHOL MANUAL 1 85
( S DA ) , have res t r i c t i ons as to the h a nd l i n g your prem i ses u n l ess it is dena tured by an
a n d storage of t h e a l coho l . approv ed formu I a .
Most of t h e CDA formu l as c a l l for the add i t ion

of chemi c a l s such as ethyl acetate, met h y l
a l coho l , or methy l i sob u t y l ketone. These
chem i c a l s must be purchased . COA form u l a
#19, for examp l e , c a l l s for t h e a d d i t i on of 4
g a l l ons of m e t h y l i sob u t y l ketone and 1 g a l lon
of ei ther kerosene or gaso l i ne t o every 1 00
ga l i ons of a l coho I . On the other hand, SDA
formu l a #28-A cal l s o n l y for the a d d i t ion of
one ga l l on of gaso l i ne per 1 00 g a l l ons of
a l coho l . T h i s i s accomp l i shed n a t u r a l l y if you
are m a k i n g gasoho l . However, s i nce it is an
SDA form u l a , you will have to have approval
from the ATF Bureau and com p l y with the
res t r i c t i on s for i t s storage and u s e .
Before purch a s i n g spec i a l denatu r i n g

chem i c a l s , write to t h e reg i o n a l A T F Bureau
off i c e . They mi ght approve an SDA form u l a
such a s #28-A i f you agree, for exam p l e , to
i n s ta l l a lock i ng gas cap on your v eh i c l e .
Remember, it i s i l legal to use your a l cohol off

Chapter 1 7
PUTTING IT
ALL TOGETHER
LARGE AND SMALL SYSTEMS
VERY SMALL
The a u t hor h as a l coho l / wa ter i njecti on systems

i ns t a l led on his 1 978 Honda and 1 975 Ford
p i ck-up truck . The i nject i on systems,
purchased from Spearco Performance Products,
I nc . ( ad d ress i n append i x ) , are d es i gned for
water i nj ec t i on . Consequen t l y , they were
mod i f ied to ( approx i m a te l y ) doub l e the f l ow
rate to the carburetor under peak load
cond i t i on s . This e n a b l es max i m u m efficiency
from a 1 20 proof a l cohol/water i nject ion
m i x t u re . Under average d ri v i ng con d i t i o n s ,
the g a so l i n e s av i n g amounts to 25-30%. The " p l a n t " w a s b u i l t ( i n 1 978) for abou t $ 1 00 0 . 0 0 .

a l cohol i nject i on mi xture is prepared from The b a tch s t i l l and co l u mn ( 4" d i ameter) on l y
m i scel l aneous veget a b l e m a t ter, damaged f ru i t, produce 2 to 3 g a l l on s per hour ( at 1 90
and garbage that i s col lected ( f ree) from a proof ) , and the total l abor req u i remen t is
n u mber of sources. I t i s fermented d i rec t l y i n about 20 hours.
two 44-g a l l on p l as t i c trash cans a n d d i st i l l e d
in a solar sti l l as described in C h a p te r 1 5 . MED I UM
The en t i re set-up, i nc l u d i n g the i njec t i on
systems, cost less t h a n $ 1 50 . 00 ( i n 1 97 8 ) a n d Another farmer in t he a rea h as a somewhat
the l abor req u i rement i s o n l y a n hour or two l arger opera t i on . He p rocesses a r t i choke cu l l s
per week. F am i l y g a so l i n e consu mpt i on has i n a 4000 g a l l o n cooke r t hat a l so serves a s a
been cut from an a verage of 50 ga l l on s per fermen ter. However, d i s t i I I a t ion i s done in a
week to about 35. The w h o l e i n vestment was 10 i nch con t i nuous column that p roduces 20
paid back in less than 4 months, and all g a l lons o f 1 80 p roof a l cohol per hou r . Worki ng
current s a v i n g s a re pure prof i t ! i n term i tten t l y w hen feeds tock mater i a l is
a v a i I ab I e1 2 batches a re cooked and fermented
SMALL each week . T he resu I t i ng 6000 g a I I ons of beer

a r e d i s t i l l ed i n a bout 24 hours. S i nce t h e s t i l l
A nearby farmer, who is semi -ret i re d , i s fu l l y a u tomated, tot a l l abor t o p roduce 500
processes a v a r i e t y o f agr i c u l tu r a l surp l us i n g a l lons of fuel is about 20 hours. T he s t i I I
a 500 ga I I on cooker that a I so serves as a w as b u i l t in t he farm m a c h i n e shop from a
fermenter a nd sti I I pot. One run a week des i g n worked out by the a u thor and the
produces about 400 gal lons of beer that A l cohol Technology Corporat ion at a cost of
y i e l ds, o n a n average, 3 5 g a l lons of 1 90 p roof about $ 1 0 ' 000. 00. Of this amou n t , about
a l coho l . The a l cohol i s used i n a t ractor, the $4, 000 . 00 w as s pent o n a u toma t i c controls a n d
f am i l y car, and a one-ton truck . The en t i re i n s trumen t a t i o n . A comparab l e d i s t i I I a t ion
unit, purcha sed com merc i a l l y , wou l d cost automated, sti I I . I n i t i a l production w i I I b e i n
between $25-50 , 00 0 . 0 0 ! In add i t i on , the excess . of 50, 000 ga l l ons per year, a l though
cooker/ fermenter was b u i l t for abou t $4, 000 . 00 the fac i l i t y is c a p a b l e of several t i mes this
and m i sce l l aneous p l umbi n g cost another amou n t . The s t i l l age i s to b e fed to a res i d e n t
$ 1 , 00 0 . 00, al l at 1 979 pri ces . The p l a n ned d a i r y herd a s a h i gh-prote i n s u p p l emen t . T h e
a d d i t i on of two 5, 000 ga l l on fermenters wi l l possi b i l i t y of u s i n g m a n u re from the c a t t l e to
cost a nother $7-8 , 00 0 . 0 0 . T h e desired capac i t y generate methane is a l so being consi dered .
I
i s to produce 1 5-20,000 g a l l o n s of f u e l a l cohol The entire system is bei ng profession a l l y
each fa l l when the surp l us crops are e n g i neered and purchased commerc i a l l y at a
1 I
I
av a i l ab l e . cost of about $250 , 000 . 00 .
LARGE The forego i n g examp les i l l us t r a te a n u mber of

points. F i rs t , that a l cohol prod u c t i on is
An even l arger f u e l a l coho l prod u c t i o n faci l i t y poss i b l e on all level s , from the a u t hor ' s
i s c u rren t l y b e i n g constructed by a M i d-West modest system to a fa i r I y I arge "on farm"
dairy farmer. Th i s faci l i t y w i l l process corn . p lant. Second l y , a l l of the s ystems described
Each 70 pounds of u nshel l e d corn wi I I yield a fi I I a need , a l l of them are cost eff i c i e n t , and
bushel ( 56 pounds ) of s he l l e d corn and 14 all wi I I pay back the en t i re p l a n t cost in a
pounds of corn cobbs. The s h e l l ed corn, when rel a t i v e l y short t i me . Final l y , al l of the
processed, will y i e l d about 2 . 5 to 2 . 7 g a l lons systems prov i d e a cert a i n degree of
of a I coho I . The corn cobbs, when dried and i ndependence from petro l eum f ue l s , and a l l are
burned 1n a bo i l er, will produce 91 , 000 Btu operated tota l l y from renewab l e resources.
wh i ch i s enough to comp l e t e l y fuel the cook i n g
and d i s t i l l a t i on operati o n s . The faci I i t y CONSIDERATIONS
centers around a s team b a tch cooker, severa l
fermenters, and a 12 i nch con t i nuous, fu l l y The main areas of cost in set t i n g up and
opera t i n g an a l coho l p l a n t a r e : ( 1 ) t h e cost of for t u n a te. Never the I ess, a l coho I feedstocks are
the physical p lant; (2) the cost of raw a v a i l a b l e for very l i t t l e cost i f t i me i s spent
materi a l s or feedstock ; (3) the cost of fue l to to l ocate t he m . City dwel lers, for examp l e ,
run the p l an t ; and ( 4 ) the amou n t of l abor can purchase damaged m a t er i a l s f rom
i n vo l ve d . wholesa l e food d i st r i b utors.
You c a n b eg i n prod u c i n g a l cohol w i th a modest Fuel to ru n the s t i I I and cook i ng opera t i on i s

c a p i ta I in vestment or you c a n spend a great another impor t a n t cost cons i dera t i on . The fuel
deal of money . A farm or coope ra t i ve m i g h t must be cheap and av a i l ab l e . Wood , straw,
f i nd an a l coho l fac i l i t y a b arga i n a t a l most corncobbs and t h e I i k e are h ard to hand l e b u t
any p r i ce . Not only can the i n st a l l a t i on are good sources of hea t . Coa l m i ght be
e l i m i n a te t h e use of petro l e u m , i t can prov i d e consi dered in certa i n a reas as mi ght
i nd ependence or "crop i nsurance" in these e l ec tr i c i t y . W h a tever the f ue l , thou g h , it
peri l ous t i mes. As for very sma l l systems, shou I d be from a renew a b l e source.
they pay for themsel ves and, if everyone
produced even a s m a I I percentage of h i s own Labor is a consLdera\:ion c l os e l y rel a ted to
motor f ue l , there wou l d be no immed i a t e fuel p l an t cost a nd the degree of automa t i on . Sma l l
cri sis. batch equ i pment req u i res a d i sproport i on a t e
amount o f l abor for t he a l coho l produced . T h e
F a rmers have the a d v a n tage of ava i l ab l e "sma l l " operation prev i ous l y desc r i b e d
s u rp l us and damaged crops t h a t m i g h t other req u i res 20 hours I abor for less than 40
w i se go to waste. They a l so have the ga l i ons of f ue l . The " m e d i um" operat i on
a d v a n tage of com b i ned operations whereby produces over ten t i mes the amou n t of a I coho I
s t i l l age is fed to a n i m a l s ( s a v i n g feed costs ) for the same amount of work . The d i fference i s
a n d m a n u re i s used to generate methane to run i n the s i z e of the e q u i pmen t . I n the l o n g r u n ,
t he a l coho l faci l i t y . O t hers are not q u i te so l arger e q u i pment often p a y s for i tsel f i n terms
1 94 ALCOHOL MANUAL ALCOHOt- MANUAL 1 95
of I abor a n d econ om i c opera t i on .

Chapter 18
T hose cons i der i n g purchas i n g or bui lding THE
I arger f aci I i t i es sho u l d obta i n as m uc h
FUTURE
i nformation as poss i b l e before m ak i ng a
comm i tment . T he n umber o f manufact urers a n d
supp l iers o f a l cohol fue l e q u i pment seems to b e
i ncreas i n g a t a n a I most exponen t i a l r a t e . Some
offer good, reason a b l y p ri ced e q u i pment and
ser v i ces. However, m an y offer des i g ns t h a t a re
tota l l y i ncom petent o r, a t b es t , hope l ess l y o l d PRESENT TECHNOLOGY
f ash ioned. An exc e l l ent source of " s t a te o f t h e
art" i nform a t i on in rel a t ion to t h e above is A l most a l l of the technology curre n t l y used i n
"Gasohol" m ag az i n e , w hose a ddress i s l i s ted 1 n the prod u c t i o n of fue I a I coho I was devel oped
the a ppen d ix . 30-40 years a g o . D u r i n g the Great Depress ion ,
m u c h research was done concern i n g t h e use of
crop surp l us for the prod u c t i on of fuel
a l coho l . The research was never put i n to
prac t i ce part I y because of pressure from the
oi l l ob b y . I n terest i n a l cohol fuel aga i n arose
during the Second World War when o i I was i n
short supp I y . It is no secret that much of
Europe, and the entire Third Reich, ran on
a l cohol f u e l from about 1 943 on . After the war,
i n terest in a l cohol aga i n dec l i ned, part l y
because gaso l i n e was cheap and ava i l ab l e ,
and part I y because of the o i I I obb y . Tod a y , NEW TECHNOLOGY

with a new cri s i s upon u s , t h i s ex i s t i n g fuel
a l coho l technology i s b e i n g redi scovered . The current ( a nd hopefu l l y cont i n u i n g )
i n terest in a l cohol f ue l is gener a t i n g new
It i s a m us i n g to note t h a t a lot of t h e "new" research a n d m a n y prom i s i n g developments are
adv ances bei n g c l a imed are not new at a l l . A at h a n d . The fo l l o w i n g is a sma l l port ion of
manufacturer of d i st i l l at i on equ i pment , for w h a t i s b e i n g done.
examp l e , c l a i ms the d i scovery of a p rocess of
using gaso l i ne as a n a l coho l d ry i n g agen t i n I MMOB I L I Z ED ENZYMES
the d i rect prod u c t i o n of gasoho l . In fact,
U. S. Patents 1 , 490, 520 ( 1 924 ) , 1 , 69 9 , 355 One of the most important a reas of current
( 1 929 ) , 1 , 744, 504 ( 1 930 ) , 2 , 37 1 , 0 1 0 ( 1 945 ) , and research concerns the enzymes used to convert
2 , 591 , 672 ( 1 95 2 ) cover the subject q u i te wel l ! s t a rch to sugar. E n z y mes are expensive and
Soon, au tomob i I e manufactu rers ( after much are a major expense in starch convers i on .
research a n d t h e resu l t i n g tax w r i teoffs ) , w i l l U s i n g present tech n o l o g y , enzymes c a n o n l y be
"d i scover" that a l cohol can be used in used once. They go into s o l u t i on i n the mash
i n te r n a l combu s t i on e n g i nes, and tractor and are aI I but imposs i b l e to recover for
manufacturers w i I I "remember" t h a t they h a v e reuse. The curren t research ( begun in the
been expor t i n g a l cohol f ue l ed f a r m equ i pment 1 950 ' s ) i n vol ves i m mob i l i z i ng the enzymes.
to many fore i g n cou n tries, princi pal l y in I nstead of bei ng a l lowed to go i n to so l u t i o n ,
South America, for the past 50 years . the enzymes a re f a s tened o r " i mmobi I i zed" on
an i ne r t substrate. The mash is then passed
The p o i n t is t h a t most of t h e so l u t i on of the over a bed of these i m mo b i I ized enzymes. The
energy p rob lem regard i n g a l cohol fuel is end res u l t i s t h a t t h e enzymes do not go i n to
a l ready in e x i stence, wa i t i ng to be re- so l u t i on a n d they m a y be reused m a n y t i mes a t
d i scovered a n d p u t to use. a con s i d e r a b l e s a v i n g . T h i s techn o l og y i s not
yet fu l l y devel oped for s t a rch conver s i o n , b u t proof a I coho I , or to use solar energy to
shou l d b e a va i l a b l e i n t h e near f u t u re . generate steam to run a convent i o n a l sti I I .
Another prom i s i n g area i n vo l ves e l i m i n a t i o n of
CELLULOSE CONVERS I ON the d i st i l l a t i on p rocess a l together. One method
is the use of membranes t h a t w i l l se l ec t i v e l y
Cel l u l ose is the most p le n t i f u l and cheapest pass the a I coho I but reta i n the water and
poten t i a l source of fuel a l coho l . Attempts are other i m p ur i t ies i n t h e beer. The t h i rd area of
bei n g made to develop new enzymes to research i n vol ves extrac t i on of the a l co h o l
econom i ca l l y convert cel l u l ose to g l ucose. The w i th so l ve n t s . So fa r , these processes i n v o l ve
prob I em, as men t i oned earl i e r , i s free i n g t h e the use of heat and a cert a i n amount of
cel l u l ose from the I ignin . S t ra i ns of red i s t i l.l a t i on . Hopefu l l y , the perfected system
org a n i sms, such a s those t h a t cause dry rot i n wi I I consume l ess energy than conven t i on a l
wood , are bei n g s t u d i ed . The object is not d i s t i I I a t ion •
only to extract the cel l u l ose, but to a l low

easy recovery of the l i g n i n . L i g n i n , i n turn ,
makes an excel l e n t fue l with w h i ch to run a B I OLOG I CAL RESEARCH
st i I I .
It is known that plants must f i rst produce
ALTERNAT I VES TO D I S T I LLA T I O N s u g a r i n order to make starch or c e l l u lose . If
there were some way to p i ck p Iants at the
The en t i re d i s t i l l a t i on process i s a l so under peak of sugar produc t i o n , the manufacture of
scru t i n y . The research is in three basic ethanol cou l d be great l y s i mp I i f i ed . In
areas. F i rs t is the development of l arge, addit ion, crops with i n heren t l y h i gh sugar
eff i c i e n t solar d i s t i l l a t i on apparatus. The content cou l d be m u t ated to produce even more
approach i s e i ther t o develop a s t i l l that w i l l sugar and grown spec i f i c a l l y for the pro
comp l e te l y stri p the beer and del i ver high d u c t i on of a l coho l .
There are certa i n bacter i a , a I gae, and fungi an i mportant developmen t . E l ectr i c veh i c l es
that can ferment a l co h o l d i rect l y from and sma l l , reg i o n a l h y d ro-e l e c t r i c p l ants
cel l u l ose w i tho u t a conversion step . I t i s a l so wou l d a l so hel p , as wou l d f u l l u t i l i za t i on of
w i th i n the rea l m of possi b i l i ty that a p l an t so l ar , geotherma I , and other energy a I ter-
cou l d be devel oped to produce a l cohol n a t i ves .
d i rec t l y . Certa i n p l ants, such as mint,
a l ready possess the basic biological It is important to rea I i ze that the energy
mechan i s m ! Even the re l a t i ve l y simple prob lem w i l l not so l v e i t s e l f . I t i s a l ready the
devel opmen t of a yeast s t ra i n that is more "eleventh hour" and noth i n g short of a
tolerant to a l co h o l wou l d a l l ow more con concerted, worl d-w ide effort w i l l suff i ce !
cen t r a ted mashes a n d a s i g n i f i c a n t sav i n g i n

d i st i l l a t i on energ y .
CONCLUSION
The f u I I ut i I i z a t i on of ex i s t i n g tech no I o g y a n d
t h e prom i se of new developments w i I I make t h e
prod u c t i on of a l cohol fuel easier and more
econom i ca l in the near future. However, as
fos s i l fuel s u p p l ies dwindle, it wi l l become
i nc reas i n g l y impo rt a n t to u t i l i ze every shred
of ava i l ab l e materi a l and waste in t h e pro
d u c t i on of energ y . As i de from the l arge s c a l e
produ c t i on of a l co h o l f ue l , sel f-con t a i ned ,
automat i c a p p l i a nces t h a t cou l d t u r n a l l sorts
of waste mater i a l i n to usea b l e fuel wou l d be
APPENDIX
ATF BUREAU REGIONAL OFFICES
U. S. Department of the Treas u r y , BUREAU O F

ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, and F I REARMS may be
contacted a t the fo l l o w i n g reg i o n a l offices:
C E N TRAL REG I O N ( I nd i a n a , Kentuck y ,

M i ch i ga n , Ohio, West V i rg i n i a ) : 550 Main
Street, C i nc i n n a t i , O h i o 45202
M I D-ATLANT I C REG I O N ( De l aware, Wash i n g ton

D. C., Mary l a n d , New Jersey , Pennsy l va n i a ,
V i rg i n i a ) : 2 Penn Center P l az a , Room 360,
Ph i l adel p h i a , Pennsy l v a n i a 1 9 1 02
M I DWEST RE G I O N ( I I I i nois, I owa, Kansas,

ALCOHOL MANUAL 205
204 ALCOHOL MANUAL
M i n n esota, M i ssou r i , Nebraska, North & Sou t h INJECTION SYSTEMS
Dakota, W i sconsi n ) : 230 South Dearborn Street,

SPEARCO PERFORMANCE PRODUCTS, I NC . , 1 0936
1 5 t h F l oor, C h i cago, I l l i no i s 60604
La C i eneg a , I n g l ewood, C a l i forn i a 90304
markets an excel l e n t water i n j ec t i on system
NORTH-ATLAN T I C REG I O N ( C o n nec t i c u t , Maine,
that is easi l y converted to a l cohol/water
New Hampsh i re, Massachusetts, New York,
m i x tures.
Rhode I s l and, Vermon t , Puerto R ico, V i rg i n
I s l a n ds ) : 6 Wor l d Trade Center, 6th F l oor, M & w GEAR COMPANY, Route 47 Sou t h , G i bson
P. 0 . Box 1 5 , Church S t reet S t a t i o n , New York, city, I l l inois 60936 markets an i njec t i on
New York 1 0008 system for turbo-diesel tractors.
SOUTHEAST REG I O N ( A l abama, F lo r i d a , OTHER SOURCES of i nject i on systems can be

Geor g i a , North & S o u t h C a r o l i n a , M i ss i ss i p p i , located t h rough your local auto p ar t s o u t l e t or
Ten nessee) : 3835 Northeast Expresswa y , P. 0. speed sho p .
Box 2994, At l a n ta , Georg i a 30301
DISTILLER'S YEAST
SOUTHWEST REG I O N (Arkansas, Colorado,

Texas, U N I VERSAL FOODS CORPORAT I O N , 433 East
Lou i s i a n a , New Mexico, O k l a homa ,
M i chi g a n S t reet, M i l waukee, W i scons i n 53201
Wyom i ng } : Ma i n Tower, Room 345, 1 200 M a i n
markets D i st i l l e r ' s Ac t i ve Dry Yeast ( DADY ) .
Street, D a l l as, Texas 75202
WESTERN REG I O N ( A l as k a , A r i zo n a , C a l i forn i a , ENZYME SUPPLIERS

Hawa i i , I daho, Mon t a n a , Nevada, Oregon,
G. B. FERMENTAT I ON I NDUSTR I ES , I NC . , 1
Utah, Wash i n g ton ) : 525 Market Street, 34th
North Broad w a y , Des P l a i nes, I l l i no i s 60016
F l oor, San Franc i sco, C a l iforn i a 94105
markets enzymes for s tarch convers i on . GENERAL INFORMATION
M I LES LABORATO R I ES, Enzyme Products GASOHOL U S.A.,

. Box 9547, Kansas C i ty,
D i v ision, P. 0. Box 932, E l khart, I nd i a n a M i ssouri 641 1 3 is an exc e l l en t m a g az i n e
465 1 5 markets enzymes for s tarch conversi on . devoted to fue l a l coh o l . T hey began p ub l i sh i n g
i n June 1 9 79 a n d a c o l l ect ion o f back i ss u es
NOVO LABORATOR I ES , Enzymes D i v i sion, 59 wou l d cons t i t u te a good refer ence l i br a r y .
Danbury Road, Wi I ton, Connec t i c u t 06897 S u bscr i p t ions a r e $ 1 2 . 00 p er year a nd back
markets enzymes for s tarch and ce l l u I ose i ss u es a re $ 1 . 5 0 eac h .
convers i on .
THE ALCOHOL F U E L I NFORMAT I ON CENTER, c/o
PLANS AND BLUEPRINTS Dr· R i chard L. Spencer, Southwest State

U n i vers i ty, Marsha I I , M i n n esota 56258 prov i des
MOTHER EARTH NEWS, P. 0. Box A, East F l at a p acket o f i nform a t ion o n a lcohol p rod u c t ion,
Rock, North C a ro l i n a 28726 sel l s p l a n s for 3 i n c l u d i ng supp l iers , sti l l m a n ufacturers, and
and 6 i nch b a tch sti l l s and rel a ted cook i n g so o n .
a n d fermen t a t i on equ i pmen t .
T E C HN I CA L I NF ORMAT I ON C EN T E R , u. s.
SOLST I CE D ES I GNS, I NC . , P. 0. Box 2043, Department of E nergy, P.O. Box 6 2 , O a k r i dg e ,
E ve r g reen, Colorado 80439 sel l s p l ans for 6, 12 Tenn essee 37830 p u b I i s hes " F u e l f rorri F a rms-A
and 18 inch con t i nuou s sti l is, pressure G u i d e to Sm a l l Sca l e Ethano l Produc t ion" . T h i s
cookers, fermenters a nd a l l rel ated e q u i pmen t .
T he i r design p ac k a ge i nc l udes b l ue p r i n t s ,
opera t i ng h a n dbook , spec i f i ca t ions, e t c . They
a l so offer com p l ete tech n i c a l and consu l t i n g
serv i ces a nd a fue l a l cohol workshop.
f
208 ALCOHOL MANUAL
pub l i cat ion con t a i n s u seful i nformation a n d i s

free, i n I i m i ted q ua n t i t i e s .
DESERT PU B L I CAT I ONS, Cornv i l i e, Arizona

86325 p ub l i shes " Brown ' s Al cohol Motor F ue l "
by M i ch a e l H. Brow n . T h is is an exc e l l en t
b ook o n s ma l l -sca l e p roduc t i on i n general a n d
e n g i ne mod i f i ca t i on i n p ar t i cu l ar .
OTHER SOURCES i n c l ude the U . S . Department of

A g r i c u l ture ( volumes of i nform at ion were
p u b l ished during 1 9 30-50) , your s t a te a g r i
c u l t u re serv ice, a n d y our l o c a l I i br a r y . A l so,
a g row i ng number of u n i vers i t ies and
a g r i c u l t u r a l o r g a n i za t ions a re offer i n g courses
a n d sem i n a rs on a lcohol p ro d u c t i o n .

Alcohol Fuel 1980 - Mathews

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'

The Manual for the home

COVER PHOTOGRAPH: Experimental 3 column still built t o check

© Copyright 1980 J.A. Diaz Publications

All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be

Ten Speed Press

Library of Congress Catalqg Number 80-51216

C h a p ter 1 4 5-1 Hy drometer 60

1 4- 1 Cross Sec t i on of Large C o l umn 1 47

Production of a I coho I fuel c a n be approached

There are many t h i ngs to cons i der before

fuel is needed, how much t h e feedstock wi I I a l cohol f ue l , i t shou l d be consid ered on l y a

cos t , how much the eq u i pment w i l l cost, and p r i mer .

In the fo l l ow i n g pages, have t r i ed to

There i s not h i n g new in the use of a l cohol as

A l coho l s in general and ethanol , in parti­

2 ALCOHOL MANUAL ALCOHOL MANUAL 3

OTHER ALTERNATIVE FUELS acetone, acet i c acid, and a number of other

eq u i pm e n t a n d energy required to compress the resou rces and u t i l ized in ex i st i ng motor

is bet ter s u i ted to s t a t i onary power requ i re­ W h a t seems t o b e n eeded i s a v eh i c l e t h a t c a n

men t s t h a n for use as a motor fuel . S t i I I , if u t i l ize a w i de v a r iety o f f ue l s s u c h as coa l ,

manure or other s u i t a b l e b i omass i s a v a i l ab l e , or w hatever m i g h t be a va i l ab l e--for i nstance,

m e t h a n e gener a t ion sho u l d be considered . somet h i ng s i m i l a r , t o t he 1 897 S t a n l ey St eamer!

Much research has been done to find better

Aside from a I coho I and, perhaps, methane,

A I coho I and g a so I i ne, desp i t e t h e fact that

F igure 2-1 : CHE M I CA L STRUCTURES octane and so on . As we con t i nue w i t h even

four h y d rogen a toms . Next comes e t h a n e w i t h t h a t the h y drocarbon octane, w h i ch represents

h y d rocarbon mo l ec u l e , the h y d roxy l combines w i t h a h y d rogen a tom to

F i gure 2-2: PHYSICAL PROPERT I ES of sl ightly better w i t h 60% of t h e h e a t v a l ue of

lleat:ing Value (Btu/lb) appear to be poor cho i ces as motor f ue l s .

Octane Number (Research) 80 100 106 106

Energy of Stoichiometric When a fuel i s b u rned, a certa i n amount of

the q u a n t i t y of a i r a nd the q u a n t i t y of fuel

Referri n g to the I a s t en try in F i gure 2-2, an and thus h as about 90% of t h e h e a t v a l ue of

VOLATILITY the l iq u i d to a gas. This addit ional heat is

OCTANE RATINGS the s c a l e , n-hep tane i s consi dered to have a n

F i gure 2-3: OCTANE I NCREASE of WATER INJECTION

Du r i n g Wor l d War I I, the m i l i ta r y made

50 i njection systems are a va i l ab l e that can be

40 i ns ta l l ed in a u tomob i les . The fact is, that

Percent (by volume) Ethanol in Blend do i ncrease power. Referr i n g back to

coo I i n g and m i sf i r i n g • from i m p u r i t i e s l i k e s u l fur' a n d a d d i t i ves such

Pure a l co h o l , as a n a n t i -po l l u t ion fue l , wou l d F i gure 2-4 : ENG I NE PERFORMANCE of

eas i l y meet and exceed all e m i ss i on req u i re­ ETHANOL vs GASO L I NE

ments without t he need for exo t i c and cos t l y

wou l d be in t he u se o f e t h a n o l to r ep l ace lead

t h e octane n umb e r . � 120

H av i n g l ooked at a few of t he b as i c factors 90

PERCENT EXCESS All< l'i:RC£NT EXCESS fUEL

f u e l /a i r m i x t u re. and the resu l t a n t lowering of overall therma l

2/3 carburetor need l e valve was a d j usted to

of water i nj e c t i o n prob a b l y i n f l ated the Many s t u d i e s o n how the v ar i ou s b l en d s affect

ENGINE PERFORMANCE-ALCOHOL BLENDS output, the tests are equa l l y a m b i guous .

the octane r a t i n g of u n l eaded gaso I i ne so t h a t

genera l l y a four-cy l inder e n g i n e w i l l t o l erate PURE A LCOHOL

there w i l l be no prob l e m t h a t c a n ' t be so l ved b e l ow zero weather.

a n d p l a y i ng w i th t h e t i m i n g a l i t t l e . O t hers , DIESEL ENGINES

pression r a t i os to 1 0 : 1 . F inal l y , i f you h a v e w i th an i nject i on system sti l l reta i n comp l e t e

F i g u re 3-1 : BAS I C I NJECT I ON SYSTEM F i g u re 3-2: I NJECT I O N of TURBO ENG I NES

ALCOHOL/WATER MIXTURE SPRAYED INT O AIR F I LTER

METERIN G VALVE (CONTRO LLED BY

FUEL PUMP -----..

�;;;;;;;::::;;;...;;;(141 ALCOHOL/WATER MIXTURE

A l coho l s in general and ethanol , in parti

is bet ter s u i ted to s t a t i onary power requ i re W h a t seems t o b e n eeded i s a v eh i c l e t h a t c a n

eas i l y meet and exceed all e m i ss i on req u i re ETHANOL vs GASO L I NE