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FUEL .REVOLUTI'ON..
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America Can Be Energy Self-Sufficient

l \

Michael Wetls Mandev~lle

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AMBI:X '

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JACKS".;N COUNTY LIBIU.RY SYSnM
•I s Mer,FORD, ·-OREGON ,.
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ja 2 0 ::'11 9
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 Make,_,. lbu~ Ow11,
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c,Alcohol:fuel
FARMERS, TRUCKERS, RESEARCHERS , EXPERIMENTERS, ENGINEERS, BUSINESS:-
MEN, POLICYMAKERS , DO-IT-YOURSELVERS: Thi s book is for you---A
complete guide to· the basics of alcohol fuel ---how to make it, how,
I
to use it, and how td invest in it , from the back - yard producer td
the small farmer , c~ercial profit- seeker , and organizational po ~-
icy- maker. i I
'
AMERICA! KISS OPEC AND THE OIL BARONS GOODBY, FOREVER

An economic revolution is about to _sweep the North American

continPnt--- alcoho l produced with solar energy from any plant mat-· L
ter , -~ ·. , waste \vood , paper, garbage, etc. ·<...../

This revolution will end America ' s oil imports and end the !
energy shortages for a generation . The r esult will · be a sudden un~
. . ..._,
le ashing of new economic growth and strength as the billions of ! I •

dollars now spent ove.r seas for oil wi ll be spent on America • s farms
··t<?? . prqdu~;:e·. a1cohol for heating , autos, and many other fuel needs. : . \....1
·'-J
Th:-...s economic movement is made possible by the simplicity, 1 ,....__,
efficiency and low costs of solar- powered biological f ermentation !1
_and distillation of any plant matter to produce alcohol ---greens, !
roots, juices·, stalks or woods . This astounding technological brekk- . '-'
·throu.gh is· so simple and inexpens ive, that it will sweep the entirk \..)
world within a decade . i

vi
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Solar Alcohol
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THE FUEL REVOLUTION
v
0
:_)
by
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'I Mich ael We lls Mandeville
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J Illus trations by
.._J

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Daniel G. Youra
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J
0 AS SOCIATE EDITORS :
0
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Marla S . Brandt . . . . . . . . . . . . . copy , editing, business
0 Patricia J. Thomp s on ........ design , editing , layout
:.J Burt We b b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . research , writ ing , format
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AMBIX ·-
..._t P.O. Box 353
..._,
Port Ludlow WA. 98365
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FIRST EDITION: October 197 9
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©COPYRIGHT 1979 AMB I X,
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This book may not b e reproduced or copied ,
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i n whole or in part, without the writte n
'-' permiss ion of the authors .
-.,../

....... ·
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 1•v••~:tt••t
Table Of Contents ~
TABLES & DIAGRAI4S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 2

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1 WHAT IS ALCOHOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1. Historical Sketch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 9
2. Chemical Structu re .... .. . . ... .. ... . . . . . . . ... . 13
3 . The Al cohol Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .. .. 15
4. Properties of Al cohol ... . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7
5. Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ··. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 ALCOHOL FROM AGRICULTURE . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .

1. Organic Alcohol .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
26
2. Go Yeast, Young Man .. .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 27
3. Alcohol= Carbohydrates . .. ~ ..... . .. .. .. .. ... . 28
4. Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5. So lar Biomass Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6. Enzyme Hydroly sis ..... . .... . . . . . . . . . .. .. ... . . 39

3 HOW TO MAKE ALCOHOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

l. Mechani zed Reduction of Plant Matter . . . . . . . . .
51
57
2. Cooking the Mash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 58
3. Balancing the Acid Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4. Preparation of the Malt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 60
5. Final Mixture of the Mash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6 . Fermen tation ..... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...... . .... . 62
7. Distillation of the "Bee r" .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
8. Recycling t h e "Beer" Resi due . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9 . Obta in You r Permit . . . .. . . . ..... . ...... .. .... . 75

4 HOW TO USE ALCOHOL .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... .. . . . . . . .

1. History of Alcoho l as a .Fuel . . . . . . •. . . . . . . . . .
79
81
2. Ethanol is the Pollution Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 '--'
3 . F u e l Ch aracteristics . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 ~

4. Gasoho l . ...... . .. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .... . 90

5 . Ethy l Al coho l: The World 's Safest Fue l .... ; •. 91
6 . Switching to Alcohol Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 92

5 ALCOHOL ENERGY SELF-SUFFICIENCY . ·•.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 95

1. En ergy Self-Sufficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2. Biomas s System Model . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • 99
3. International Sc e narios • • . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . lOO
4. Sol oho l .. . ... .. . . .... . ..... ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2
5 . Cybern ated Solar Biomass Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 5

6 POLICY NEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . ... . .

1. Environmental Impact .... . .. ... .... ... . . . .. . .
10 7
109
2 . Econ omic Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . ..... . . . . . . lll
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3. Solar Alcohol Field Deve l opme nt·········~··· 112
4. Techno l ogical Deve lopment . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3 \J
5 . Experime ntal Research Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3 -....,/

6 . Governmenta l Ro le . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 ~

v
GLOSSARY 117
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 21 \,_..

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 LIST OF TABLES AND DIAGRAMS ~

Uses Of Ethyl Alcohol .•.•....•..•.•.....•••.....•.•..... 21

100% Solar Ethanol Process Model .••..•..•..•..... . •••... 24

Solar Productivity .................................... .. 33

Solar Biomass Energy .•....•....•.•.••.• •.. •...•.....••.. 34

Biomass Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Biomass Energy Processes .....••.•.•••...........•.....•. 36

Enzyme Hydrolysis .•.•....•.•... . ...•....•..•.••....•.•.• 39

Enzymatic Conversion of Waste Cellulose ..•.. • ..•........ 40 - 41

Trichoderma Viride Mutant Bibliography ...•.••••..•••..•. 43

Ethanol Yields From Crops .•••••..........•...•..••.•.... 45

BTU Energy From Selected Material . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

:.,__)
Plant Energy Values ....•.•••....••..•.••.•••... ; .....•.• 47
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J Grain Alcohol Cost . .•.....•.•••.•........•. .. ..• • ••..... 48
J
Effect Of Corn Cost On Ethyl Alcohol Cost ...........•..• 48
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Analysis Of Corn Residues Le ft From Corn Manufacture ...• 49
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'-" Alcoh o l Yield From Sucrose ........•...•.....•..••••.••.• 49

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100 % Solar Ethanol Process Model ....•.•..••.••....•.••.. 52
0
\....J Equipment For Production . . . . . . . . . . • . • • . . . . • . . . • • . . • . • • . . 71
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Biochemical Test .••••....................•..•.•. ~ ..•..•. 72
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0 Commercial Enzymes • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • • . . . • . . . . 7 3
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\._.. Ethanol - Methanol Comparison ••..•.•........•.........•. 89

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1 00 % Ethanol Solar Processing Model ••.......•.•.•. . •.... 96
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'-" Biomas s Sys tern Mode 1 . . • • • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . 9 9

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Conve~sion Chart ........•....•....•......•..•... ·. .• . . . . 123
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Welcome to the solar- alcoho l movement . And welcome to the

good news about a tremen dous new field of profitab l e opportunities
for ending our strategic weakness from dependency on foreign oil .

In this book we have outlined and set forth the basics for an
entire field of exploration and deve l opment in simpl e, plain , ev-
eryday l anguage with abundant illustrations to detai l and show
every aspect.

The information contained within is wholly adequate to set- up

all details and so l ve all problems in the operation of maki ng alco-
hol for fuel.

We have found that tremendous information gaps exist in the

field of a l cohol. .Myths abound , and the established a l cohol in-
dustry does not truly understand itse l f and the dynamics of change
around i t .

It is our hope to help serve as a focal point for the emer-

gen ce of the solar alcoho l fie l d by synth esizing and communicating
t h e basic information, experience , and activi ty connected to the
development of solar alcoho l as an industry .

We can do thi s by creating a succinct mirror of the who , what ,

where, when, how, and why of so l ar alcohol . This document will be
rapid l y expanded to mirror the field and bring everyone in the data
base into contact with millions of readers world wide .

We will evolve a new document about every three months . Pre-

viou s b u yers can rece ive thi s expand i ng data base by subscribing
to our news l etter.

We very warml y encourage you to submit copy , artic l es , sugges -

tion s , i deas , c riticisms , products, designs , photos, stories , etc .
We especial ly want to hear from individuals---experimenters, re -
s ear c hers , do-i t-yourse l vers --- pion eers---entrepreneurs---cornrner-
V
cial operators , al l the multitude of inveterate tinkerers a n d cur -
iosity seekers. We want individual s to share their tangib l e exper-
·ien ces with al l aspects of a l cohol, especiall y so l ar alcoho l. V

Good luck, · ~~~

~u,_vk ~
Michae l We lls Mandevi ll e ,
Executive Editor
3

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J
 Summary Prospectus

The entire alcohol field is being rapidly reconceptualized

by the application of solar and biological processes. There are
several n ew scientific concepts and methods in the management of
agricultural "biomass energy" factors and yields. This new tech-
nology shows promise of reducing material costs for alcohol pro-
'--' duction to a fraction of the current costs of grain alcohol.
\../ These factors combined will allow the retail price of alcohol to
.._; drop significantly to near the market cost for ga soline .
\...)

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Demand for alcohol, priced near the market for gasoline, will
prove far in excess of the development of supply. It is a nearly
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ideal fuel, clearly superior to gasoline. It burns cool , quiet, \'
'- and more efficiently and completely than gasoline. Properly burned,
..__, its primary emissions are carbon dioxide and water vapor , both to-
.._,/ tally beneficient for the environment .
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A major switch over to alcohol fuel will end air pollution
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problems as we know them today. Costly automobile emission devices
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can be eliminated. High performance , high-compre ssion alcohol
'- engines will be simpler, less expensive, and will give better fuel
--' mileage. Public identification and acceptance of alcohol wi ll be
-..../ extremely favorable and very strong.
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All plant matter can be used as a source of alcohol- --leaves,
'-' roots, stalks, wood, branches, paper, garbage---with conversion
-...; yields from 20 % to 70 % depending upon plant matter.
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4
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 Most organic alcohol is produced as an extension of the
brewmaster's art ... the making of fine beer, wine, and whiskey.
It is produced from expensive materials such as wheat and corn.
Most of the materials are very inefficiently used (20% or less)
to optimize "taste", and the alcohol produced is at the level of
purity one would want for a hospital. Alcohol as a fuel can be
the cheapest rot-gut possible, produced from waste and garbage,
with simple, crude processing techniques. And the entire operation
can be fueled by the sun (free energy) rather than by huge burners
fueled by oil, coal, or natural gas. Costs can obviously be
driven down by large percentages.

Rapid exploitation of new, low-cost, relatively small-scale

technology is the key to developing alcohol supply in massive
amounts in a short-term period of 5 years.

'--( ,

The equipment needed for the solar biological fermentation pro-

cessing and distillation can be installed using simple materials
and off-the -shelf components, modules and ancilliary equipment.
The primary need in this field is not the development of new tech-
nology, but the adaptation and application of the existing princi-
ples, techniques, and hardware.

Alcohol production technology can b e adapted to produce at

extremely small scales (a gallon a day in a backyard) or at any
scale up to the size of a major petroleum refining complex. A tre-
mendous market exis ts fq,r. this technology---from farmers to agri-
cultural coops and municipal garbage dumps (75 % of city trash is
convertable to alcohol) . Taxi-cab fleet owners are likely to be
in the market for both the t echnology and the farmland,
5

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 ~
·Myths. About Alcohol
Alcohol can be described with a few simple s pecific charac-

* teristics. False. "Alcohol" is . a

Methanol and ethanol , the two mqst
for fuel, have many very important
istics as fuels.
very complex chemical family.
common types of alcohol us ed
differences in their character-

Ethanol is expensive. False. Ethanol made from grain is ex-

V
** pensive.

There isn't enough extra grain t o make very much ethanol.

Therefore, the supply of gasohol (10% ethanol). will remain insigni-
ficant. False. Ethanol can be - abundantly supplied· from crops which
are far more productive of alcohol than grain.

* There isn't e nough extra acreage to increase production of al-

cohol. False. There are, as every farmer knows, large inventories
of tillable, non-productive land.

* Agricultural productivity varies greatly from season to season,

therefore, alcohol is unreliable as a major source of fuel. False.
All plant matter, from the crop in the field, through food and wood
processing centers, to the home and the garbage dump, including
paper and woodchips, can be converted cheaply to alcohol. These
sources alone can supply at least 10% of the liquid fuels necessary
to power the United States, year in and year out. This alone is
like the discovery of a "Saudi Arabia".

*
Even if large quantities of alcohol could be produced, it would
require burning large quantities of imported oil to create the heat
V
necessary to make alcohol. This would dramatically worsen the bal-
ance of payments. False. Alcohol can easily be produced by inex-
pensive , e nergy - free, solar heating and distillation technology; in
most areas of the country.

*
Large-scale e thanol production will worsen inflation by driving
up food prices. False. Farm production of alcohol will substan-
tially decreas e farm operation costs and provide fa rmers with cash
for a product made from their waste materials or from non-food crops
planted on their unused or "subsidy" land. For dozens of major
crops, such as fruits and vegetables, the waste of imperfect, over-
V
ripe, insect or fungus damaged, and storage-spoiled crops is a major
cost factor, varying often from 30% to 60% of the total crop. A
guaranteed return on all such waste, by converting it to alcohol
cash, will decrease and stabilize food prices.

j
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WHAT '
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IS v
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'-':

ALCOHOL? "--'
'-'
v

1 Historical ,Sketch
2 Chemical Structure

3 The Alcohol Family

4 Properties of Alcohol

5 Processes V
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.V

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~I
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1 History Of Alcohol

Since ancient times, man has known the fine art of producing
alcohol. The knowledge of fermentation goes back about 6,~00 years.
Fermentation scenes are depicted on Mesopotamian pottery dating to .
4200 B.C. Vessels containg residues of starch, grains, and yeasts ·
have been uncovered in the tombs of Egyptian kings. The juices of
berries and fruits to on a new "spirit" of life when allowed to age
for a short period of several days. Thanks were offered to the gods
for this magical happening.
J

\..../
The Egyptians venerated Osiris as god of plant life and alco-
holic beverages. The Greeks worshipped Dionysus as god of drama
and wine , while the Romans gave thanks to Bacchus. In India the
Hindus had Varuna as their god of the arts and patron of drinking.
V
r

ALEMBIC

The first distiller may have been an Egyptian alchemist boil-

ing wine while trying to transmute metals. Possibly an .Arabian
observed the vapors rising from his alembic, a small portable still.
The first bre wmaster may have been Chinese or an Indian Hindu.

Although it is impossible to precisely identify the date,

ethyl alcohol is one of the oldest known organic chemicals . The
first "spirits" were probably produced in a crude still or alembic.
All the ancient references discuss alcohol in the form of a bev-
erage. Aristotle mentions a wine which produces a "spirit".
Pliny d e scri bes a "wine which can be ignited". This would have re-
quired a high alcohol proof of lOO% or more.

9
V
 ,....
J
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AQUA VITAE
........,
.......
WATER OF LIFE
....,
,-.
,....
"-"
"-"
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'-"
The knowledge of "Aqua Vitae", the water of life, gradually
._... spread throughout Europe. Production of distilled spirits became
a full-scale industry by the 17th century .
...._,;

'-' During this period of history, the average man could not read or
'V
understand books. Th~ scholars of this period were monks and church-
men, therefore, the art of distillation was practised mostly in the
v monasteries.
\...;

Distillation was not known in Europe until the 12th or 13th

v century. The secrets of the art were closely guarded by the alche-
mists and religious leaders during earlier times. Introduction into
'--·
Europe is attributed either to Spain in about 1150 or to the Cru- ·
V
sades, which brought back the secrets from the Holy Land. The first
\_, written reference to the purification of alcohol was by Master Saler-
.._, us · in (d. 1167}. The French chemist Arnold de Villeneuve wrote
........ in Venice in about 1478. In 1500, Hieronimus Brunswick published
"Liber de Arte Distillansdi", containing e l aborate information on
'-"
distillates of herbs.
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V

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v
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•
Distillation in America originated with the Indians. The Aztec
'-"
o f Mexico , Inca of Peru, and other tribes of both North and South
v
America knew about distillatiqn from an early period in their his~
V tory. All Indian tribes had fermented drinks that came from the
'-' natural plant life in their environment. Maple syrup, malted and
\...1 fermented corn, berries, and ground acorns were used.
V
The son of Christopher Columbus wrote in 157 1 that his father
.._,..
reported an Indian drink made from ~h e marrow of mag uey which had
'-" bee n boiled with water and spices. In Mexico today, the fermented
.._., sap of maguey produces pulqne, which is distilled into mescal .
,......
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•. '-"

.· Alcohol Research·
.......,
Even though the knowledge 6f the art of distilling "spirits" .........
was known in anc1ent times, the chemistry of alcohols was not ........
· studied until almost the 19tl?. century. In 1796, Lowitz appears
to have produced an approximation of ethyl alcohol by using potas- '-.J

sium carbonate as a dehydrating agent. In 1808, Saussure determined V.

the composition of ethyl alcohol . and discovered its relationship '-'
to ethane. In the 1900's, the process of producing ethanol from u
the hydration of ethylene was discovered by scientists like Fara-
day, Berthelot 1 and Hennell. · '-..,/

V
In 1812 Taylor determined that "wood spirits ", or m~thanol, '-'
was similar to ethanol, but that they had separate identities. Du-
mas and Peliqot determined the composition of methanol in 1831.
The first patent on the synthesis of ethanol was obtained in
1861 by Cottele. The earliest Russian reference to ~thanol appears
t6 be that of Goryainov in 1873. It was not until ~92971930 that
the first industrial production of et.hyl alcohol was .started in .the
United States. In 1948 the first direct .catal ytic hydration of e-
thyl alcohol b ecame a commercial operation .

U.S. A.

The United States government entered the bu.siness. of' .P.r?ducing

alcohol 1 when, in 1906·, the u. s. Industrial Alcoh;2,1 Company ';Has
formed through the passage of the Tax-Free Indus£ria1 a nd Denatured
Alcohol Act. The government company manufactured industrial a lco-
hol by fermentation .
/
The prohibition era inadverten tly prepared America for World
war II. Thousands of illegal stills were op~ta t~d on a small J
scale with cheap, primitive eq uipment. ·Knowledge ofthe alcohol
process became wide spread .

During the war years , 1941-1945, the production and usage of

alcohols-increased greatly. Because the war economy made demands
..._;
on the ethyl a lcohol industry, beverage manu f actures were asked
to convert their production to ethanol, and the gove~nment also V
built a numbe r of alcoho l-f rom- grain plants.

11
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,....
Synthetic Processing
._I

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'-'

V With the advance s in c h e mi ca l research after the war, the

'-'
synthe tic production of eth yl a lcohol gained conside rably over na-
t u ra l or fermentation method s . Before World War II, about 70 % of
,..
-.../
e thanol produc t ion was t hro u gh the ferme ntati on of molasses. Then
'-" t h e balance s h ifted. By 1 965 , over 90 % of America ' s ethanol was
being fo rmed b y synthetic processes.
V
V
During the 1960's and 70 's, the production of synthetic al-
cohol has continued t o grow to s upply the various n eeds of indus -
V try fo r the solvent and cleaning actions of alcohol.
u
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0
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By the e n d of 1 973 , it became clear from th e Arabs ' oil em-
'-' barges that the u. s . n ee ded to e ventua lly de ve l op n ew fuels to re-
-.../ place imported oil . Substantial private and publi c funds became
'-../
available for n e w research and t ri a l p ro jects and research programs .
.J By 1 979 , many p ilo t proj e cts in al l aspects of alternative
'-../
e n ergy production h ad made ava ilable a br eadth a nd depth of infor~
u mation about viable new e nergy ind ustri e s. A so l ar- h eating e n ergy
tec hno logy had mushroome d into a huge n e w industry capable of re -
V engin eering almost any aspect of American ind u stry a nd socie t y ,
paving the way to cheap processi n g costs for a l cohol. Vario~s pilot .
v projects , especial l y. Spano , et . al. ' s , Trichode rma Viride project ,
had a l so demonstrated that any cheap , a bundant plant matter coul d
\...../
5e u sed as a raw materi al fo r cheap alcohol production in a ny part
J of the world in a ny n ecessary s i ze sca l e .
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2 Chemical Structure -\_.

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'-"
V
Al cohol is very basic, dynami c combination of three elements : I._..

carbon, hydrogen, and water. It is an " organic" mo lecule , which .._,

means that its only "natural" occurance is as a byproduct from 11..._.
organic processes.
'-"'
The term "alcohol " really refers to a very complex and very V
numerou s family of chemical compounds, numbering into thousands of u
different liquids, oi ls, and solids. V
'-
The most basic and simplest alcohols are ethanol and methano l,
known as monohydric alcoho l s . Their formu l as a re written a n d drawn 'u
thusly : v
V
v
Ethanol Methanol '--
.._,
V

® ®
I I
®I IJ
IJ
J

®-@)-@)-€8 ®-@)-·@8 '-

~

I I I '-'
® ®
-.J

® V

I'-'
~

,__.,
CH OH
3 -...,;

.....,
Alky l Group Meth anol Base
Methano l Base """
'>../
with 2 hydrogens with 3 hydrogens

'v""
I'-'
Eve ry alcoh ol con tains t h e following c h emical bas e :
.._;
J
iJ
I
-®-€8
J
._,
J

I v
~
This is called the methanol group The three bonds can be ........
joined to h ydrogen atoms or a l kyl groups in any combin ation.
13 Y'

V
...,_.
J
 Alcohol Is ...

The definition of alcohol depends on the interests of the per-

son defining it. Ethanol has many names including: ethyl alcohol,
J e thyl hydroxide, grain alcohol, methyl carbinol, spirits of wine ,
_) cologne spirits, fermentation alcohol, h ydrated oxide of ethy l and
aqua vitae. These names are drive d from different industries and/
or sources of alcohol.
J
V
The t erm alcohol in general use refers to beverages. In man-
._) ufacturing, alcohbls are almost as important as water as an or-
ganic solvent. For example, medicines, lacque rs, rubbers , clean-
J e rs·, deodorants, and many other essent.ial products of modern life
J need alcohol as a solvent.

J
V
J
-....;'

J
-.._}'

J
.._;

'-"
:)
J
:)
-.../
.......
v
J Ethanol is produced in a number of ways. The oldest s ystem
utilizes fermentation of carbohydrates followed by distillation to
\../
y ield concentrated ethanol. This pro~ess is the source of all bev-
J erage alcohol and ·some fuel. This can b e carried out on a small
v scale or on a huge industrial basis.
......
V
Ethanol can, a l so , be produced syntheticall y from various or-
v '
"'\ ganic compounds including hydrocarbon byproducts o f the pe trochem-
'""' ical industry. This i~C C.1,1rrently a n industrial source of che mical-
J ly pure ethanol. '' · ·
V Tens of billions of ga llo n s of alcohols are produced each year
'-" ' in the United States. Almost every industry and consumer product
'-" require some type of alcohol chemical. Alcoho ls are essential to
......_;
o~r way of li fe .

'"""'
'-"
'
'-.../ 14
V
'--'
L
3 The Alcohol Family

Essentially, the carbon atom will hold or crystallize oxygen

or hydrogen to it, either as separately linked atoms, H or o,
or as a linked pair of atoms (OH ) .

Although a pure carbon crystal is a solid, the presence of

hydrogen and oxygen makes it a fluid, very similar in some ways to
water.

The one or more carbon atom(s) can occur linked with other
carbon atom(s). Also, linked would be several hydrogen atoms to
each carbon atom, and with one hydroxol (OH) attached · to one of
each carbon atom. This gives rise to a very large family of al-
cohols; e ach with a different combination of carbon atoms and hy-
droxols.

ee®
I I 1
®-@-€B-@
I
e
To further i n crea s e the versatility of the alcohol family,
each hydroxol can be linke d to another carbon atom which is in
turn linked to other carbon and hydroge n atoms. The numbe r of hy-
droxols in the total molecule rise to a number of differe nt types
of alcohols---monohydrics, dihydrics, etc.

The OH portion of the stru cture is a hydroxol·. It is corn-

posed of o n e atom of oxygen and o n e atom -of hydrogen. If i t had
one more atom of h ydrogen, it would be water (H o).
2

@-@8
I
@-@B
15
,......
;:: ~-~--

,.....
'-./ ,J"
-..../
~----------------.....- - - - -
~

c.Alcohol
''Corn · o · cop1a
. ,,

16
4 Properties of Alcohol
Alcohols can be grouped into several categories as hydroxyl
derivatives of hydrocarbons. Characteristics include:
l. Number of hydroxyl groups
'V
a. monohydric
'v
b. dehydric
v
c. trihydric V
d. polyhydric
2. Structu-re
a. primary
b. secondary
c . tertiary
3. Molecular configuration of hydrocarbon portion v
V
a. aliphatic

-
V
b. alicyclic
c. heterocyclic V
d. aromatic """
"-.,/
e. saturated
v
Ethanol ~s said to be a primary a lcohol because it has one .._,
alkyl group joined to the methanol base and two hydrogens. \...,;

R~C-OH
~ -~ ~
R-C-OH R-c~o~ V
u

H ~ R '-" '
\...)

V
V
PR\MARY $ ECoNDARY lt.Rf\ARY
ALCOHOL ALCDl-<OL ALCDHQL
V
Secondary and tertiary alcohols have two and three alkyl V
groups repeatedly. Alcoho ls can act as bases or acids . Primary -...../
alcohols are. the most acidic.
V
In general, alcohols occur in nature in plants as a constitu- V
ent in essential or volatile oils in the flowers, leaves, stems, V
and other parts . Essential oi~s contain many different compounds
and are not a good source of alcohols. Various alcohols are ex- V

tracted from convenient plant preparation . Ethanol occurs rarely .......

in nature. Animal and vegetable oils contain the combined alco- ........
hol glycerol which is essential to all life on earth. ......,
17
'-"
"-.,/

' J
 ( Properties of Alcohol

Methanol Gasoline Water

CH 0H
V Chemical Properti es 3

% Carbon
% Hydrogen
% 0 xygen
i
Molecul ar Weight:

b y weight
46. 1

52.1
13.1
4.7
32 . 0

37.5
12. 6
49 .9
v aries

85 - 88
· 12-15
infinite
18.0 15

C/H ratio) 4.0 3.0 5 .6 - 7.4

StoicRiometric Air
to Fuel Ratio 9 .0 6 .4 14.2 -15. 1

Physical Properties
Solubility in water infinite infinite 240 ppm
Water solubi lity in in f inite infinite 88 ppm
Surface Tension
(dyne/cm2) 23 22.6 54.9
Specific Gravity 0.794 0.796 0 . 70 -0. 78 1.0
Liquid Density
3 48.8 43.6 approx.
lb/f t 49. 3
lb/gal 6 .59 5.63 5.8 - 6.5
psi @ 100°F (Reid) 2.5 4.6 7 - 15
psi @ 77° F 0.85 2 .3 1 . 3 approx.
Boiling Point ( ° F) 173 1 49 80 - 440 212
Freezing Point (°F) - 173 -14 4 -70 approx . 32
Dielectric Cons t ant 24.3 32.6
Viscosity at 68°F (cp) 1.17 0 . 595 0 . 288 1.0
6 6 16
Specific Res istivity 0.3 X 10 0.14 X 10 2 X 10

18
 -
V

Ethanol Methanol Gasoline Water

Thermal Properties
Flammability Limits
( % by Vol in Air) 4.3 - 19.0 6.7 - 36.0 1.4 - 7.6
Specific Heat
BTU/lb - °F 0.60 0.60 0.48 1.0 ._,
Autoignition Temp ( OF)
Flash Point(°F)
Coefficient of Thermal
685
70
878
52
430
-50
- 500
-
J
'-'
Expansion @ 60°F
& one Atm 0.00112 0.0012 0.0006
Lower Heating Value
BTU/lb 11' 5 00_ 8,600 18,900 (Avg)
BTU/gal 84,400 56 , 560 115,400 (Avg)
Highe r Heating Va lue
BTU/lb @68°F 12,800 9,770 20 , 260 ._)I

BTU/gal 3 , 37 8 124,800 '-'

Heat of Vaporization V
..._.,
BTU/lb 396 506 150 940
BTU/gal 3 , 340 3,340 900 7,802
Octane Ratings
Research 106 - 108· 106 - 108 91 - 105
Pump (Ron = Mon)/2 98 - 100 99 - 101 86 - 90
v

V
V

V
V
v
V .
V
.....
19 v

~
 ALCOHOL AS AN
INDUSTRY
5 Processes
GRAIN FERMENTATION ALCOHOL
V
Process Steps:

1. Transportation of molasses or corn/grain.

V
2. Storage of molasses or corn/grain.

3. Grinding, etc. of corn/grain.

4. Hydrolysis of starch: heating of cornmeal with malt or

acid to make mash.

5. Growth of ye ast fermentation cultures.

6. F e rmentation of molass e s or corn mash.

7. Distillation of alcohol from the "beer", which is the industry

/ name f or the f erme nted mash of molasses or corn.
V
8 8. Recovery of byproducts.
0
0 9. Addition of denaturants.
J
SYNTHESIS ALCOHOL

L Liq-uification of the petroleum gases containing ethyl e ne.

2. Rectification to produce pure ethyle ne and pure ethane.

, 3. Dehydrogenation of ethane to ethylene.

V
4. Este rif i cation of strong sulfuric acid by ethane.
5. Hydroly s is of diluted ester to alcohol and diluted sulfuric
acid.

6. Rectification and purification of alcohol.

7. Concentration of diluted sulfuric acid to strong acid.
8. Re cove r y of byproducts .
20
V
~--~--------------------------~~--------------------------------------------~
Ethyl Alcohol ::
ETHYL ALCOHOL to which have been added sufficient denaturants to render
i t entirely unfit for internal use. The sale is not restricte d---it
may be sold in any quantity without permit .

GRADE NO . COMPOSITION SOME TYPICAL USES

2A 85 gallons of Ethyl Alcohol Cleaning fluids, paint
15 gallons of Wood Alcohol varnish industry

90 gal l ons of Ethyl Alcohol .Solvent for varnishes

2B 9.5 gallons of Wood Alcohol in electrical industry _
0.5 gallons Gf Pine Oil V
l.,;
2C 90 gallons of Ethyl Alcohol A general solvent
9.5 gallons of Wood Alcoho l Anti-freeze
0.5 gallons of Pyridine
Bases V
V
20 90 gallons of Ethyl Alcohol A general solvent u
9 gallons of Wood Alcoho l Paint, varnish and
l gallon of ~e n z ine furniture trades, shel-
lac, Anti - freeze V
2E 90 gallons of Ethyl Alcohol J
9 gallons of Wood Alcohol A general solvent V
1 gal lon of Solvent Naphtha Furniture trades
lv
90 ga llo n s of Ethy l Alcohol Hospital s
lA 10 gallons of Wood Alcohol

lOO gallons of Ethyl Al cohol Perfume ·manufactur-

lB 800 gra ins of Amorphous ing.
Quassin

100 gal lons of Ethyl Al cohol Flavoring of tobacco

lC 4 gallons of Tobacco
De naturant

lOO gallons of Ethy l Al cohol For the manufacture

12 lbs. Iodine of iodine .
lD 12 lbs. Potass ium Iodid e 1--/

90 gallons of Anydrous . Ethyl· Special research work

iJ
lE Alcohol in universit ies iJ
9 gallons of Anydrous Methyl ~
Alcohol ~
1 gallon of Benzol
~ I
-../
98 gal l ons of Ethyl Alcohol Rubbing alcohol
lF 1 gallon of Diethyphthalate ~
1 gallon of Butyl Chloride ~
500 grains of Brucine Sulphate ~
3 00 grains of Quassin
~
90 gallons of Ethyl Alcohol Special solvent pur - ~
lG 10 gallons of Anhydrous Methyl poses a-
21 ~-

'---------------------~------------------------------------~~ .........
'--"r"""'"

~,-... ~--------------~----~
V

ALCOHOL
FROM
AGRICULTURE

1 Organic Alcohol
2 Yeast
3 Alcohol = Carbohydrate
4 Photosynthesis
5 Solar Biomass Machine

...._
6 Sugar Cane/Sugar Beet
V
...._
7 Enzyme Hydrolysis
'-"
v
...._,
...._
"-"'
'
'--'
\.._.;

'-'
,.....
J
,...._
\../
23
'-""
......
........
....
:: I
'-"

r-'
'-"i
r I
'-"

100% Solar· Ethanol Process Model

Solar
DISTILLATION AUTO FUEL

v PLANTS
GRAINS
SUGARS
GRASS
SEED
. FLOWERS
LEAVES HOME HEAT
BERRIES
STEMS

FUELS

Animal Feed

("
Corn· o · copia
24

'--'
-.. i_. _ _ _
 ·. '-"'

V
GROWTH POTENTIAL OF THE ALCOHOL AGRI~INDUSTRY

SUMMARY PROSPECTUS

Industrial fermentation alcohol is largely an extension of

the brewer's art. The technology has not essentially changed in
30 years.

It is a highly complex process designed to yield a very pure

product from certain trad{tionally available grains, especially
corn and wheat.

Existing industrial plants could easily produce alcohol from

nearly any type of grain, molasses, or plant matter with a relative-
ly high content of sucrose sugar. But this technology is not very
well suited for the making of cheap alcohol fuel from non-tradi-
tional crops and plant matter.

Existing industrial plants require heavy inputs of energy for

all stages of the process. Typically, such plants are a very large
consumer of electricity and fuel oil to heat all steps of the pro-
cess, especially the distillation process, which is a heavy energy
drain.

This fermentation process consumes so much energy, that it

is estimated that only .48 to .78 BTU's of energy in the form of
burnable alcohol is produced for every l BTU energy input.

Currently , the whole economics of alcohol rests on the use

of expensive grains, imported sugars, and processing technology
capable of producing fi ne liquor s .
V
Obviously, under these conditions, alcohol must always be
an expensive form of energy, more expensive than the hydrocarbon
fuels and grains which are currently used to produce i t.

The high cost of industrial alcohol has evoked considerable

controversy in congress and the federal governme nt. As congress
prepares to dole out 88 billion dollars for a synthetic fuels
program, "corn" states such as Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas, and others, V
are pressing for a large, expanded alcohol f uel industry. This
would be a fuel i -ndustry that would mainly produce ethanol from
grains and waste crops for use as an additive in Gasohol .
V
There is reluctance, however, to create an even larger al- V
cohol industry, given the high cost.of grain ethanol and the grow-
ing population demands on grain as a food source . V
'J
Regardless of the merits or limitations of grain ethanol as a ~

gasohol additive, the futur e of alcohol does not rest on th e econ- '-'
omics and politics of grain food and fuel oil. ........,
V
Alcohol for fuel can b e abundantly produc ed u s ing simpler
equipment, cheaper plant materials (not in competition with food ........
stocks) , .and easier processing steps than are typical in tradi- '-'
tional 20-million-gallons-a-year fine liquor plants.
25 '-"
~

: ~
........
,.....
........ I
'---'
\.._..,
,-..
........
alcohol biochemistry
r
--.J

........ e e
I I
e-®-®-m
'-"
'-" l
'--'
I I
"--'
'-' ~~
:I
e e
'--'

-
[I 1
\.._..,
.-... 'I
v :I
Ethanol: oRGANic ALcoHoL

v ii
~

Alcohol can be formed bio logically by one basic equation, con-

,,il verting glucose (a monosaccaride carbohydrate) to an equal number
'-"
'-" l of alcohol molecules and carbon dioxide molecules.
-
,
V
' r,I This is expressed chemically as:
'--'
~I
'-" I
........ II
V

'-"
II This means literally that one sugar crystal molecule was brok-
en and two carbon dioxide molecules in the presence of an "enzyme".

--- I'
An enzyme is a complex chemical molecule produced by all l iying
cells to help control their environment and functioning.
........ I
'--' I Actually, the organic process may be more like thi·s
---
,..._
-.._./

........
monosaccaride alcohol acidic glycerine
V acid
\.....1
Literally, for every two mono-sugar crystal molecules and one
'-" water molecule, the yeast creates one alcohol molecule, one acidic
'--'
.-... acid (vinegar) molecule, two carbon dioxides, and two glycerine
molecules.
v -
"--'

The "zymase" enzyme is produced by yeast cells. · Zymase lit-

'-"
erally destroys the sugar crystal, but the cell does not consume
it or eat it in any way.
\..../
-..
........
........
'-'

'--'
®I
........
'-../

'-
........
-®-®-1 11
SACLH'AR:OSE-
GtCOlAP
V

\..../

V
26
,"•_,--
€B 0
'-'
-.......;
..... ~
L..
 2
Go Yeast, Young Man

The yeast plant is a unicellular organism which reproduces

by sprouting buds and then separating. It reproduces every few
minutes, thus, a small yeast population can grow geometrically in
a few hours to fill and overwhelm a large vessel of plant matter
and water, capable of consuming all the plant carbohydrates .(sugars
and starches) in as little as 48 hours.

Yeasts are very specialized organisms. They can vary quite

significantly by types, each type having different effects and
rates of effects on the environment.

These differences are basically caused by the different types

of enzymes they secrete, and the different proportions in which
they secrete various enzymes.

Brewers yeast is the traditional specialized type for making

alcohol. It secretes significantly more zymase enzyme than wild
strains of yeast.

Yeast cannot grow i n pure sugar. Other substances are needed

to serve as nutrients for the yeast. There may or may not be enough
of the right "best" nutrient for yeast in any given p lant matter.
Thus, special enrichment may need to be added.

The yeast continues to grow until the liquid medium (their en-
vironment) reaches an alcohol solution of 5 %. The ir growth levels
off rapidly and the remaining sugars are very rapidly consumed. Wa- -../
·'
I

ter can be added to dilute the process if the alcohol builds up to '-'

20%, beyond which the y east dies off_

'-'
27
v
.._,
-.J
"-"
,...
v

v
r
........
3
v,.....,
'-I
,.-.
........
........
l
tl
f:\
ll
l
alcohol carbohydrate
'-" ij Glucose sugar is part of a very complex family of organic com-
...._,.
""'
...._,.
!
:j
pounds known as carbohydrates. Al l carbohydrates are composed of
three base atoms: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
~
I' These three e l ements can be joined together in a variety of
...._,.
'l ways to form literally thousands of different compounds. Usually ,
...._,. il the hydrogen and oxygen are present in the same proportion as they
v ·I are in water, hence they are known as: carbo hydrates .
V

'-'
-..
'-'
I MONOHYDRIC AlCOJ.IDL: A HlfDI(DCARflo~ Wtn-1
V
'-"
ONE- H'!t>RD6E..N REPLACEl> t?'t' AN -0).1 GROUP.
........
........ C2H5 0H
\.....)
. Er~ANDL
\._;
........
........
\....; In a sense, water is " crystallized" by carbon, and the differ-
v ent sizes and s h apes whi ch the carbon-water crystals can grow into
number into t e ns of thous ands. The crystals are not truly compounds .
'-'
of water and carbon , because t h e oxygen and hydrogen atoms are both
'-' attached to the carbon. The two gas e l ements can b e separately re-
'-' moved or switched aroun d inside the molec ule when one s imple mole-
'-' cule combines with another to form a larger molecule .
......
'-"
'-"
...._,. ALC.OHOLS A'RE DER.tVAn'JES ot- wATER ( Hl.O)
u/HlC~ lJNE.. HYDRO~E.N tS ~El>LACO
'-'
v
'-'
'"'
BY A H't't>R..otARBO\J RA{)lCAL, R:
'-'

'""'
'-" H-0\4--..•R-OH
..)

'-' Each size, shape, and part i cular combination of carbohydrates

.._... has an unique name. But there are three basic types :
'-' sugar
V
starch
'-'
cellulose
'-'

'-' Plan ts spin a very complex life o u t of t h e carbohydrates . They

'-' create nourishment . vi~ the sugars , bul k via the starches, and struc-
...._,. ture via the celluloids •
-
'-'
~

........ 28
v
\......

~
,.·

SUGAR : The Building Block V

v
Sugar is the basic building block for all carbohydrates for all
of the structures in plants.

The sugars are the simplest, being either one base molecule of
glucose, or being two or more glucose molecules being joined togeth-
er (fused, crystallized) to produce a slightly more complex sugar ,
such as sucrose. In this fusion process, one water molecule escapes ~

hydration
+ C6Hl2°6 C12H22°11 +
monosaccharide disaccharide water
glucose sucrose

Alcohol can only be formed by breaking up glucose . But glu-

cose is not found abund antly in plants because the plan t s rapid l y
convert the glucose into sucrose, and the sucro~e into starch .

Fortunately , the yea st e nz yme secretes another enzyme , In -

vert ase , which breaks sucrose into glucose a lmost as rapidly as it
breaks glucose into alcohol .

What h appens c h emically is a process of "hydrolysis" : a water

molecule is added back to the sucrose to turn it into g lucos e mo l e -
cul es . So the entire fermen tation process with brewers yeast looks
like thi s :

Invertase
+ +
Zymase V
+ V
V
V

Th e r e is a very important moral in the action of yeast . What

one ce ll can bui ld, another cell can tear down. Theoretically ,
there is no foreseeable end to - the spec ialized reacti ons of con-
struction and demolition which we can harness cells to perform in
creating e nergy and materials.
3SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS333SSSSSSSSSSSSS93SSSSSSSSSSSSSS3SSSSSS933ESS
29
 OH

.........
,..., STARCH: The Energy Storehouse
'-"

'-" "
The starches are complex structures which are built up from
'-" the · sugars. The principal chemical r e action is a process of h y -
......... dration. During the joining together of the base sugar molec ules,
water molecules are l ost. The starch es are generally taste less,
V
and, though insoluable in cold water , can be broken up a n d partly
V reduced to s u gar b y cooking in boilin g water .
V

'-' When treated with acids a n d enzymes , starch mo l ecules take on

V
water mo lecul e s and break down i n to base sugars , especially d i-
sac~harides (sucrose). This is another, more complex examp l e of
'-" hydrolysis.
\J
r-

11
The enzyme d i astase appears to be the mos t product ive enzyme
'-"
I for breaking down starch .
'- To find diastase, we have l ooked traditional l y to plants, not
.-
......... yeast. Diastase i s found abun dantly in all seeds and grains. \-lhen
'-" the seed b e gins to germinate , the new, vital g r owth cells must li-
'--' tera l ly break out of a rigid cocoon of starch.
\...I
The growth ce lls· do this by secreting the diastase enzyme.
'-' Diastase literal l y dissolves t h e starch molecul es of the shel l
V,.... and converts it to sugar, whi ch is then consumed by the growth ce lls.
'-'
...__, Hence , to convert the starch of a p lant into s u gar , and then
into alcohol, a third enzyme is used, u sual l y at the same time
V
as the yeast fermentation. CII 20H
V
0-- t
V
0--~~C/ H'\:11
..........
I
cu2
'-"oil . Ho/
c -- c
'"\. /
u
'-"
CH2011 I 11 H
\...)
t -- o e--o
'-" H./H '\11 H/ H "" H
\....-

V
_ _~/ v~_H-~/C\(
bAgH
AmyiV5C: segment uf a ltnc:ar chain H OH H OH
'--' Amylopecton: se&ment of branched chain

.........
Starch: A c h ain po l yglucosidic macromolecule with around 400 to
.J
500 units and consisting o f v ary ing propor tions of amylose
V and amy l opectin.
J ' 30
V

'-
L
 CELLULOSE : A New Source

Cellulose is the primary building block of the plant's final

s hape . All the fibrous and woody material is cellulose. It is built
up from starch compounds, the molecules of which are now quite large
compared to the sugar molecules.

Until the past decade, there was no simple biological method

known to rapidly and easily break cellulose into ethanol, other
than the use of inorganic techniques, such as charcoaling it, or
dissolving it in compounds of hydrochloric or sulfuric acid.

TRICHODERMA VIRIDE MUTANT

New techniques have been e stablished recently which harnesses

a fungus, Trichoderma Viride, to eat starch and cellulose .all the ·
way down to pure g lucose. This substantially increases the total
amount of alcohol which can be produced from plant matter. Sever-
al other biological methods are known for breaking starches and
celluloses into sugars. Unfortunately, these methods are not very
well known or appreciated for their elegant, effective, and essen-
tially inexpensive simplicity.

31

'------------------------------------------------------------------'-v
....._,

'--·
....__,

'-....- I
v -!

\..)
4 ~hotosynthesis
1....1

....._,
Eat the
....._,
All energy created by plants comes from the sun. Photosyn-
'-../
thesis i ·s the method by which plants create sugar, their basic
1....1 building blocks, from the sun's light.
....._,
"--'
Photosynthesis means, literally, synthesis by light, or a
joining together of molecules by using the e nergy in light. All
'-'
sugar, starches, and cellulose is, thus, essentially a manifes ta-
tion of solar e nergy. It is literally stored in " crystals " from
V small simple molecules to extremely large , very complex molecules.
v
V All hydrocarbons in coal and oil are partially trans f orme d
......, carbohydrate , starch, and cellulose molecules built up by plants
.._, from photosynthesis. These accumulated through geologic time in
jungle and marsh conditions and were eventually buried and , under
\._.,
the weight of rock, transfo'rmed into oi l and coal .
........,

-......- The k ey to biomass productivity, thus, lies in the p rocess of

'-..,; photosynthe sis. How much ethanol can be obtained from the biomass
v is essentia lly a q uestion of how much sugar and simple starch can
be created by living organisms.
"--'

....._,
........
v
........
'-"
1....1

'--':'
,-
....__,

V In every green l eaf li e s the secret of e ne r gy for our e nti re

........ ecosystem . Within the microscopic plant cells are chloroplasts
'--'
which are biological mo lecules. Each chloroplast contains the g reen
pigment molecule , chlorophyll. The c hl orophyll molecule e n ab le s the
chloroplasts to chemically a bsorb carbon dioxi de a nd water , and
"-' then to combine into n ew carbohydrate molecul es and oxygen .
'-...)

'-' This process is chemicqlly expres s ed as:

'-'
1....1

\....-

1....1

'--"

'-"
'-'
Thi s means literally that si x carbon dioxide molecules were
-.......
added to 12 water mol ecules to turn into one carbohydrate molecule,
..J six oxygen mo l ecul es, and six water mo l ecules .
\....- 32
'--"
....._,
L
 V

This chemical equation is the basis for all life fo.tm:s beyond
the bacteria, yeasts , and molds. (the.. fun gi fami.ly.). . And it has
been the basis for the greater portion of energy which humanity
has used up to the present time.

The c 6 H12 o 6 is glucose, the base crystal from which all the
V
other sugars, starches, celluloids, and hydrocarbons are produced.
V

The ques tion of biomass energy is essentially an engineering V

problem. There are many, many equally us e ful solutions, varying
upon climates, traditional agricultural practices, technological V
skills, mate rial availibility, etc. V I

One method of getting right to the h e art of the matter is to

examine the efficiency of various plants. What is their compara-
tive production of photosynthesis?

Their "solar productivity" is the measure of how much of the

sun's energy actually striking and absorbed by the plant is turned
into carbohydrate .
.sssssssssss~ssssssSSS6:ssssssssssss::ss::ssssssssssss:ssss:s:ssssss:ssssssss::sssssssss::::::

SoLAR PRooucrrvtn'
% of light used
EXPERIMENTAL productivity
Laboratory
by plant in Al gae(Chlore lla) 20-35
photosynthesis Dim light experiments 15-20
productivity
ECOSYSTEMS productivity Field
Chlore lla silts ponds 3.0
Annual desert plants (peak) 6-7 S e wage ponds 2.8
Tropical rain forest 3.5
Freshwater springs,Florida 2.7 CULTIVATED CROPS
Polluted bay,Texas 2.5
Coral reef 2.4 Peak of Season
Beech forest ,Europe 2.2 Sugar beets,Europe 7.7 V
Oak forest,U.S. 2.0 Sugar cane,Hawaii 7.6 V
Perennial herb,grass 1.0 Irrigated corn,Israel 6.8 v
Cattail marsh 0.6
Lake ,Wisconsin 0.4 During Season
Sugar beets,Europe 2.2
BIONES Rice,Japan 2.2
Sugar cane,Java 1.9
Open ocean 0.09 Corn,U.S. 1. 6
Arctic tundra 0.08 Water hyacinth 1.5
Desert 0.0 5 Tropical forest
plantation 0.7

Thi s type of anal ysis, v e ry quickly and very clearly, points to

algae, as the accompanying chart shows.

In the long run, algae fermentations in huge refining complex-

es may provide the most efficient, l east costly, most ecologically
sound solutions. These / oould be built mostly of glass and concrete
(cheap , abundant materials) and s ited near the coast lines of de-
sert r e gions.
33
 r
.......,

'-"~

..._.,
v
'-'

i
'-

'-' ~ - ~
,...
...__...

'--" Solar Biomass Energy }

V

'-'

'-'
'-'

'-'
\,_;

V
-
\.../

'-"
SOL Al.
'--'
........,
E.tiERG'I -
\'J x l 0 ~o Kca\jvR
........,

'--'
'-'
........,

'--'
........,

'--"
-
'-'
'-'

'-../

'--'

'--'
........,

-'

'--"

'-'

'-'
........,
-
'-'
'-.../

'-' .oo3- .3s%

'-'

'--'

'--'

'--"
'--"
'-.../

.._..
GROUN1> PHOTOS'INTHES\S
V
....
LOSS
........,

'-.../
34
........,
Iilo.
 '-.../

"'

"-"
._

)
._

tt Biomass · Fuel
I

/~
1 ACRE

~
GRAIN CROP .

~ (!'f 1:..
' ,¥ DIRECT ..
'//(/ ·// BURNING

4{ ~
ttr #' r B
GRAIN

;z~
30 BUSHELS "-"
i
.
'I

I .
0.9 TONS '-.../

... ....

'« STILL
uI
,
ETHYL
ALCOHOL
85 GAL/YR.

e
\.....
V

"-"
......./

tJJ
..._;
MASH
BYPRODUCT Fodder ..........
l /4 TON/YR.
V

tl
v
1 ACRE AVERAGE YIELD '-"
WOOD LOT 3.5 TONS WOOD/
ETHYL .........
YEAR ALCOHOL
lOO GAL/YR. ""-"

'-"

~
V
ne '--'

~ _. ........

DIRECT
BURNING
V
v
V
V

V
V

End produtts and rou~h energy equivalents of various biomass

conversions for 1 acre grain f ie ld and woodlot.

35
'-.../

\J

'-'

V
'-.../

,_...
Biomass Energy Processes
'-"
v
'-../

v
'-'
.......... "FUEL"
CONVERSION
'-../

\J
- Biological Mechanical
..........
Combustion
----------------------------------------------~~~ELECTRICITY
t
1._,.

(f)
v (Power Plants)
(f)
\._,I

'-'
Anaerobic Digestion 1 ·
1-------------------------~------------------~~METHANE GAS
'-"
v Yeast Fermentation Distillation
'"/
H
1---------------------------------------------~-~~
- ETHANOL ALCOHOL
'-.../

v
Photosynthesis
~--~---------------------------------------------~~FOOD, FUEL
\...,.

.......... fFertilizer
v
'-.../
Aerobic Digestion
...,... COMPOST .
'-'

'-"
..._, w
Hydrogenation
...,... CRUDE OIL
-'-" 8
Cf.)
Pryolysis ....
'-.../
_ ,... CHAR, GAS, OIL
v .:X:
'-' ~ Incinerat ion
"
..... ELECTRICITY, HEAT
'-' ~

u (Powe r Plants)
'-'
'-'
..........
H

z
Anaerobic Dige stion
.... METHANE GAS
,....
t
.:X:
'-'
v
'-"
t.9
A::
Destructive Distil-
lation
... l
Me t hyl Alcohol
0
'-'
'-"
'-.../
Fungus Fermentation
...
r Ethanol Alcohol

'-'
'-.../ ...
'-.._../ .....
'-'
'-'
.._,
\../ 1
·Anaerobic digestion also produc es
\._,1 liquid fertilizer, "sludge ."
36
'-'

'-'
l
5 Solar Biomass Machine

The biomass is the total production of all plant matter during

the year , from algaes to grasses and trees. Observing nature, it
is obvious to see , truly immense quantities of ethanol can be pro-
duced by the biomass.

Agriculture can s upply significant increases by using its large

inventories -of vacant land. Science can supply significant increases
in productivity of sugar harvests and fermentation yields. And so-
lar bioengineering can supply indefinite quantities in the future by
designing automated algae production/fermentation systems. V

How much biomass should be used for alcohol production cannot

be defined in the abstract . The question comes down to a complex
equat ion of:

local and regional (

materials

interlinked bio-technical
fermentation processes
local and regional
) -- Each region and producer will
defin e the answers different l y V

cost factors
V

The true practical capacity of the agri-industry to produce in- V

expensive alcohol is completely unknown. There does not exist any
comprehensive practical information or summary comparisons in the
entire field .

{ A basic framework for e xplor-ing alcohol sources has been V

su~arized in the BIOMASS SYSTEM MODEL (see Chapter 5) .

._! .J

"---"
\...)

.v
V
v
\...)

V
V

V
V
\...)

37 V
'-./

'--'
 Sugar Cane/Sugar Beet Productio~
The be~t mateiials for a l cohol
read ily jump to mind . Instead of re-
fining sugar cane and sugar beets
into molasses , sucrose, and byproducts ,
a nd then s h ipping it long distances
for fermentation in tradi tional liquor
·Sugar Cane p l ants , the entire plant can be rapid-
ly reduced to alcohol on site. Exist-
ing sugar refining mills could provide
a ll the basiG machinery necessary .
Plant productivity could be made very
high .

The sugar industry has reduced

the cos t of sugar from $4.00 lb i n 1830
to the current retail price of approx-
imately $.25 per lb. It has been so
s u ccessfu l as an industry that a large
world over- suppl y exists , depressing
prices to almost ruinous levels .

Sugar Beet The conversion of sugar crops to

a l cohol production wou l d have two very
important benefits :
a. Some local and regional areas
in the wor l d could b e e nergy
self-suffi cient.
b. Th e over-supp l y of sugar would
disappear , raising sugar prices.

QN USING GRAIN

It doesn't make s e n se to ferment

a l coho l fr o m grai n starches . They are
too expensive .

Bu t , grai ns can supply the dias-

tase enzyme to crops which are more
abundant s t arch produc ers per acre .
Grain If the grains are used as malt
addi tives ( 10 to 15%) to starchy tu-
bers and stalks , the actual alcoho l
produ ctivity of an acr e of wheat wi ll
be mul t ipl ied many fold.

I n direct alcohol production from

grain shou l d decidedly lower the costs
of a gal l on of ethanol .
38
 ; JW¥ :::?i±!l\ 5!! il ¥ ?&? ••

Experimental
I··

7 Enzyme Hydrolysis

A new process for industrial production of ethanol has been

created at the Army Natick Development Center in Maine . . This
p rogect will create and operate a commercial- scale plant to bio -
l ogically conve rt wood chips , corn cobs , o l d n ewspaper, and other
waste materials into ethanol. Gulf Oi l Chemicals int e nds to use
this technology in its " Project Ce llulose".

Essentially, a mutant strain of mold has been isolated which \._

produce s e nzymes that destroys all starch and cellulosic structure '---'
by what is known as hydrolysis. In the hydrolysis process , the ..._,.
starch and cellulosic mo l ecul es break back down into their basic
building block , g lucose . (sugar). '-'
'--"
\..../

'--

\.../

\..../

CELLULOSE - A CHEMICAL AND ENERGY RESOURCE \._/

\.....-

' I· '-../

CEllUlOSE '-..J.

\..../

\..../

Enzyme Hydrolysis '-..

...._,
'-'
\._/

Animal Food GLUCOSE = Human Food \.....-

. "(;-
~----
~
. .lr-----..a... ~,~e
.
'-'
\._/

V
~ ·,0 ~
~· .~ Microbial Conversion <>~ -
~
'-
C # I
~0 t -J

'-'
Chemical Single Cell Protein Fuel (Ethanol) '-'
Raw Materials Solvents (Acetone) '-'
Chemical v
Antibiotics '--"
\..../
Enzymes
"--
'-'

'-'

39 '-'
... '---'
'-../
 EIIZYMATIC CONVERSION OF
WASTE CELLULOSE TO GLUCOSE SUGAR

MILLED
CEUULDSE
WASTE
IECYCU
EllYME AID

- UIIUCTED
CELLULOSE

+r:.: ; ;:- . .=9 CD

r .,&.
r-----,
F'ILTEI

..., SIIIGLE CELL

PIGTEIII
lllYM£

~
GLUCOSE , .
(IIOTN) REACTOR SYIUP . . lLCOIIOl
'---~~---" fEIMOTlnDI
15

0 •.. CD ~ PIOOUCT

r :~: ~-: .
F'EIMOTEI
CIUO£
GLUCOSE

PUll
8LUCOSE

TIICII00£111&
YIIIOE
MUTAIT

l. A. S'i""'o· J . Mtdeiros, M. Mandels

U. S. ARMY NATICK DEVELOPMENT CENTER
N1tick, MA 01760

V
Process Steps:
V

V 1. Transportation of garbage, p a per refuse, wood, chips, dry

p lant matter, any waste a gricultural r e fus e .

2. Milling of plant matte r into a grai ny material.

3. Cultur ing of t he mold p r eparation and enzyme "broth".

4. Hydrolysis ferme ntation in v at .

5. Filtering the glucose yield.

6. Recycling mate ri als .

40

.J
 y
ENlY MAll~ CONVERSION Qf. WASTE CELLULOSE
V

V
WASTE CELLU~OSE
CHLULOSE

V
STORAGE
V

V
SHREDDER V

ENZYME SOLID
MILL REACTOR WASH
V
V
STORAGE GLUCOSE SYRUP V
V

GLUCOSE SCP ETHANOL CHEMICAL

RECOVERY FEED STOCKS

V
v·
V
In collaboration wi th Fermentation Design, Inc. of Bethlehem, Pa., we h8Ye engineered Requests tor information. process data or for the opportunity to visit and obwrve
a high ly instrumented pre-pilot p lant consisting of such equipment as: the process have come from Japan, Indonesia, India, Austr11lia, Italy, Formosa, Venezuela,
Guatemala, the Philippines. Mexico, Brazil, England. Finland. New Zealand, France,
Sweden, Germany, Hong Kong, Israel. Russia, Canada, Hawa ii, Puerto Rico and Malaysia.
1. Fennenten
2. Enzyme reactors
Many U. S. chflnieal companies, pulp aod paper mills, processors of agriculture ·
3. Holding tanks and aux iliary vesoels
products and various state and municipal governments have V'town definitive interest in
4. lnstn.omenution modules
the exploitation of this process. Because of this interest, the U. S. Army Development
5. Substrote handling and P<eparation equipment
6. Enryme recovery and concentration equipment Center are working very cl05ely with several industrial firms to assure the transfer and
translation of this , _ technology ro commercial scale as soon as practicable for the benefit
The design and construction is such thot the most sophisticated fermentation of the nation and mankind.
techniques including batch, continuous and semi-continuous processes can be studied.
In conclusion we at Natick are convinced that:.
Because of the SOPhistic~tion of the monitoring and control instrumentation. both
the fermentation and the enzyme hydrolysis will be oontin uously monitored a nd controlled
1. The vast quantity of cellulose produced annually should be exploited as
in order to opt imize the output of th e individual processts.
a source of energy, food, and chemical feedstock.
2. The enzymatic hydrolysis of such energy rich material as cellulose to glucose
Figure 1; shows the simp~fi ed tchomotic of the process. The initial copacity of
is technically feasible and practically achievable on a very large scale by 1980.
this equipment is the processing of 1000 lbs. of cellu tose per month. With minor
modifications it may be possibte to inc~ase its capacity to two. three and possibly 4000 3. The exploitation of our fossil fuel reserves be it coal, oil shale or other,
lbs/ month. Th is equipmen1 is now operational at Na1ick. may satisfy our energy demands for the next five to ten decades, however. we believe
that the ultimate long-range solution to the world's energy problem is the development
Upon completion of these studies, it will be possible to enginf'tr with CHtainty lanjer of practical and economical processes capable of harnessing the inexh&ustible energy of
pilot demonstration plants and possibly full scale plants. .the sun.

The poten tial world·wide impact of this process on the food, energy ond ecology
We at Natick Development Center look forward with great expectation and confidence
problems has been recognized both nationally and internationally.
to the opportunity of contributing to the effort that will assist th!s country and the world
in the solution of our pressing food , fuel and ecology problems.

41 '-'
V
,

The enzyme is highly specific to cellulosic and starch mole-

cules, so the resulting production of glucose is fair ly pure and
even in composition. In 48 hours, the mold enzyme can convert 100%
of the cellulosic material into glucose at a temperature of 50 ° C,
usi ng normal atmospheric pressure.

The glucose yield' is about 111 % of the weight of the cellu-

lose used. Since all plant matter, including wood, paper, and
garbage, is up to 70 % cellulose (dry weight), Trichoderma Viride
completely changes the economics of alcohol production.

One ton of waste paper will produce 1/ 2 ton of glucose which

can in turn be f e rmente~ into 68 gallons of ethanol. Every garbage
dump in America can turn into a profitable alcohol producer, since
75 % of all urban r e fuse is essentially cellulosic or starch mater-
ial.

The mold is cultured with shredded paper and a small a mount

of ntitrient salts . It produce s an enzyme "broth" which is fed to
the milled garbage. This consumes only water, not the enzyme,
which is only acting as a catalyst.

In 48 hours, the sludgy mass can be filtered, with the enzyme

being r e cycled along with any ce llulos e which was not consume d.

Simple, large scale processing pla nts can produce vast quant-
ities of glucose for fermentation into a lcoho l. It i s estimated
by Spano, et. al!, that 100 billion tons of cellulose is v irtually
produced each year. If we could but harves t 1 % of the cellulose
for alcohol production, we could produce 68 billion gallons of eth-
anol. .

*L.A. Spano, J. Meiros, M. Mandels; u.s. Army Natick Deve lopment

Center, Natick, MA 01780
 . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY
TRICHODERMA VIRIDE MUTANT

1. H. C. Honet and J. B. H~ard "New Energy Technology"_(M!T Press, Cambridge.'

1971) p4.

2. Reese, E. T .; Mandels. M., and Weiss A. N. 1972. Cellulose as a novel enefliY soun:e
in Advances in Bioengineering. 2. Ed. T .' K. Ghose, A. Fiechter, and
N. Blackbrou!tl. Springer Vertag. 1B1 - 200. ·

3. Katz, M.; and Reese, E. T: 1968. Production of Glucose by Enzymatic Hydrolysis

of Cellulose. Applied Microbial. 16: 419-420.

4. Mandels, M.; and Weber, J . 1969. The Production of Cellulases. Adv. Chem. Series
95. 391- 414.

5. Ghose, T. K. 1969. Continuous Enzymatic Saccharification of Cellulose with Culture

Filtrates of Trichoderma viride OM6a. Biotech. Bioeng. XI 239-261.
V
6 . Ghose, T . K.; and Kostick, J. 1969. Enzymatic Saccharification of Cellulose in
Semi and Continuously Agitated Systems. Advances in Chem. Series 95. 415-446.

7. Ghose, T. K. ; and Kostick, J. 1970. A Model for Continuous Enzymatic

Saccharification of Cellulose with Simultaneous Removal of Glucose Syrup.
Biotech. Bioeng. XII 921-946. 'V
8. Mandels, M.; Weber, J.; and Parizek, R. 1971. Enharooed Cellulase Production by V
a Mutant of TrichoderrTY viride. Applied Microbial. 21 : 152-154.

9. Mandels, M.; Kostick, J.; and Parizek, R. 1971. The use of adsorbed cellulate in
the continuous conversion of cellulose to gluco·se. J. Polymer Sci Part C. No. 36:
445-459.

10. Ghose, T. K. 1972. Enzymatic Saccharification of Cellulose. U. S. Patent 3,642,580. V

Feb 15, 1972.
V
11 . Mandels, M.; Hontz, L.; and Brandt. 1972. Oi~sal of Cellulosic Waste Materials
by Enzymatic Hydrolysis. Army Science Conference -Proceedings June 1972. V
Vol. 3. AD .750 351 : 16-31.

12. Mandels, M.; and Kostick, J . 1973. Enzymatic Hydro-lysis of Cellulose to Soluble V
Sugars. U. S. Patent 3,764,475. Oct. 1973.
V
13. Reese, E. T. Private Communications.

14. Goldstein, I. S. 1974. The Potential for Converting Wood Into Plastics and Polymers
or Into Chemicals for the Production of These Materials. NSF-RANN Report,
Dept. Wood and Paper Science, School of Forest Resources, North Carolina State
at Raleigh, NC.

15. Brandt. 0 .; Hontt, L.; and Mandels, M. 1973. Engineering Aspects of the Enzymatic
Conversion of Waste Cellulose to Glucose. AIChE Symposium Series 69. No. 133.
p127-133.

16. Mandels. M. ; Hona, L ; and Nystrom, J . 1974. Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Waste

Cellulose. Bioteeh. E"ij. 16: 1•11 - 1•93.

'>...../

43 v
·- ·,_
v
V
 CHARACT-E RISTICS ·FOR HTGH YIELDS OF · ALCOHOL
c___...----- ~

1. A perennial
Agri Industry Harvest Note:
2. More than one yield per year

3. Disease and insect free For tubers, harvest before the flower~
go to full bloom. The plant's sugars
4. High natural sugar, the rest will not have turned into starch for
mostly starch the root . For grains, harvest green,
before the grain starch matures out
5. Easy to harvest of the plant's sug?-r.

6. No fertilizer necessary theoretical y i eld of alcohol from:

simple sugars 51.1 % weight

complex " " 53.8% " "
starch " " 56.8 % " "
practical yields:
100 lbs starch = 6 gallons of a nhydrous
ethanol (lOO %)

A COMFREV ~
THE IDEAL PLANT FOR SOLAR ALCOHOL

* Grows almost any place.

* Little irrigation.
* Grows from root tubers.
'-"
* Never needs replanting.
v
J * Roots harvested with potato machinery.
J * Fast growing: 15 to 25 inches every 30 days.
.J * Can be harvested 4 to 10 times per year.
J
* Can be used green , bailed or dried.
'-'

_) * Because of high protein, the residue after fermentation is

excellent animal feed.
J
J
.._) More Information: Western Comfrey, Inc .
J P .O. Box 45
Canby, Oregon 97103
V
44
..._)
--.../

'--'
't.:
 \
ETHANOL YIELDS FROM CROPS Yield of 99 . 5% Ethanol
Average
u.s. Crop Residual
Raw Material Yield (1970) Fermentable· Gallon Gal l on Gallon Solids
(Lbs/Bushel) Tons/Acre) Content Per Bushel Per Ton Per Acre (Lbs/Ton)

SUGAR CROPS:
Sugar Cane 41.1 11.0% 15 623
Molasses 237 gal. 51.0% 70 97
Sugar Beet 19. 1 16.0% 22 420 lOO
Fruit Crops
Apples (48) 14.4 11.0% 0.4 14 207 40
Apricots 5.2 10.4% 14 71 46
Grapes 7.9 11.5% 15 119 76
Peaches (48) 11.3 8.7% 0.3 12 130 34
Pears (50) 6.8 8.9% 0.3 11 78 58
Prunes, dry 2.3 55.0% 72 166 152
Raisins, dry 2.4 62.0% 81 195 166
Grains
Barley ( 48) 0.9 54.3% 1.9 79 71 646
Corn (56) 2.0 57.8% 2.4 84 168 446
Sorghum (56) 1.4 54.5% 2.2 80 111 488
Oats (32) 0.8 43.6% 1.0 64 51 846
Rice (45) 2.3 54.6% 1.8 80 183 520
Rye (56) 0.7 54.0% 2.2 79 55 542
Wheat ( 60)
Tubers and Roots
Carrots (55)
0.9

11.8
58.6%

7.5%
2. 6

0.3
85

10
77

116
538

76
I
Jerusalem Artichokes 9.0 15.2% 0.6 20 180 104
(60)
Potatoes (60) 11.5 15.6% 0. 7 23 263 76
Sweetpotatoes (55) 5.2 23.3% 0.9 34 178 92
These figures are from the Department of Agriculture and are almost
.to. a decade ol d and are very conservative estimates. The use of new
U1
enzyme technology ~ay make possible yie l ds subtantially higher .
( l (. -c ( ( ( l ( ( ( c ( (_ ( c ( ( { -( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( c ( ( ( ( ( ( (
= ~---::. --':::::::". --~ - - - - - - - =- - =-
 BTU ENERGY
from selected material

\
SOLID LIQUID GAS
MATERIAL Kilo- BTUs per BTUs per BTUs per
calories pound gallon cub i c foo t
per gram

CRUDE OIL 18,600 138,000 450- 500

FUEL OIL 18,800 148 , 600 1050
KEROSENE 19,810 135 ,100 2200-2600
GASOLINE 20,2 50 124 , 000 2900 - 3400
LP GAS 21,700 95 , 000 600 - 650
NATURAL GAS (rr.ethane) 21, 500 75 , 250
PROPANE 21,650 92 , 000
BUTANE 21,250 102 , 000
COAL
bituminous 9.2 13,100
anthracite 8.9 12, 700
lignite 4. 7 6,700
COAL COKE; 9 .1 13,000
CARBOHYDRATES
sugar 3 . 7-4 . 0 5 , 300
starch/ce llulose 4. 2 5,800
lignin 6.0 8,300
PROTEIN
grain/legume 5 . 7- 6 . 0 8,050
vegetable/fruit 5. 0-5.2 7,025
animal/dairy 5 .6-5.9 7,850
FATS
ani mal 9.5 13 ,lOO
vegetable oil 9.3 12,800
MICRO-ALGAE 5.0 - 6.5 9 ,500
WOOD
oak,beech 4.1 5 ,6 50
pine 4. 5 6 , 200
al l woods 4. 2 5,790
V
BRI QUETS 8 .1 11,500
ALCOHOLS
methanol 8 , 600 67 , 000
ethanol 12 , 000 95 , 000
BIOGAS(60 % methane) 600 - 650
MISC. WASTES
municipal organic
refuse 2.8 - 3 . 5 400 0 - 5000
raw sludge 2 . 7~5.3 3700 - 7300
digested sludge 2.7 - 5.0 3800- 6900
paper 5.5 7600
g l ass ·5 . 6 7700
leaves 5.2 7100
dry plant biomass 5. 6 8000
'---' 46
 '--'
V
'-'
PLANT ENERGY VALUES
v
'-"
'-1

CROP CALORIE \.....1

CONTENT (A)
COMMODITY '-"
1,000 KCAL/TON .._,
Field Crops:
\.....1
Sugar 3,492.2 V
Corn 3,338.4 v
Rice 3,293.1 '-"
V
Barley 3,166.1 ._......
Beans (dry) 3,084.4 V
Wheat Flour 3,020.9 '--"

Sorghum, Grain 3,011.8 '-"

V
Raw Vegetables and Fruits: V
Beans (green) 1,115.8 V

Potatoes 689.5 V

Grapes
v
607.8
\._.,
Plums 398.7 V
Pears 553.7 '--"
Apples 508.0 '-"
V
Apricots 462.6
V
Oranges 462.6
V
Carrots 381.0 '-/

Grapefruit 371.9 V

Onions 344.7 '-'

V
Peaches 344.7
'-"
Broccoli 290.3 \.....1
Cauliflowe r 244.7 '-"
Melons 235.9 V

Lettuce V
163.3
'--'
Celery 154.2
V

~ied Fruit and Nuts: V

V
Walnuts 5,697.1
\.....1
Almonds 5,424.9 v
Prunes 3,120.7 V

'-"
\....-

'-'
V
47
V

~
 GRAIN ALCOHOL COST
1
Fermentative Conversion Cost of 190• and 200• £roof

EthYl Alcohol from corn

"-..../ (Exclusive of cost of corn)

'--'
J Cents/Gallon
Alcohol
'-"
\.../ 190• £roof (2.62 gallons/rushel)

\.J Base conversion cost 44.2

"-" Depreciation 11.0
($1.95 million/year, 10 years,
'-" 17. 7 million gallons )
..._, 55.2
'-.../
Byprod~ct feed credit :)4.0
\.J (6.8 pounds/gallon alcohol at $100/ton)

Net 21.2
'---"
V 200• £roof (2. 7 gallons/bushel)
\.... Alcohol 22. 2
(l.o48 gallons at 21.2 cents/gallon)
\.J
Cost of dehj'dration
V
.._., Total cost (exclusive of corn, profit,
packaging, am sales expenses)
'--'
'--"
Sept. 1975
'--'
'--'

'-./
I l!!ect or CS!!"!) Cost on Etnvl, Alc9hol Cost
-../
(Basis; 2.7 gallons 200" proof alcohol/bushel)
...._,

I'~
........, ti
Al.llQ!lQl. S<Q:l~~l.sm, ~en~~
\J Pri~Bushe l Corn Conversi Totai' Base Costl/
Do lars
\.J

\.J 55.5 25.4 80.9

\J
!: 64.8 25.4 90.2
'-" 2.00 74.0 25.4 99.4

'
._,
. :1

!l
1:11
2.25

2.50
8}.}

92.6
25.4

25.4
lo8.7

118.0
'-"
,,J

\.J
4i,,, }.00 111.0 25.4 1}6.4

\.J
!ii:~.1 3.50 129.5 25.4 154.9

V ~] 4.00 148.4 25. 4 17}.8

~~
'-../
~~ 11These

t
-.J
costs do not include profits , packaging, an:! sales expenses.
v i
I

:i ?.!
.._J Byproduct grains credited at $100/ton in conversion cost •

V
~I

r'l
Sept. 1975
-.../ ,1
.)
II
-.../
Ref : See Se n ate & Hou se Agricultura l Committee Hea ring s ,
\.J 48 bibliography.
'-'
 - '.'•

ANALYSIS OF CORN RESIDUES LEFT FROM CORN MANUFACTURE*

Mois t ure 9 . 0 per cent

Protein 28.0
Crude Fat 11. 0
Crude F i ber 8.0
Ash 4.0
Pentosans 15 . 5
Lign i n 5. 5
Dextrose . 3. 4
Lactic Acid 1.8
Acetic Acid &

Succinic Acid 1.0

Glycerin 2. 3
.......
Hemicellulose 1.5
Pectin 3. 0 u
Riboflavin 9.0 gamma per gram
V
Thiamin 6 . 3 gamma " "
'-./
Pantothenic Acid 10. l gamma
V
Niacin 63 . 4 gamma " " \.../

v
*Willkie and Ko l ~chov.l942.FOOD FOR THOUGHT.Indian Farm Bureau:28 .
'-../

'--'
\.1
f _,l
''-'
111.u
V
ALCOHOL YIELD FROM SUCROSE*
J

'-'
1 lb sucrose + 5 . 26 lbs water yields: '-"

'-'
Alcohol 0 . 511 lbs
V
Carbon Dioxide 0.492 lbs ~

Glycerine 0 . 034 lbs U

Succinic Acid 0.006 lbs "--"

Fatty Matter & v

.._,
Cellulose 0.013 l bs '-./

'-"
*Willkie and Kolachov . l942 . FOOD FOR THOUGHT . Indian Farm Bureau : 76 . 1'--~

~
._/

49 ~
,....,
V
~
 ~

.......
\../

"-"
'-"'
.
.._,

........

'-'
'-"
r

....
HOW TO
.._,

V
__,
MAKE
'-"

.._,
'-'
ALCOHOL
V
V
V
-
........
'...../

V
V

"-"
,
'-"
1 Mechanized Reduction of Plant Matter
'-'
'--'
...
2 Cooking the Mash
V
....., :
3 Balancing Acid Concentration
'--" 4 Preparation of the Malt
'-'
........
......,
5 Final Mixture of Mash
V
..._,
6 Fermentation
'-' 7 Distillation of the ''Beer''
........
........ 8 Recycling the ''Beer'' Residue
'-"
'-
9 Obtain Your Permit
\.J

'-'
\,_.

'-"
'-"

'-'

'-'
.._,
.....
'-" 51

......,
.........
 PLANT MATERIAL ~

Crusher

I
PRIMARY
V
0\ST\LLATlDN
UN\T
6
•
'•• .SECONDARY
Dl5flLLA11DN
'
6 '- LlN IT

~ ' . -----..:. .
Alcohol

V
FARM WOML
~UE.L
I-4E.f.\T IN(;

52
_ 100% Solar Ethanol Processing Model
 Ethanol Fermentation V

It's very simple. You set the stage for a biological process
to occur. Then you monitor, adjust, and collect the products: al-
cohol and feed stock.

All the real action is accomplished by a horde of yeast. Brew-

er's yeast must produce an enzyme to break the sugar into alcohol
and C02. Literally, only g lucos e sugar can turn into alcohol. Brew-
ers ye a s t also produces an enzyme that·breaks sucrose into glucose .
The action of both enzymes breaks most of t he natural plant sugars
into alcohol.

This yeast fermentation we will call SIMPLE FERMENTATION. To

get the maximum , most efficient results possible from simple fermen-
tation, y ou need to convert all the natural sugars as fa s t as you can.

To maximize conversion, you want the yeast to grow as fas t as

possibl e . This requires very careful (but s imple) cultivation .

You must s et the stage with:

a. a relative ly clean environment
b. ju1t enough nutrients
V
c. rigpt temperatures

The limiting factor is sugar. With simpl e fermentation, you

can get no more alcohol than there is natural glucose or sucrose V
sugar in the plant. But this can be overcome by breaking down V
plant starch to sugar .
V
The greatest % of pl a nt matter is starch a nd cel lulose--- J
up to 9 0 %. Proteins and vitamins are genera lly l ess than 10 %, a l- V
though in comfrey they are 20%. · V

V
By adding an additional enzyme reacti on, you can convert some
V
of the starch into sucrose, which the yeast enzymes turn into g lu-
cose and t h en alcohol. This process i s called COMPOUND FERMENTA- V
TION. V
V
The enzyme diastase provides this extra fermentation. Dias- \._.;
tase i s produ ced by sproutin g seeds to break down t h e starch i nto
V
us eful sugars. If 10 % of t h e weight of mash is in sprouting seeds ,
r there will be enough diastase to break down the mash. S proute d V
I
barley seeds , are especially rich in diatase and a r e the distil- V
lation industry's standard material. .......
V
Obviously , the more glucose a nd sucrose sugar a plant con-
tains, the faster the r eaction. 90% of all glucose ferme nts in V
4 to 6 hours. The remaining 10% will take much longer. V
V
Thus , it is most efficie n t to ferme nt the first 90% of the
glucose and to u se t h e remaining residue as feed stock or recycl- "-'
ing materials. \._.;

53 '-'
 In a practical system, which uses compound fermentation to
also convert the starch into sugar and then ethanol , 48 hou£3 is
the longest necessary time.
There are several ways in which both simple and compound fer -
mentat ion can be designed to maximize conversion of starch into
sugar and sugar into ethanol . The exact process depends upon the
types of plant matter y ou intend to ferment.
In the simplest possible production process, the mash can be
ferme nted without cooking . Both SIMPLE and COMPOUND FERMENTATION
can effectively occur with "raw" mash. This raw mash will take
longe r to ferment than cooked mash, and the alcohol yield will not
be as great.
; Cooking is not at all necessary for speed ing up the fermenta -
V
l tion of the sugars. It is used to speed up the breakdown of the
starch by the diatase e nzy me for the compound fermentation.

The mash is cooked by hea ting it in water, causing the starch

to expand, which allows the starch molecul e s and the e nzyme mole-
cules to come into b e tter contact wi th each other.

This basic process creates all beverage quality beers and wines.
There are lite rally an infinite variety of source materials, brew
receipes, and processing refinements to create any type of brew
desired. Great skill a nd care is required, however , to produce
......-
drinkable alcohol beverages which will not poison or kill the drink -
..._;
er.
'-"
The ferme nted mash is known as the "beer". The · "beer" liquid
can be drained off or f iltered from the remaining solids ---primar-
,.
\.,__.
ily cellulosic material, and then heated and distilled. Or the
-...J entire beer can be heated and disti lled. The distilled liquid (li~
V quor) is generally about lOO proof (50 % alcohol/50 % wate r).
"-"
The resulting "liquor" is the whiskey, rum , and -other hard bev-
V
erage liquors . Virtually as many fine liquors can be ·created . as
'---' there are good tasting plants .
'-'

'-../
It is possible to distill up to 200 % proof (100 % ethanol), but
this requires recycling the liquid solution two additional times. ,
V

'--' The remaining residue is rich in proteins, vitamins, minerals,

V with some remaining starch, all combined with a large mass of waste
'-../
cellulosic material. This is of considerable e conomic value as a
source of nutrients, c.__ A~ C\...t.. A.-L. .-h f2 _+ r. ' f1
'---' .___:__,~ ~. ' - wj~~ -'
V

'-"
'-"
V

-...../

-.._./

54
V

\ I
 Harvesting Energy

MATERIALS

How to select materials for the highest possible net yields

is a complex trade-off of a number of different varibles in a
number of different dimensions. No overview cost analysis exists
in the alcohol field. All existing price estimates are based on
wasteful methods of production, none of which are truly
designed to extract the maximum possible alcohol out of any
given plant.
'v
The main costing strategy can only be to p e g your maximum V
price and then see if you can beat it. The price of gasoline is V
the effective maximum price.

Cost Factors:

Transportation

Purchase costs

Production costs

Critical Systems Cost-Effectiveness Principles: V

V
1. Recycle yeasts and enzymes.
v
2. Eliminate all items transpor ted beyond the region V
V
3. You may use plant matter other than food, crops,
and feedstock. Sugar beets will be hard to beat.

4. Use solar energy for all primary energy inputs.

5. You.,___must tailor y our "mash" ·r eceipe and the exact
pro~ction process to the characte risti cs of the
raw plant material from which you are trying to
brew alcohol.

Energy Requirements:

Heat the Mash Heat the Building Heat the Still

It is possible to utilize solar energies very efficiently to

V
handle all these needs either with individual solar-heating methods
or with one integrated solar water-heating/heat pump system. V

55
 Mash Preparation
-·

.
'--'

The Mas~ Composition

'-" a. water: about 75% by volume

\,....

b. Diastase: 10% by weight , for grains and high starch

plants, tubers, etc . Not necessary with
'-'
sugar cane , fruits, and other high sucrose
plants
........
,..
'-" c. Plant matter: Any grain , tuber , fruit, or gre~n leaf/s talk
\,....
material b efo re plant matures into ripe seeds .
'-'
..... d. Yeast: Brewers yeast .
\.....-

'-" e. Sucrose : Molasses from beet or cane may be added to

'-../
increase the alcoho l yield of a batch for
beverage purposes . It's pointless in fuel
production whe n the diatase enzyme is being
'--"' used to create the additional sugars from
'--' the starches in the plant matter.
'-../

...__. The exact water, yeast levels, ma l ts , and enzymes to be added

must be cus~omized to your particular plant matter to obtain the
'--" ~ . ' : · ·... --
most efficient process .

I
.../

'-.../
Any type o£ p l ant matter may be converted ultimately into
~ a lcohol. There are many excellen t local and regional sources of
'--"'
'I fermentable materials: candy factories, soda pop bottlers, flour
'-' I
1:
mills, cheese plants, dairi~s , bake ri es , restaurants, food proces -
-..../ sing plants, supermarkets, waste fruit, garbage , and paper .
56
"---'
I
I
-..../

'--"'
1. Mechanized Reduction
of Plant Matter:

Mechanical reduction of basic plant matter by grinding, rol-

ler milling, cracking and/or crushing wi l l yield small gran-
uals and free juices which will impr ove enzyme action. The
plant matter does not have t o be ground into a powder.

Methods: Hammer mill

Blender
Garbage disposal
Roller
Compost shredder

Dirt a nd foreign matter must be washed off prior to reductiQn.

An optional prewash with clorox followe d by a clear wate r
rinse will sterilize the exterior of the plant matter. V
V

v
V
-..J

'-"
'-"

'-'
'-"
'-'
v
V
'-'
u
V

'-""
......,
\...,;

V
V

V
. u
'-"

57 '-"'
V
. .._.,
 ·.,_,.·(optional):

a. Boiling: Cooking the mash at 212 ° F (60 min.) will

destroy other yeast, molds , and bacteria.
starches will expand and begin to break down .
Proteins wi ll b e rendered insoluable
which facil itate their removal from the
V
mash and incre ases their nutritional con-
tent for feed.
b. Pressure Cooking: Cooking at 250°F fo r 20 minutes at 15 lbs.
pressure will accomplish the same thing
but require s a lot of energy and complex
equipment which increases cost.
c. Acid Hydro l ys is: Cooking a t 350°F for 30 seconds a t 160 lbs
pressure with a 1 to 4 percent acid solu-
tion will acce l e rate starch breakdown even
more. Some.materials will y ield more fer-
mentabl e sugars this way than, by enzyme
treatment but the extra expense of the
materials, e nergy, and equipment may not
be cost effective .

Sources of Heat: Waste heat from industrial

· processes and power plants
Al cohol
Wood and crop cellulose
-
.......
r e sidue
Solar

58
 3. Balancing Acid Concentration:
Acid concentration is measured in terms of the p H factor ove r
a range of 1 to 14.
pH 2 acidic
pH 7 = neutral V
j
pH 12 = alkaline

The ide al pH for yeast growth is 4.5 which is also a poor con-
dition for the growth of bacteria, molds, and other y easts.
(Penicillin can also be added)

pH t e sts:
a. pH me ter with probe from a sci e ntific supply house is
very accurate and easy to use but relatively expe nsive.
[. b. Color paper test is less accurate but much cheaper and
fairly easy to use.

( 1) • put a drop of mash on p a per

( 2) • compare with color chart
(3) • add acid to make more acidic
(a little goes a long way so experiment carefully) V
a. HCL - hydrochloric acid
b. H2so 4 - sulfuric acid (battery acid)

t acid burns should b e washed with cold water and

baking soda
-
" -.,/

V
·V
'--'

V
..,.)

"'--'
........
\....-
........
V
V

V
59 v
'-"

' .J l
 4. Preparation of the Malt:
(optional):
This step is not necessary if you are using a plant
material which is high in sugar content. However with any
type of plant the addition of malt or enzymes will give a
greater alcohol yield.

Sprouts are an exce llent malt preparation containing diastase

enzymes. When the mash is 10 to 20 % malt by weight, n ear ly
lOO % of the available starches in the plant matter will be
converted to fermentable sugars.

Sprouting
Sprouting requires moisture, warmth and darkness and
' increases the food value of the seeds 500 %.
l. Soak in warm water for eight hours. Use l part
grain to 5 parts water.
\
I
2. Drain and place in covered container with drain
I holes in bottom and ventilation holes in lid.
! 3. Spray 3 times a day to k eep damp .
4. Allow 3 to 4 days in dark place.
5. Proper sprout length:
wheat & small grains = l/2 inch
corn & large grains & seeds = l inch

Grinding

Grinding the sprouts in a garbage disposal or some sim-

ilar machine, will break down the remaining shells and
distribute the diastase uniformily throughout the malt .

••
---Never boil the e nzymes because they would be destroyed.

60
 ~--~----------------~--------------------------------------------------------~ ~
(r':

5. Final Mixture of Mash:

There are two basic options whether or not the mash i s "cooked"
or "raw".
(a) • add diatase malt from sprouts
(b) • add commercial enzymes

A. Adding Diatase Malt From Sprouts:

1. Add malt as 10 to 20 % of the weight of the raw or cooked mash.

Dilute with water up to about the following proportions: 18
gallons per bushel (75% water/25% mash) .
2. Optimum barley malt enzyme effect is created b y raising the
temperature of the mash to 145°F. Pour the water into the
mash, raise to 145°F, pour in the barley malt slurry, and
stir slowly for 30 minutes at 145° F.
3. Bring temperature of mash to 85°F. to 90°F. and hold in
this range for the optimum growth of the yeast.
V
4. Tes t pH---must be 4.0 to 4.5. v
V
Test sugar content with an hydrometer. Sugar reading should
be 10% to 15%. If above 20%, the sugar is too concentrated V
for the yeast fermentation. Dilute with water as necessary v
to bring reading b e low 20 %.

6. Use the iodine test to meas~re,starch fermentation.

a. Adding Commercial Malt Enzymes (optional) :

1. Add 15% to 20% water by volume.

J
2. Adjust pH for the type of Alpha Amylase enzyme used (man- V
ufacturing source) .

3. Add Alpha Amylase enzyme as suggested by manufacturer.

.V
4. Some enzymes, depending upon source, need to be cooked at V
various temperatures for about 30 minutes. Othe r types o f
enzymes need only to be held at a temperature of about 85° F.
but then action takes up to 2 hours before adding mash.
5. With a cool mash, adjust pH to 4.2. V

6. Add Gluco Amylase, as suggested by manufacturer. V

V
7. Wait 30 minutes to 2 hours before beginning yeast fermentation
V
of final mash.
61
 ~ .
, -;6. ·Fermentation
.

1. Pour the ferme ntation mash into the fermen t ation vesse l .
Leave about 5% void space in the container to allow for ex-
pansion of the l iquid as the co becomes libe rated.
2
V 2. Add in the brewer's yeast slurry. Dissolve the yeast cake
or powder in water. Add s lurry in the fo llowing proportions :
l/4 lb of dry yeast for each bushel (1 %) .

3. Stir thoroughly and slow l y.

4. Seal the vessel against the air coming in . But make sure the
carbon gasses a r e vented off properly---otherwi se , the vat
~ill expl ode .

5. Keep tempe rature @ 85° to 90°F fo r up to 48 hours .

6. A gentle circul ation or ag i tation of the watery mash will

h elp speed up the process--- 2 to 1 times per day . (Stirring
h e lps the yeast to find more sugar and trace nutr i ents as
t h e se tend to become exhausted. Stirring in t h e later part
of t h e ferme ntation process will especially help convert the
maximum sugars and starches to alcohol. ) '

7. If C02 bubb l es do not begin to show in 45 minutes , the yeast

may be lacking nutrients. Yeas t does not eat the sugar. It
just breaks it up. The yeast nee d s food . Sprouted barley
malt will e nsure nutrients . A chemical nutri e nt oreparation
would be a small amount of phosphate mineral sal ts . Grains
n ever need additional nutrients.

After a predesignated time , test alcohol % with a hydrome ter .

After 48 hours , the liquid should contain at least 10 % alco-
hol. The gre atest proportion of t hi s s h ou l d be pre sent after
6 to 12 h ours , depending upon the plant matter , malt enzymes,
V
mash preparation , etc .

62
Fermentation
Environment

Water: Add lots of water. Fermentation

mash should be about 75% wate r to
keep the alcohol dilute. A small
build..:..up of alcohol rapidly b e'gins
to slow down the yeast ferme nt a -
tion.

Temperature: 70°F to 90°F, 80°F is optimum for bre wers yeast,

the yeast slowly works starting at 35° F, it dies
over 100°F.
pH: 4.0 to 4 . 5
Nutrients: 10 % to 15 %
Oxygen : Sealed container.
V
Carbon dioxide: Vent off into atmosphe re or s tore .
V
Wate r : Any clear , unpolluted wate r; mine rals, iron,
and hardness doesn't seem to a f fect the yea s t /
enzymes.
Vessel clean-
line ss: Not critical if producing non-dr inkable f u e l; an
occasional wash in a weak clorox/water or am-
monia/water solution a long with v enting steam
vapors through tubings and fitt i ngs.

""-"
V
v

--
~-,..
------~
"--"
V

~;
.......,
V

63 V

'-'
"-"'
 THE BIOLOGICAL ARMY

Yeasts, bacteria, or molds all need nutrients for growth. They

then produce waste products. As part of an ecosystem, yeast has
three phases of growth:

1. Adjustment Lag Phase

f) 0 () The yeast gets used to the environment of nutrients and
i) 0 0 prepares internal response
' t)

~~
2. Logrithmic Growth Phase
The yeast grows exposively through the budding of new
cells every few minutes. C02 bubbles off during this
phase.

3. Stationary Phase:
Growth begins to slow because sugar, vitamins, and proteins
are harder to find. When co 2 generation stops, the mash
is thro ugh producing e thanol. I f too muc h o xygen is pre-
sent in the pro c e ss, the yeast e nzyme s will produce acidic
acid ( v ine gar) rathe r than e thanol.

SIMPLE FERMENTATION

1. Sugar Only ENZYME"'ACTION

COMPOUND FERMENTATION "protein catalysts" made by c e lls

2. Diata s e Formulations

Malting
Very specific or unique in the ir
action on different of types of
carbohydrates

Re c y cling Loops

Two Types:

COMPLEX FERMENTATIONS 1. Amylases for starches---

V
diasta se from sprouted grain or
~. With Additiona l Enzyme s purchased from a commeric al store
for Cellulose 2. Ce llul a ses for cellulose
Recycling Loops

64
 (/J) a ~
~~~
'-"

V
..__,
-....-:
V

~ ~
_,
Brewers Yeast \,J

Brewers yeast can be purchased every-

where or easily grown . It-should be '-"
stored in a dry refrigerator but never J
frozen. Dry yeast is in suspended '-
animation but does not store well. -.J

\......-

'-'
'-"
V
u

~ grow your own ~ V

V
-._/

1. Combine flour, sugar and water in J

a pressure cooker and cook for 20 V
minutes at 212°F to produce a ster- ~
ile nutrient.
v

3/4 pint of water

4 tablespoons of flour l
0
1 teaspoon of sugar "l '-'

2. Mix in one cake of yeast and store

• '-"
'-"'
in the refrigerator~ .._,
3. Cover but do not seal the con- '-"'
tainer because the C02, which is
generated by the yeast, must be
able to escape.
"'
iJ

•
~
4. Before using this yeast for f e r-
mentation, remove 1/2 teaspoon •
and store in a cold sterile •• .......
vessel in the refrigerator to V
start a new batch.
V

5. To grow more yeast, warm the -...J

saved culture to between 85°F V

and 90°F and add to the nutri- '-"
e nt prepared according to Step 1.
'-"
V
65
V
......_.
"--"
'-'
,....
"--"
'--'
'--"'
'-../

'-'

'-'
The liquid beer will contain:
"--"

'-"
\._.,
,... water
"--"
salts
-./
vitamins
'-"
'-' proteins
\.....- fatty acids
"--"
~
miscl. acids
\._.,
fusil oil
'-'
V
acetone
g lycercol -
\.....;

'---'
(2 to 3 %, enough to give a slightly
gelatin feeling to the water)
........
miscl. solids -
'-"
cellulosic materia ls with starches,
..
"--"
\.....;
v itamins, minerals, and proteins
"--"

'-
"--" The entire beer can be distilled without filbering out the
"--"
solids.
'--"'
To distill means to vaporize a liquid compound from a solu-
'-./
tion containing 2 or more liquid compounds.
'-'
'-" Since water boils into vapor at 212°F and, alcohol boils in-
to vapor at 173°F, alcohol will vaporize out of water much faster
'-"
than the water will vaporize. Alcohol will eventually evaporate
completely out of standing water.
'-'
'-' If heated to 212°F, both water and alcohol will vaporize, but
'-'
the alcohol will vaporize more rapidly in greater amounts. The
result is a vapor mixture of alcohol which can be condensed on olass
'-'
or metal (which are at a lower temperature t han the boiling mash) .
'-'

'-' If alcohol is less than 10 % of the water, then the 90% water
'-../ will vapo rize in greater quantities than the alcohol.
'-'
This can be partially.controlled by holding the mash to a temp-
'-./
erature of 173°F . At this temperature, alcohol will be vaporizing
'-' at a much faster rate than water.
'-'
66
'-'

'-'
 DISTILLATION PROCESSING

Regardless of how huge or how complex an alcohol distilling

plant may be, nor how small and crude, the essential process is
the same and conforms to one or more of the following techniques.
........
.J

'-'
1. SIMPLE STEAM DISTILLATION:
.......

Steam pipes or a fire heat the mash which is at the bottom of '-"
a vessel or column. The mash emits eth~nol vapor, which runs V
out of a tube or column at the top with 50% water vapor and 'J
condenses into 100 proof ethanol. More water vapor condenses
'-"
out in the column and runs back into the mash.
V
,_,
.._,
.._.,
2. REFLUX DISTILLATION: '>../

\.../
The liquids a re recycled for a second vapor run-off. Yields
........
190 proof ethanol. This can be repeated a third time to pro-
duce nearly pure anhydrous alcohol (100 % e thanol). 1.,_..

"-../

'---"
3 . ABSORBTION DISTILLATION: '-../

V
Dump specialized salts into 190 proof ethanol to absorb the
remaining water. Pour off anhydrous alcohol. ._)

..........

'-"
J
4. SOLAR STEAM DISTILLATION:
v
A solar-collector hot water heating system heats the pipe s for v
the distillation vessel or column. The r est of the process is '-../
the same. V

V
5 SOLAR PLATE DISTILLATION: >...,)
I

\
V
The fi ltered liquids from t h e f erme nted mash are allowed to -....,;
flow down long , sloping (45 angle or less) metal plates enclos e d

\
"'-J
with a plate of glass over the metal plates to trap and condense
the alcohol vapors. V
\ ...__.
..........

67 V
V
V
 Vat/Column Distillation:

SlMPLE. POT SflLL

USED IN LIQUEUR Pf?ODUC.TION

1. Entire beer is heated from below.

2. A tube or column at the top of the containing vessel wi l l serve

to airect the vapor out of the vessel.

3. Liquids will conde nse on the column and tube and run back down
into the beer.

4. The process will eventual l y heat the co lumn and lower portion of
the tube to a temperature just below the vaporization t e mperature
being used.

5. The tubes can be as long and complex as nee ded to cause the water
to keep condensing and falling back into the mash while permit-
ting the alcohol vapor and conden sation to escape the distilla-
tion unit completely .

6. The first few minutes of condensation will be in a much highe r

alcoho l conte nt than the f ol lowing condensation.

7. In practice, all you need to do the first time around is obtain

a 50% alcohol (lOO proof) mixture with water.

8. Repeat the process to get 190 proof.

9. Or use other more sophisticated equipment to get 190 proof in one

operation , such as a reflux column.

10. Salts or other materials may be used to absorb out the remaining
water to get 200 proof alcohol. Phosphates, sulfates, calcium
salts , metal oxides, dry cellulose can b e use d to absorb the
remaining 5% wate r. Apply about 10 % salt material by volume to
the distilled alcohol. Pour off the alcohol. Dry the salts in
68 the s un for re- use~
 V
V

v
V
V

THE FLAT SOLAR-STILL*

ALCOHOL WATER

1. Liquid beer is fed in at the top of corrugated m~tal and a l-

lowed to flow to the water barr i er .

2. Th e a l cohol evaporates on the glass and runs to the bottom and

is collected in a sealed container.

3. To r ece ive maximum solar energy, ti lt at about 45° . This also

permits gravity flow of the water a n d condensation flow of the
alcohol.

4. Box s hould be tightly sea l ed so vapors don't escape . Insulate

well for maximum efficiency .
J
5. Use a t hermomete r (sensors inside the enclos ure) top and bottom .....,-
o f still to monitor the t e mperature . -...)

........,
6. Control f low rate of beer to ma i ntain 17 3° F inside the box .
-.../

7. Condensate needs to b e recyc l ed severa l times to get 190 proof -.../

alcohol . ......,.

This type of apparatus is fairly labor-intensive to k e ep the "-"

di stillation flow efficient . Thu,s ,. the solar steam-heated dis -

stillation co l umn may be bett er for small scale producers. '-'

-.../
However , simpl e computer monitor i ng and control circuiting V
coul d k eep the dynamics of this process in perfect alignme nt
with the day's varying solar e n ergy . Hence , t h is method may b e J
t he best mass-scal e technique. ~

"-"
J
-......)
*Lance Cromby has pioneered this t echnology in his book , "Making
V
Alcohol Fue l" , See bibliography .
'--'
For d iagrams & photos o f a small so l ar still, s ee "Mother Earth '-"

News ," March/April 1979 .

69
 --
,_ s; ··R ecycling the ''Beer'' Residue:

The solids left from the distillation process are da ll~d "res-
idues". The soggy mash con tains :

Starch
Vitam~ns ~ .
Protelns )=:: 3 or 4 times concentrated
Minerals..__/
Fats
Yeast cells
Water

. · , 1. Use the residues wet:

Dilute 50/50 with other f eed . Can be stored 3 to 7 days with-
out spoilage.
2. Use the residues dry :
Spread out in thin layers for d r ying in the sun. Then dilute
in feed . Long storage possible.

Distillers ·dried grain is recognized as a very high quality

animal feed. Using the residue in this fashion makes a major dif-
ference in the economics of grain alcohol .

The residue can also be recycled. It contains all the nutri-

ents needed by the yeas t, and a pretty thick concentration of live
yeast, if not boiled during the distil l ation process . The alcohol
in the ma s h finally stops y~ast action before the nutrients and
starches are totally exh austed . For some crop sources, continual
recycling and selective enzyme interactions cou l d continue to reduce
nearly all residue except for the bui l d up of salts and oils.

Recycling reduces the need for new input and eliminates the
need for new yeast. But this can be done indefinitely only if the
incoming mash is complete l y sterili zed . Otherwise, wild yeas ts will
eventual l y reduce the productivity of fermentation.

70
r-~~----~--~----------~~--~ u V

Equipment
~: SpRouT~
..._.._ 7 D£ .
(t>~\ ENzYMEs
L~ · -1:.

-·- (opnoAJA-y

- - - -- .. =-· -
- -
s55 AL. -- ·-
- 1-

- . v
::::.----- · J t~
~=---~- '0
5 6AL.

CONTAINfRS

CA~so'r'
'I
I
I
FERMEN-tATioN
LoCK
'--"""~~.-.......~-. .____
Co~RECT Lf:\t~L FoR '-"

V
WA\CR rRtOR TD V
AT,--ACHtNG To IHE ........
CAJ<.gD'( V

.) 0 V

'-'

.........
V

V
71
0
\J
 SIOCHEMI CAL TES TS

'-../ pH Starch Test :

v
'--'
A few drops of iodine solution sprin-
k l ed on a table spoon samp l i n g of t h e
'--" mash will show how much free f ermen -
\,._...
table sugar is in the mash .
'--"
\._..,
mostl y starch = blui sh o r purp l e
col or
'-"
V mos tly s u gar = whi t e or very
'-" l igh t b lue i n
-...; col or
'-"
-...;

'-../
Brix Hydrometer Sugar Test :
\..-1
I.Ol
V When sugar is disso l ved in water , the
\_.i water i ncreases i n weight . Becaus e
-..../
sugar in water weighs more than p l a i n
wat er , more sugar means more.bu oyancy ,
'-../
the more weight it will s upport. Thus
...... the gauge wil l float higher with more
V sugar.
'-'
Fi ll t h e hydrometer wi th liqui d so l u -
'-"
t i on from the mash . Sugar should r ead
V
be t ween 1 0 % to 15 %. Ab ove 20% , s u g ar
\_.i
- ...... i s t oo conce n t rated . ~ Di l ute mash wi th
wa t er.
• •. I • '-.
\_.i
•' . . .
'--"
'--"
!>.. : .
V

'-' S PECtFlC
(;.R4VtTY - AFrE:R Pr oof Hydrome t er Alcoho l Test:
V

'-'
OF gEER [3E.FoRE.
YEA~r rs
Jtb(£1)
fE.RMtN'fAnoN A so l u ti on of a l coh o l and wate r i s
less buoyan t t han water , hence l ess
I
:
'--' weight i s supporte d . The more alco-
...__, hol , the more t h e gauge sinks .
\_.i

Simpl y fil l t h e hydr ometer wi t h the

'-'
soluti on to be tested to r ead the
'-../
proo f . 2 00 = 1 00 % a l cohol .
'--"
V

'--"
'-"
'--" 72
..J

V
 9
~Obtain Your -P_ermit _
V
A permit is required to legally produce more than lOO gallons
of alcohol fuel per year. There are two types of permits:
REGULAR and EXPERIMENTAL.

A regular permit from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and

Firearms allows the manufacture of alcohol for use as fuel or
beverage. The fuel must be locked up and government inspect-
ors appear regularly to supervise the denaturing. The paper
work associated with such a permit is extensive and time con-
suming.

There is a variance to the regulations which serves as a per-

mit for experimentation. This two-year permit will allow some-
one to produce their own alcohol fuel. A small operation may
be intende d to show a profit but is still initially defined as
experime ntation. Be sure to coope rate fully with the fede ra l
authorities and contact them directly by phone, if necessary,/
to clear up any confusion over the proper procedures. ' _V

Legal cons ide rations :

Legal consi derations of the permi t process are t he following:

1. Request permission to establish an experimental dis -
til l ed spirits plant as per Title 27, Code o f Federal
Regulation , Section 2 01.6 5, of Code for the Production
of Ethyl Alcohol Fu e l for personal u se .
2. State inten t to obtain a liability bond for your a l-
cohol production. The IRS requires t his bond to insure
against illegal alcohol sales. The amount of the bond
is calculated at $10.50/ gallon of 100 proof alcohol
for average of a 15 day produc t ion.
3. Express intent to comply with the r e qui r e me nt s of the
Fe deral Water Po llution Control Act and the National
Environmental Policy Act . Forms will be mailed o ut
with your permit.
4. Mail you r completed permit request package to the ap-
propriate Regional Regulatory Administrator (see list).

..
'-------------~---- ------------------~--~--------------------------' ~
75 ~
v
'--"
..........
'-

........
"-" The following information is required to obtain an experiment-
ers permit from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms:
..........

\.....'
Description of location:
Must be legal description
'-
Description of equipment:
'--'
Must be accompanied by diagram
..........
List of raw materials:
"-'
Possible choices are- --
grains
'--" fruits
vegetables
,__.. cellulose
'--' Additional materials needed---
..._ yeast
enzymes
'--" microorganisms ?
'-' misc l. chemicals
Process description:
\...... Explain basic flow for -- -
'-../ preparation
~ ..... fermentation
..._, distillation
Preparation---
......, grinding?
'-' enzymes?
'-../ Fermentation---
cooked with fuel?
'-..../ solar heated?
..._, Distillation---
..._, reflux column?
........, common sti .l l?
solar still?
'--'
Description of use :
'--' Possible uses are---
._, oil heaters
gas heaters
vehi cles
equipment
Denaturant description:
Must be 1% of one of t he following- --
methanol
gasoline
kerosine
Description of record system :
Must record---
date
amount produced
proof

It might be wise to enter several choices for materials , pro-

76 cess , use, etc. in order to allow for experimentation .
The regions are as follows:

North Atlantic
Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New
York, Rhode Island, Vermont, Peuerto Rico, Virgin
Islands

6 World Trade Center, 6th Floor

(Mail: P.O. Box 15
Church Street Station
New York, New York 10008
Mid Atlantic

Delaware, District of Columbia, Maryland, New Jersey,

Pennsylvania, Virginia

2 Penn Center Pla z a, Room 360

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19102
Southeast
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, North Caro-
lina, Sourth Carolina, Tennessee

3835 Northeast Expressway

(Mail: P.O. Box 2994)
Atlanta, Ge orgia 30301

Central
Indiana , Kentucky , Michigan, Ohio, West Virginia

550 Main Street

Cincinnati, Ohio 45202

Midwest
Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Ne braska,
North Dakota, South Dakota, Wisconsin

230 South Dearborn Street

15th Floor
Chicago, Illinois 60604

West
Alaska, Ari z ona, California, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana,
Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington

525 Market Street

San Francisco, California 94105

Southwe st
Arkansas, Colorado, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma,
Texas, Wyoming

Main Tower Room 345

1200 / Main Street
Dallas, Texas 75202

77
 HOW TO
USE ALCOHOL
AS A FUEL
I
!

1 History Of Alcohol As A Fuel

2 Ethanol Is The Pollution Solution

3 Fuel Characteristics

4 Gasohol

5 Ethyl Alcohol: The World's Safest Fuel

& Switching To Alcohol Fuel

79

v·
 li.S. lJ[]U. SfiYS •••
STRAIGHT ETHANOL PROVIDES :

* "per fo rmance benefits"

* "no concern about storage stability "

* "5 to 1 5% more power "

* "vapor lock is no t a p roblem"

* " cooler combus t i on ."

* "significant r eduction in o x i des

of e missions"
V

* "high octan e numbe r raises compres -

sion ratio " "

MIXED WITH WATER :

" addition of water add~ advantages "

*- increased de livered power
• - less po llut i o n

Governme nt r ecognizes t hat there is :

"le s s operating and test experi -
ence with neat alcohol (pure
a lcoh o l) than with bl e nds".

80 Ref : The Report of the Alcohol Fu e l s Policy Review .

 -
"-../

'-...I

'-...I

\._..,

....._,

1 Alcohol As A Fuel "--'

...._,
'-...I

'-'
-.._.'

v
Alcohol can b e u sed as a clean, effic ient, inexpens ive fuel ...._,
in any kind of internal combustion engine , heating boiler, furnac e , '-._./

and any place where oil, or coal, or gasoli n e, or diese l is cur-

v
rently used. Most exi sting e ngines and boilers, except fo r diesels,
..._I
can use 100 % alcohol fuel right n ow with only minor adjustments in
carburation a nd fue l supply. -..__)

V
SCIENCE magazine reported in 197 9 , (vol.l95) tha t ethano l i s \_)
"supe rior " to gasolin e as a motor fuel, de liveri ng liter for liter
V
as much power with much less pollution in a properly tuned engin e .
Because of its ability t o burn cleanly and completely, it may y
prove to be the best f u e l for gas -turbine engines. '--"
v
For automobile owners , al coho l i s incredibly good news. The
\..../
internal combustion e ngine is most effic i e nt as a high-compression
e ngine and, unlike gasoline, alcoho l burn s best under high compre s - \..../

sion ratios. The result is a hi gh e r-perfo rmance engine which de- \.....1
livers more power, better mileage per gallon, while burning cooler '-._./

and q uieter . This adds up to an e ngine which will function longer '-.../
without'tune -up , overhaul , and oth er costly eng ine repairs . ....._,
~

Indian opol i s racers have known thi s for over a ge neration. ..._)

All Indi anopolis 500 cars are fue led with methanol. v
V
The se characteristics of alcohol as a fue l for a ll au t omo-
biles, have been extensively documented around the world . "--'

'--"
Henry Ford ' s first engine burne d alcohol. His first Mode l T 'c./
was designed t o burn kerosine , alcohol, or gas, as i t was not clear '-.../
in the ear l y 1900's which fuel would be the most economical a nd/or
\.J
avai l ab l e in different parts of the country and in the world.
...._,
Since that time, a l coho l as a fue l has b een u sed to h e l p cope
"--'
with economic problems, or gasoline shorages, all over the world.
J
During the depression years of the 1930's, Kansas , Nebraska , ,_.,~

Missouri, and Il linois sold alcoho l fuel as " agrol" , to help pro- '-._./

vide a market for grain products .

'--'
V
Germany powered a part o f its war machine with a l cohol pro-
d uc ed f rom potatoes , especially d uring the last few years of WWII. '-.../

\.J
Austria , Brazil, China , Cuba, Czechos l ovakia , Egypt, Finland , '-._./
France , Ire land, Philippines , Po l and, Spain, Sweden , and Yugos l a-
via a ll have produ ced and used a l coh o l throughout most of the 20th
centu ry . Some of these countries are now deve l oping major i ndus- "-''
tries to supply as much as lOO % of a u tomobile f uel needs with a l- \_)

coho l. v
'-../
81
V

'-.../
'----'

.........
v"
"-'

'--
'--
.EUROPEAN RESEARCH
___.
'-'
........ European engineers have probably pioneered this field the most •
'-../
Most of their research has centered on using methanol as a blend-
ing agent in gaso line.
\.../
Europe cannot expect ~o cultivate very much ethanol, due to
........, agricultural a n d climatic limitations. But it can expect to pro-
........ duce large quantities of me thanol from its coal reserves and wood
........
supplies .
'--" Both Sweden and West Germany intend to replace gasoline with
........ a 25 % methanol in gasohol. Both governments have backed this with
many years of research and development money. The result will be
.,__.. a l ower fuel import bill, less pollution, greater national growth,
__. a stronger economy, and less national strategic weakness vis-a-vis
Arabian oil pol itics.
\...-
....... Their engineers have discovered that methanol can easi l y be
us ed in existing automobiles up to 15 %, and most can handle 20%
..._/
with tune-up adjustments. Dag Vendel*, of the state owned Swedish
.... Methanol Dev. Co., estimates that the best blend is 80%/20 % for
"-- overall performance.
"-"
__,
........
...__.,

'-../

.,__..
'-..
·.__;
In West Germany, the Volkswagon Co. tested a f leet of vehicles
'-"' for about 1.8 million kilometers (total mileage) with an 85 %/15%
'-'
blend. Even under extreme conditions, the t est cars ran perfectly.
The state of Nebraska obtained similar results on a 2 million mile
'-'
test using a 90%/10% (ethanol) blend.
'---'

...... . Mixing methanol (or ethanol) with gasoline does pose certain
problems. It has the problem of separating from the gasoline if
'-./
there is any water in the alcohol. This is called phase separa-
tion. If the car is tuned to run on a mixture of both fuels, then
~
if they separate in the tank, the engine will not run efficiently
.,_./
for either of the two now separate fuels. Also, the engines may
not start in extreme cold weather conditions •
...__
__. In addition, a vapor lock problem can develope, especially
with methanol . Tests by Volkswagon engineers show that it is not
necessarily a severe problem, but it will manifest under extreme
'- conditions.
.......
'-./

'-./

82
"--'

v
 ..._.
........,

'--'
'-.../

v
FORD &GM '-'
........,
........,
For this, both Ford and General Motors have recommended that
methanol be used pure , rather than as a blend. Margaret A. Rob- V
erts, manager of Fuels and Lubricants at Ford Motor eo. in 1977, V
' found "no f undamental r~a sons why it cannot be us ed as an automo -
'--'
tive fuel ".
........,
Both companies recommend making production line mod i fications v
if methanol is to be used pure. These include changing fuel stor-
\._)
age and de livery components to handle the i ncreased toxicity of
methanol, adding a pre-heat mechanism to the heads to overcome J
cold start problems, changing the carbu rati on to feed the l arger '-.../

me thanol molecules faster and to prevent vapor lock , and increas- v

ing engine compression t o burn the fuel more efficient l y.
V
These changes wil l not mean an increas e in cost of n ew auto-
mobiles, but it will mean that they wi ll not have very good gas - \._)

oline mileage, unless additional engin eerin g makes possib le a V

carburation system which can be easi l y se~ to burn either fue l at V
maximum efficiencies.
I' v
Other research seems to ind i cate that ethanol is a far b etter '--
proposition as a fue l than methano l , though it too requires modi- v
fications in o r der to be used most efficiently. v
V
..__;

Brazil V

v
V
Braz ilian energy planners are very imp res sed wi th e thanol as
\._)
a fuel. They've committed Brazil to a n ational development pro-
gram to create fuel self- sufficiency by 1990, with home-grown eth- V
anol replacing oil and gas fue l comp l etely, mos t of which Brazil V
must import. .......)

-.J
. .......
. Much of the Brazilian program resulted fr om the work of Ur -
bano.{E,_r ne sto Stump£, an aeronauti cal engineer , who has expl ored v
the .field of alcohol for years . He found t hat ethanol, though it "-"
c ontains lower caloric content than gaso line , will actually de li- V
ver better mileage than gaso line if burned in a high compression V
engine ( 10:1) . With the hi gh compression , the ethanol de l ivers
1 8% more power to the cylinder because it is a better burner than '--"

gasoline. But it consumes 1 5% to 20 % more fue l. The two factors v

balance o ut, leaving ethanol ·with a slightly bett er rating most of V
the time. J
V
To provide Brazi l with an ethanol fue l ed automobile , Chrysler
Brazil has pioneered the development of a high- compression ethanol \....'

engi ne. '-"

'-"
Other tests in Brazil indicate that ethanol is a nearl y idea l V
turbine fue l for use in e lectrical gen erat o r plants , and that e th -
'-"
anol can be burned 50/50 in diesel engines with a dual carburator
s ys tem. '-'
V
83
v
'-'

' J
V

~ Brazil
Plans To Replace Gasoline
-With Alcohol Within Ten Years

Brazil has quietly been engineering the world ' s most inter-
esting fuel-energy program. Since 1976, the Brazilian government
has committed over one billion dollars of capital to developing
the largest alcohol industry on earth. Brazil intends to l i teral-
ly grow its own. It h as committed to building at l east 200 major
refineries to handle the eventual output of several million acres.

By 1990, this program will provide enough ethanol to fuel all

Brazilian automobiles, ending the huge quantities of oil that Bra-
zil must currently import.

Brazilian planners intend to supply about half of the ethanol

from cultivated sugar cane. About 30% will be supplied by manioc
(also, known as tapioca or cassova), with the remainder supplied
by other plants.

Sugar cane and manioc are hardy plants and thrive in t h e tro-
pics. Manioc is easy to store for long periods, while sugar cane
must be consumed rapidly. Between .the two crops , the Brazilians
can supply a steady stream of plant mat ter to the processing plants.

One of the t echnical keys to their ethanol industry will be

the use of a special enzyme iso lated and produced by a Danish firm,
Novo Industri A/S of De nmark. This "malt" enzyme will help convert
the starch in the plants to sugar. This special en~yme is h eat
tolerant and can, thus, be efficiently used along with heat methods
for reducing the starch plant matter.

Novo Industri expects to do quite well with their new "super "
enzyme. They provide a brochure called: "How to Replace Imported
Fuels With Your Own Domestic Energy Resources ". Their address is:

Novo Industri A/S of Denmark

Enzymes Division
DK-2880
Bagsvaerd, Denmark

C£iquid ~UflsJYne.
84
 Gulf Oil Ch emicals is also impressed with ethanol. It is
conducting a trial e xperime nt to create a commercial sca l e plant
to us e a completely n ew techniqu e in creating e thano l from wood
chips, corn cobs, old newspapers, etc. A newly iso lated fungus
rapidly creates l arge guantities of an e nzyme , ce l lul ase, which
l iteral l y eats all ce llu los e i nto g lucose sugar .

Th is t ype of techn iqu e could redu ce the cost of ethanol sig-

nificantl y in a short period of time, allowing automobiles to con -
vert entirely to burning 1 60 to 180 proof ethano l (wi th water b l end -
ed a t 10 % to 2 0 %).

MOTHER EARTH NEWS , an organic-agriculture periodical, reported

in 1979 some interesting experimentation with ethanol. Its staff
successfu lly converted a home oil-he ater t o burn 15 0 proof ethan o l
(water @ 25 %) . The modification took les s than an h our and in-
volved making a s imp l e air-feed adjustment and inserting a simpl e
inexpen si ve device to s u pply the pump with a tiny stream of lubri-
cating oi l.

Also reported was a successful, l ow-co st ethanol- conversion

on a 1964 rambler classic. Scott Skylar, Was hing ton Di rector of
the National Center for Appropriate Techno logy , is now driving a-
r ound a 190 proof ethanol automob i l e . He finds that it g i ves mile -
age as good as gaso line , but doesn't start on c hilly days at 60%
or less b attery eff iciency.

He solves this problem with a Ford electric window- washer

pump with a plastic fluid reservoir. The squirter nozzle feeds a
small amount of gasoline direc tly into t he carburator . He just
pushes the button, starts the car, and lets it run on e thanol .

85 V
~
v
:J
....)
Ethanol Is The Pollution SolutiQn

In practice, the burning of ethanol will creat e a small a-

mount o f incompletely combusted materials. It will produce a few
polluting emissions in the form of minute amounts of:
v aldehydes
V acidic acids
hydrocarbons
n itrogen oxides

V How much of these emissions will be produced will depend upon

V the e n gine or the burner, the fuel delivery or carburatio~, the t une-
up, and the purity of the a l coho l .
J
V It is difficult to state precisely what the reduction in pol-
V lutio n is l ikely to be. Though many, many tests have been per-
V formed in different countries in the past several decades, no sum-
.) mary information exists in the field which s y stematic a lly analyzes
all of the variables related to using alcohol as a fuel.

* Stanford Research Institute fo und that pure alcohol will cut

air pollution up to 90 %.

* M.I.T. found that 5 % to 30 % alcohol will cut. air pollution 14 %

to 72 %.

* Volkswagen in West Germany found a 50 % reduction of carbon

monoxide on a 15% methanol blend.

"-'
'--"
...._,

'--"
'-
'--'

-...;'

-
'--
"-'
._./

'-"
86
\.../

._/

'--'
~--------------~--------------------------------------------------------------~~
3 Ethyl Alcohol:
'\...
Fuel Characteristics

Alcohol doesn't vaporize eas ily, thus l ow vapor pressure makes

e ngines d ifficult to start in the cold. This p r oblem is not n early
so seve re with e t hanol.

In today 's r e latively l ow- compression engines, ethanol and meth-

anol do not have t he mileage range of regular gasoline. Theoreti-
cally re l a t ive fue l c onsumption is:
gaso line lOO
ethanol 16 1
methanol 222

Simple engine mod ifications will increase the compression rati o

and , thus, use the BTU's in alcoho l more efficiently than gaso l ine.
Researchers have fo und that this will g ive a lcohol fa r better mile -
age than gasol ine , BTU for BTU. Methanol can yield mileage only ~
slightly worse than gasoline , whi l e e thanol can g i ve mi leage slight- ~
ly b ette r than alcohol. y
~
Exper imenters have discovered that ethano l can be boosted signi-
ficantly by adding water to e thanol, from 10% to 25 %. This will
r'
in crease BTU's delivered to the e ngine and give ethanol up to 25 % ~
better mileage _tha n gasoline . ~
~
Arco gas is r umored to b e a 5% to 7 % b l end of alcohol. ..--
Chrysler Brazil: al l exising Chrys l er engines could b urn eth-
..--
anol up to 20 % without adj ustments o r tuning and: ~
..-'
"co uld run in California wi t h out pollution
....
controls and pass the po llut ion specif i ca-
tions". .....-
y
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J
J

Ethanol and Methanol

In summary, we can conclude that methanol is a poorer grade
V of fuel than ethanol, is less efficient, more bulky per BTU, has
none of the advantages of ethanol, and offers no other advantage
as a fuel.
Methanol is cheaper than grain ethanol, however. Its lower
synthetic· production cost reflects the advantages of mass-batch in-
dustrial plants. Most exploration of alcohol in the u.s. and in
Europe has been with methanol. It offers a wholesale price that
is closer to gasol ine than apparently grain ethanol will ever b e
able to reach with existing yields and production technology .

There is o ne more very interesting point of comparis on between

the two fuels. Ethanol is currently more expensive, at l east com-
mercially from grain, but its total production and c o nsumption can
'• b e very r apidly increased by the building of hundreds and thou sands
of small-sc a l e production units, while methanol production plants
and mining sources will take several years to deve lope .

Depending upon scale , technology, p rocessing techniques, and

the materials used, it may be possible to substantially reduce the
'-./'
cost of ethanol .

Methanol, on the other hand, is likely to get more costly ,

e special ly if it is produced f rom the mining of co'a.l and tar shales.

Given the fact that t h e u.s. must e limina t e totally its need
to import fuel oil, rapid, unfettered exploration of ethanol pro-
duction see ms to hold the most promise of a major breakthrough
with the l e ast possible environmental side effects .

"---'
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88
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\.,./

V
 Ethanol Methanol

Source: all p l ant matter, hydrocarbons , oil,

garbage, paper , coa l, paper , garbage
wood, grains sewage , wood

P r oc e ss : batch or contin- acid hydrolysis

uous f ermentation high t emperature and
distillation high press ure

+
f ungus hydrolysis

or

synth etic acid

hydrolysis from
hydrocarbons, oil,
coal , sewage

Toxicity: non-toxic/ non-poison- toxic/poisonous

ous (consumption will (consumption will kill)
not kill)

Pol lut ion: c l ean, less emissions l e ss clean , more

than methonol, up to 90 % emissions t h an ethano l
l ess than gasoline

Pr·oduction
Cost : $ 1. 20 per gallon $.40 p er ga ll on
(from grain , 19 79 )

Ignition: whe n vapor i zed with when vaporized with

a ir pressure air pressure

Water
Content: will burn efficientl y ?
with mor e BTU's d e l iv-
ered by adding up to
25 % water

Production
Plant: small batch to an e laborate refinery
elaborate ref ine ry plant on l y

89

~--------------------------------------------------------------------------~ ~
 ..

4·
Gasohol

Current l y , gasohol (90 % gaso line, 1 0 % alcohol) is experi~nc ­

ing explosive market growth---from 2 gas station outlets to over
1000 in eight months. Demand for gasoho l is growing extremely rap-
idly, even thou gh the blend costs a few cents higher than premium.
America want s to kiss OPEC goodby!

Automotive fuel tests i n Sweden, West German y , Brazil , and the

U.S . i n d icate that alcohol can be used as a blending age nt up to
30% , i £ the engine is properly tuned for it. Thus , the demand for
a l cohol is potentiall y very , ve r y high, just as a blending agent .

Al coh ol is best used n ot as a b l end ing additive but in a pure

s t ate or mixed with a small amount of water . Test i ndications are
that 20 % to. 25% water addition will give an even cleane r burn and
more BTU 's de l ivered to the pistons .

...__
\....-
Current wholesale market pric~s for 10 to 20~ : proof eth a nol
'-" alcohol start at $ 1 . 20 per gal lon. Because of the current higher
......., costs of a l cohol , it is b e ing purposely l i mited as a blending agent .
-.._)

"--'

'-"'
\....- The alcohol for gasohol is being primarily produced in the mi d-
west and the plains states from corn and wheat. Surpluses of grain
will become ancient history as more and more gasohol is consumed.
'--"'
"" Price support mechanisms and idle land wil l fade rapidly as farme rs
.......,
begin to g row grains and crops for gasohol .
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5 Ethyl Alcohol: The World's Safest Fuel --..
....-
-.
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• It is not toxic or chemically poisonous. '1{
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• It does not vaporize easily under normal circumstances of normal
...
atmospheric pressure. Thus, it does not burn explosively like -...
gas.
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•

•
It cannot be ignited or exploded from accidental vapor leaks.

If a burning match is thrown into a pool of it, the match wi l l

be extinguished. Gas will vaporize and create an immediate
.
....
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explosive, flash burn.
'.
• It burns significantly cooler than gasoline.
f
..
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• Yet when mixed and pumped i nto a nozzle with lots of air, i t
~
burns more efficiently and compl etely than gasoline.
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• When it burns, it burns into carbon dioxide and water vapor. )('
Both substances are complete l y innocuous and occur natural l y
in the environment in bountiful supplies to nourish plant growth.
..
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• As earlier generations who used alcohol lamp!:; know, it burns clean, )(

does not pollute, and can be consumed in a closed room without . )(
toxic or odor effects, without the need for mechanical ventilation )(
systems. )(

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• It can be used in today's engines with only minor, inexpensive
modifications. Auto pollution control equipment can be elimi nated. w'
)(

....
)(
All this means that ethanol can be easily handled, shipped, stored,
and consumed at far less danger and environmental side-effects than
gasoline .
91 .....
 & Switching To Alcohol Fuel

The Rambler Conversion:

1. One ford electric window washer pump with a plastic fluid

res ervoir to hold gasoline. Nozzle sprays into carborator
venturi. Dash button activates it for brief starting on
gasoline.

2. Drill o ut carburator's main fuel jet with a jeweler's drill

bit to produce a 14:1 air to fuel mixture.

3. Replace automatic choke with a manual choke to make sure the

choke is open when squirti~g in the gas. Hand tune the choke
for the best ethanol/air mixture . .

4. Start and go.

Scott Skylar: Washington Director o f the National Center for

Appropriate Technology, Washing ton, D.C.

Auto Dual Fuel System:

This is probably the easiest and most practical way, initially,

for convertin~ t6 alcohol, especially if you are producing
your own ethanol . Mileage will not be any beeter than gaso-
line, but shouldn't be dramatically worse.

l. Simply install a secondary tank line syste m with a switching

VCl.lV~. It gives you the choice of whether you will burn with
gas or alcohol.

2. This system could be made efficient with an adjustable car-

burator fuel j~t to . fine-tune the proper flow of gasoline or
ethanol.

Diesel Conversion:

Requires special pump and injectors tha t do not n eed lubrica-

tion. There are many ways to get around this. But none of
them may really be as good as simply replacing the diesel in-
jectors . altogether.
'-./

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92
._/

'--'
 '-(
'--.
....
,• '-(
The Blazer Conve rsion: ......
'-(
This conversion has been developed and tested by Richard Blazer
'(
with assistance by the U. S. Naval Academy. This convers i 'ol?- - ful-
ly adapts any engine to run on pure al6ohol. it ha~ the advan- '--(
tage of creating a truly efficie nt multi ... fuel ·power ·plant at an '-(
8.5:1 compression ratio. It will burn methanol, ethanol, or -...-
low octane gasoline without adjustments or special tuning. '-(
"(
A kit is being deve loped t o permit this conversion to b e made by
local mechanics. It is relatively inexpensive. Contact the Bio- '-(
mass Institute, Washington, D.C., for descripti o n of th e modifi- '11
cation.
'11
"(
The modification involves steps to:
')(
l. Increase compression ratio : addition of a wedge -shape d '11
alumiminum "wedge " which is fitted to the top of the 'I'
pis tons. '(
2. Rechannel the combustion: grinding the cylinder h ead slighty.
.....
3. Reca librate alcohol/air ratio : meter the alcohol into the 1(
carburator with a vacuum va lve. '-(
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 ALCOHOL
ENERGY
SELF-SUFFICIENCY
SCENARIOS

1 Energy Self-Sufficiency
2 Biomass System Model
3 International Scenarios
4 Solohol

5 Cybernated Solar Biomass Machine

95
 100% Solar Ethanol Process Model

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Distillation
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The actual processes invo l ved a re con siderabl y more compl ex .
"-"
But , there i s nothing here wh ich can not be accomplished in fair l y
'--' small - scales. A completely automated unit cou ld probably be fitted
...__., into the size of a semi - truck t r ai l or .
'-./

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"---'
,-------------------------------------------------------------~v
Solar Alcohol

1 Energy Self-Sufficiency Opportunity

By now, you will see that ethanol can be produced almost any
place, in small scales or in gargantuan scales. Humanity has che
capacity for producing and consuming it. It is not limited by eco-
logical considerations, pollution, economic capital constraints,
nor by energy factors.

Solar alcohol will probably become the principal life-support

energy systems of orbiting space stations. It can also become
the focal point of a generation or more of rapid national economic
growth, at least for some countries.

Its conscious promotion and development to create energy "self-

sufficiency" will do mor~ to change the world's balance of politi- V
cal and military power in a permanently positive direction than \..;
any other single move.
v
The opportunity is at l east this: every farmer in the world '--

can become energy self-sufficient. Life in the underdeveloped coun- v

tries will undergo a profound positive economic revolution as a con- '-./
sequence. ...._,.
v
The primary key to energy self- sufficiency through alcohol is
V
extremely simp l e . The sun can be harnessed to drive a ll the
s processes n eeded to generate solar alcohol. The spiraling chain of '-'

consequen ces which f lows from thi s eleme ntary fac t cannot truly be '-'
foreseen in detail. But we can see immediately that we are dea ling v
with immense potentials.
v
....__,
One quick image provides a grasp of the magnitudes and econo-
mics involved. It was recently estimated in a Senate Agricultural '-'
Committee h ear ing that seven square miles of sunflower plants could V
supply all the motor-fuel needs of a city of 250,000, each of whom V.
drives 10,000 miles per year. Seven square miles is a little more ....__,
than 2.6 miles on a side.
V
The potential ranges from small family/farm batch units to v
huge, f ully-automated, continuous produc t ion ethanol farms of 10,000 V
acres or ~ore. The fuel would essentially be consumed regionally, ~
on or near the s ite of production. Costly transportation can be
completely eliminated . No s trategic disruption or shortage could \....;

be imposed~ Since production would be diffused or widely·scattered V

through a r egion or nation, it is the only source of energy which v
is likely to survive a major nuclear war. V

'--'
97 V

V
V
 There is a second very important economic key to the develop-
ment of the solar alcohol field. Grain is not a reliable, econ-
omic material for alcohol. The ethanol productivity of grain is
simply too low, given acreage, costs, etc. But the diastase en-
zyme of grain is the key to increasing grain's production tenfold.
What producers need to learn is a very simple trick: use sprouted
grains only as a 10 % malt in mash composed mainly of cheap, young
leaves or young root crops composed of some sugars and a lot of
simple starches.

V Within the space of a few short years, literally millions of

'-./
producers could rapidly create a major economic revolution. It is
exactly the kind of "new frontier" urgently needed to provide new
\..../
sources of wealth and economic development. Ultimately, the des-
V erts of earth may be as vigorously settled as the American West
J once was---by algae-alcohol farms built of glass .
v
V The principle n e eds, beyond the sun and a lot of common sense,
v are threefold: (1) to unfetter the mind and to re - embrace the fu -
V
ture with positive hopes; (2) to unfetter the laws to let free-
enterprise farme rs and entrepreneurs get on with it; (3) communi -
-.../
cation, of the opportunities. We hope that we have provided some
'--' small me asure of communication assistance.
\....)

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98
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'
.~------------~.---------------------------------~~

2 Biomass System Model

"
MATERIALS PROC,ESSING DISTRIBUTION

· Agriculture

transport
/-
Reduction '
Fermentation Distilling Distribution

storage
scheduling
energy imputs
materials
yields
eco-environ-
ment
fermentation
mechanical
apparatus
preparations
mixing V
V
(synthesizing)
energy transfers
separations
catalyzing
monitoring
feedback controls

V
i
0' '' V
V
V
 3 International Scenarios

The Home Sprout Farm

Anybody can produce alcohol in their basement to y ield up to
2 to 3 gall o n s a day---enough to el i minate your fuel oil bill or
to take care of most u rban driving . Create a small ·sprout farm.
Use as a 10 % to 20% malt to grass clippings, waste produce fro~
local supermarkets , etc.

The One Acre Sugar Beet Plantation

Sugar beets are exceptional l y high in sucrose and simple,
easi l y redu ced starches. One acre is easily grown and cared for .
It should yie l d at least 420 gal lons per harvest. Sugar beets
can be grown quite widely in the temperate zone s .
V

Institutional Self-Sufficiency
Every farmer, food processing center, agr icultural coopera -
tive, resort , park system, golf - course, recycling c enter , waste -
removal company , and garbage dump operator can produce enough of
their own alcoho l to become completely fuel se l f-sufficient, al -
though electricity may stil l need to be imported.

The Farm Cooperative

Every agricultural cooperative in the country can become a
major producer of energy. See Solohol Scenario .

lOO
 ....
'1
'-.
The Metropolitan Cooperative ---.
'-.'
Muncipalitie s could turn their garbage dumps into a metro-
politan energy cooperative . 75% o f the bu l k waste can be convert-
.....
ed into alcohol. Users coul d receive "al coho l cred i ts " for their .....
properly sorted garbage . The credits could be used to buy alcohol, '-*'
or they could b~ so l d to fl eet operators . See Sol ohol Scen a r io. "11
.....
...
~~1!~~!5~~~v.
-v
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~
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The Energy Self-Sufficient Electrical Utility ,i·-

'(
...
Rural utilit i es could c r eate 10 ,00 0 acre solar alcohol farms "11'
to crop and produ ce energy to burn alcohol in turbine generators . '11
"11'
....
"11'
The Mill Foil Solution -.
".(
Hany areas of the country h ave characteristic "problem" plants, 'I(
prolific growers who are i n the way . Seattle has a problem with ".(
Mill Foi l choking i ts abundant water ways and lakes. Harvest it )(
a n d t u rn it into alcohol . Program should pay for i tself and cre ate .....
new jobs .
)(
...
)(
.__,
Hawaii Scenario .....
Hawaii, and areas l ike Puerto Rico and the Phi l ippines, have ....
a truly amazing opportunity to become total l y e nergy self- suffi- 'rl
cient in a fa i rly s hort time . Hawai i could do it in 2 to 5 years.
\1
Hawaii agriculture is currentl y " resting" with its sugar cane 'W
a nd p i neappl e f i elds . Wor l d over- s uppl y of these products have ){
reduced prices of these crops to r u inous l evels. The result i s a )I'
badly depressed economy wi t h very high rates of unemploymen t on
s ome of the islands.

Sugar can e operat ors could eas ily u s e exis t ing plants to han-
d l e most aspects of a l coho l production. The primary need is for
i magi native readaptation of plant , l and , and crops .
1 01

'"
 SOLOHOL®™
approximately 1 60 proof : 20% water
80 % ethanol

comp l etely grown , gathered , cooked ,

brewed , dist i lled , and distributed
via solar e n ergy and solar wat er
heati n g .

out-line: A Solar Alcohol Industry

By lin kin g al l producers together into area or regional coop-

..../ eratives , t h e techn o l ogy can be spread very rapidly , and capital
J can be q u ickly aggr egated from smal l, marginal investments by a
---'
number of smal l producers . Scale management and technical skills
.._/
can be very efficiently used . The risk factors involved in attempt-
ing to do something n e w can b e largely e l iminated .
~

-.J This s cenario cou ld provide a 10 % switch over to alcohol in one

J year and a 20% switch over to alcohol in two years. In some areas ,
J the switch over cou l d be as high as 95% in two years: in Hawaii ,
Puerto Rico , portion s of the South, portions of the Midwest, and
J
portions of the West .
\...../
.._/
a Producer's Coop : agricultural coops could easily provide for
J
operation of the plant and organize a credit
.J system for materials supplied . Farmers bring
J in crops and draw out alcohol . Excess is
.._)
marketed to distributor ' s coop .
J
b . Distribut9r.' s Coop: All reg i onal or area producers could form
J a distribution coop under which they share
-' demand and joi ntly operate a fleet of vehi -
cles on a clear , simple % plan and mileage
J
rate fee . Once set up, a cooperative fleet
o f vehicles can be managed with very low over-
0
head expenses (and very low fuel costs) .
v
._) The distributor's coop wi ll very quickly be ab l e to create the
presence of solohol on the reta il market, and continue to expand
..J
supply to meet an omniverous , overwhelmi n g d e mand .
....J

J The distributor ' s coop woul d a l so provide an excellent medium

to distribute modification kits , k n owl edge and skil l s for adapting
J

J
. automobi l es , heat burners , and other energy consumers to alcohol .
J 102 ®Trade mark: AMBIX
......,
 \.._..,

v
,....,
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Solohol a b c d ~ . .,..
retail dealer distributor processors raw .-'
price margin margin margin materia ls .-'
suppliers
$1.00 = . 25 + . 10 + . 20 + .45 ·.....--
~
.....-
IJ""
a The dealers are being crushed into feudalism by small profit .....-
margins of 15%. Servi ce has disappeared . Convenience , hours,
etc. all reflect the l ow margins. With 25 % margins, you 'll see
. ~

y
a li ghtning flash change over--and more demand for solohol than
can be filled in 10 years of maximum expansion. The entire e con - .....-
omi cs of gas will change, and service stations wi ll again foster ....,
conven ience, good hours, and ancil l iary competitive services . lit"
~
b Since mo s~ distribution wil l be provided by cooperati ves of small
r e giona l producers , the $ .10 margi n sho uld inc l ude a good profit % . _/ I
on the activity of distributi on. ~ I
~ I
c Processing costs include labor , capital, plant, equipment , tools , ~ I
maintenance, etc. The key question is whether efficient , sma ll,
~
solar-powered units , producing 500 to 5000 gal l ons a day can be
operated and capitalized with profit o n a revenue of $ . 20 per ~ I
gallon. If so , this wi ll provide a very excellent e nterprise ~~
for fa rm cooperativ€s and large 1 000 + acre agri cultural enter- ~ ~
prises.

d Raw materials inc lude the water, sugars , plant materials, and
yeast . A l ot of very scie ntific recycling can keep these costs
low, but the plant material wil l always cost a major portion of
the final cost o f alcohol. This $ .45 of mater ials per ga ll on
of a lcoho l should i nclude the farmer ' s crop profits and may be
a net cost , after deducting income from the sale of t he feed - stock
by-products.

At the current cost of grain and refined sugars, it appears

impossible to keep the mater ial costs below $.45 per gal l o n
on a commercial basis , unless the following conditions are met :
a. The waste s l op can b e so l d for animal feed or
recycle d until nearly all the starch and cel-
los e is reduced to g lucose and f e rmented.
b. The raw crop material is high in natura l sugar .
c. The conversion of grain to use only as a ma l t for f ermenting
with c he aper sources of starch .
 100% Solar Ethanol System Model
A Theoretical Axiomatic System For The Exploration Of Plant Biology
In The Quest For Alcohol Distribution
NINE AXIOMS ABOUT THE ECONOMICS OF ALCOHOL

1. Any plant matter can be us e d.

2. Each climati c region will have its own uni que "best" agricul-
tural basis for maximizi ng the use of materials for food and
alcoho l .

3. A wide variety of methods can be used in a variety of scales

ranging f rom ve ry small un its to very large units .

4. For maximum efficiency , each type and constituent of plant

matter will no doubt be best converted by the use of a highly
specific set of processes.

5. Distribution beyond the local scale of production will become

increasingly costly with distance.

6. Distribution will rarely occur out side of major regions or

across water .
7. Alcohol can be " refined'' out of the biomass wi th comp l etely
solar-powe r ed processes or with supplemental energy supplied '-•
b y consuming a small % of the a l cohol output.

8. Alcoho l can be ~refined" out of the biomass with compl e t e l y

biological enzymatic reactions .

9. The maximum ef fi ciency of production will be creat e d by com-

bining th e fir s t 8 axioms .
'-.,
Side Note: Very little of t h e potential combinations have been
analyzed or e xplored . The f ie l d is wide open but
the re already exists (September 1979) a very large
amount of information about a very diverse r ange of
empirical exper i ences which needs to be synthe siz e d .

104
 5 Cybernated Solar Biomass Machine
Sun Prime Mover

Imagine walking fiown a beach and coming to huge glass pipes

drawing sea water inland from the seashore at your feet. Your gaze
wanders inland, catching sharp sparkles of reflected light from a
crystalline mass a few hundred yards inland.
Your eye begins to quickly inspect the crystal structures
Narrow glass columns grow in a dense, highly geometric forest,
marching inland for as far as a mil e . Glass pipes and tubing
connect the columns, both top and bottom, in an intricate latice.
Shining metal reservoirs, like oil refinery tanks, br eak up the
crystaline mass in a rigid geometical patte rn.

The predominant color of the mass is a light, almost char~

treuse green, merging into the browns, blacks a n d whites of a huge
nearby metropolitan area.

CONCEPT: Sustain continual algae bloom, fermentation, distillation,

'-
and recycling using computer operated pumps to move all mass.
Pumps operate from generators powered by the alcohol produced from
ethanol. The sun drives what is almost a perpetual biomass ma-
chine.

Material Input:

seawater and various nutrient salts

Material Output :

a l cohol, water, sea salts, trace metals, C02, Oxygen

------ - 105
'-

'-
POLICY
...__,

"--'
NEEDS
'-

'-

'--'
"-../

'--' 1 Environmental Impact

"-
2 Economic Impact
.__,
'-"

'-'
3 Solar Alcohol Field Development
'--'
'-' 4 Technological Development Needs
5 Experimental Research Program

6 Governmental Role

107
 A SHORT ESSAY ON CARBON DIOXIDE AND THE "GREENHOUS E EFFECT"

A few academic sci e nti sts have been p reaching a d o omsday gos -
pel of "The Greenhouse Effect" . Accordin g to this very abstract,
n o n-empirica l theory , t he more that C02 (ca rbon dioxide) is released
into the earth 's atmosphe re , the more that the sun's heat- e n ergy
will be trapped on earth . The solar energy that is currently re-
flected back into space will increasingly stay o n earth , warming
the .entire earth just enough to melt the polar ice caps . The melt -
ing ice will inc r ease the d epth of t he oceans just enough to f lood
coas tal areas. P r e sto! Doomsday !

This theory has become of concern to environmentalists becau se

of the massive amoun ts of C02 that i s re l eased when burni n g hydro-
carbons (gasoline, fuel oil, and coal ) in our automob iles and fac-
torie s .

Those who encounter t his hi ghly speculative, un substantiated

theory should be very wary of e mbra c i ng a n ew d oomsday scare.
Journalists should espec i a lly take n ote that there i s significant
opposi tion to this theory in the scientific community . I t appears
that there has b een no warming of the earth so f ar, despite 50 years
of industrialization. Plus , weath er t rend s over the past 20 years
seem to be pointi n g to a s l igh t cooling of the earth ' s ave rage
temper ature.
"
Finally, t h e re is only one subs tantia ted, empirical " Green-
house Effec t ". When C02 is increased in a sealed greenhouse , the
plants breathe it in f aste r for their photosynthesi s, and grow
substantially faster , consuming the extra C02. This real "Green-
house Effe ct" completely contradicts the doomsday mental i ty of a
few very obtuse academics who app a rent a l y are so highly specia l ized
in their theories that t h ey are unable to s ~e the obviou s ecolo g i- V
cal connection b e tween co2 a nd plant s.

The release of extra C02, as a byproduct of indu stria l civil-

izati o n, is one of the few side effects which is genuine ly ecologi -
cally sound. It is a pity that this "Greenhouse Effect" has threat-
ened to become a doomsday "b1,1zz word " a mong t he s o -called environ-
mentally "hip".

MWM

108
 Solar Alcohol:
1
~sssss~
Environmental Impact sssssssssss~

The entire process is a natural organic process. It u ses no

adverse , costly, or toxic chemicals whatsoever . It i s made from
yeast , water , and p lant matter.

It is mixed together and stored, and kept warm by the sun's

h eat for 48 hours. Carbon dioxide is given off as a gas . NO POL-
LUTION. C02 is a natural substance, and i t wi l l tend to increase
p l a nt product i vity in the area s li ght l y .

The n the mash is filtered , the a l coholic water is disti lled

into water and a lcohol . The water i s pure and can be recycled .
The mash can be used for animal feed or compost, since all it con-
tains -is broken down starch and sti l lage-- - the f ibrous aspects of
the plants, and a few remaining organic substances which will act
as a plant nutrient.

When burned, the alcohol f u el creates an almost p ure exhaust

of carbon dioxide and water vapor. No pollutants , lead, or poison-
ous gases, such as carbon monoxide. There may b e a trace of acids
and nitrogen oxides .

BIOMASS ETHANOL FUEL :

completely renewable
infinitely e xtendible
self- stabi l izing eco-system
easiest technology
lowes t - cost capi tal

109
 Enyiro:nmental- Impact
100% Switch To Ethanol Fuel

l. Slightly coole-r urban areas.

2. Elimination ·of smog.
3. Reduction of thermal inver~ion hot - house effect of major metro-
politan areas.
4. Stimulated plant g~owth and acceleration of oxygen production.
5. Slightly less noise.
6. Significant reduction in urban dirt and grime.
7. Elimination of hydrocarbon (oil) slick on roads; some reduction
in accidents
8. All add into: a vastly improved time frame for survival of the
planetary eco- syste:m and its natural atmospheric parameters,
governing weather, agriculture, and the national wealth.

SUMMARY CONCLUSION: There is no other single, simple move which

can offer us mutually such a favorabl e , positive impact on the en-
vironment. Al l other choices, while offering various types of econ-
omic benefits, come with major negative environmental impacts, with-
out exception.
 2· Economic Impact
100 % Switch to Solar Ethanol

u.s.
1. Create a new "cash crop" with income potentials signifi-
cantly larger than no-growth subsidy allowances.

2. Increase net farm incomes and the economic health of far-

mers.

3. Return of agriculture to free market economics; end of

government subsidies.

4. Vastly decentralize and democratize the energy industry.

5. Elimination of oil imports into the U.S.

6. Dissolve the power of OPEC and the oil monopolies; signi-

ficant collapse of the price of crude oil and its fuels.

7. Return to a period of relatively cheap, abundant energy---

at least for heating and transport.

8. A vastly improved dollar; probably the slow-down of infla-

tion.

9. A period of rapid growth and improvement 1n quality.

International
1. Reduction of oil imports by Japan.

2. Energy self-sufficiency in all tropical agricultural

areas .

3. Energy self-sufficiency for impoverished farmers.

4. A significant stimulation of total world economic growth,

espe cially in rural areas .

5. Dramatic national economic growth in a few spot areas;

Philippines + sugar cane = Japan + $.

lll"-'"
 3 Solar Alcohol Field Development

1. Rapid Information Implosion: Severe gaps of information exist

between all of the specialized sciences, exper imenters, policy-
makers, and industries connected with alcohol. Extremely rap-
id progress will occur by synthesizing what is currently poss~ ­
ble in the field.

2. Computerization: The entire planetary biomass should be com-

puterized with sufficient information to conduct trade - off
analysis of alternative cropping/fe rmentation methods .

.J
V
J
J 3. Multi-path Technological Articulation:
J A wide variety of materials, methods, and skills can be used in
different areas and nations.

4. Multi-path Commerical Articulation: Some nations can be energy

self-sufficient from the biomass. Others can expect some degree
of energy productio n from biomass. Progress in defining the
._,1
possible may contribute more to economic . development of some
....... countries than any other move .

'--"
v

J
_)
5. Mass Education Technique: The main "productivity gap'' is the
'-.../
lack of ski l ls and awareness to create the biomass energy.
V

'-
._/

J
...../
112
..J
V
r
,---------------------------------------------------------------~·~

4 Technological Development Needs

1. Elementary, simple, small scale, inexpensive distill a tion

columns and solar run-off beds .

2. Solar powered heat pump system with alcohol field fuel - cells
or electrical generators for cooling , heating, and precise temp-
erature control of water .

3. Simpl e , inexpensive , electronic computer "control s" for con-

trolling heap pump, process tests, and operations of pumps
and valves.
4. Elementary hardware and plumbing syste~ for handling the li-
quids, using off-the - shelf components.
5. Evolution of continuous, multi-enzyme , fermentatio n techniques
for a wide variety of plant matter.
6. Evolution of extraction , filte ring, and absorption techniques
for biological substances .
'
7. Isolate more specialized fungus, bacteria, and yeast strains
for-specialized fe rmentations.

5 Research Program

One 1,000 acre parcel lo cated i n a major agricultural area of the

country :

1. Experimental des ign and test of solar processing techniques.

2. Experimental design and test o f mash r eceipes for a wide

variety of plants at diffe rent stage s of maturity.

3. Define and t es t the economic parameters for all biological fermen-

tation age nts.

113
~.............................................................................._.~ v
 ,. .. I!C

6 Governmental Role

GOVERNMENT ACTION I N THE SOLAR ALCOHOL FIELD

'
• v
)

ABSOLUTELY I MPERATIVE:

V 1. De- regulate alcohol production contro l s for use as a f u e1 .

2. Eliminate d e natura nts. These are total l y po int less , a gro-

tesque relic from the 1 9th cent ury . Th e b ureaucratic men-
tality behind i t i s sick and diseased:
"to make sure we get our tax, we ' re going to de libera -
. te l y pois o n and ki l l anybody who drinks an alcoh ol
without o ur sea l on it. "

3. Levy no n ew taxes on a l cohol. Let alcohol be used as a fue l

wi thout coming under motor fue l taxes .

4. Demonstrate i maginat i ve l e a dersh ip in the funding of trial

projec ts, research programs, and educational programs .

5. Provide r eason able interest rates f or capital financing of

new plants .

HELPFUL:

l . Catalyze rapid information impl osion and synthes is.

2. Cata l y ze t echnology demo s tration programs.

3. Cata lyze institutional self - a nalysis for t h e adopt ion of

solar alcohol e n e rgy t e chnology in the p u bl i c s ector .

0
NOT NECESSARY :
V
___), 1. Subsidie s or tax inc e nt ives .
J
2. Mas sive gove rnme n t al investments .
J
3. New bureaucracy .
J
J
J
114
J
V

'-"
- REFERENCES .- I
• I
.. ,
... ,
~~
IJII I

~ I
GLOSSARY ~I
.. I
~ !
~ I
~ ~

BIBLIOGRAPHY

v
115 '-'
V I GLOSSARY
A CELLULASE: An enzyme for break-
ACETIC ACID: Vinegar.
ACID HYDROLYSIS: The treatment
of wood wastes with heat
and acid to produce sugars
for fermentation/distilla-
tion.
ACTIVE SOLAR SYSTEM: Any system
that needs mechanical means
such as motors, pumps,
valves, etc., to operate.
ALCOHOL: A complex chemical fam-
ily of the methanol base.
An organic solvent.
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE: Another
way of saying how cold or
how hot it is outdoors.
ANEROBIC FERMENTATION: Method
of fermentation whereby
air is prevented from com-
ing into contact with the
brew.
B of course, the quality of
"BEER": The mash which has
fully fermented.
BIOCONVERSION: Utilization of
agricultural or municpal
wastes to provide fuel.
BREWERS YEAST: A type of yeast,
Saccaromyceds Cerevisiae,
which has beeh cultured
specifically for brewing
beer.
BRITISH THERMAL UNIT (BTU) : A
unit of energy defined as
the amount of energy re-
quired to heat one pint of
water one degree Fahren-
heit.
c
CARBON DIOXIDE: The gas, C02,
produced by the action of
y east during fermentation.
CARBOY: A closed container used
to insure an anerobic fer-
mentation.
ing down cellulose.
CELLULOSE: A plant fiber, a car-
bohydrate; the organic cry-
stallization of sugar into
plant structure- -- fibrous
and woody materials.
CHLOROPHYLL: An organic mole-
cule in p l ant matter which
synthesizes carbon dioxide
and water into glucose.
COLLECTOR, or SOLAR COLLECTOR:
A device for rece iving so -
lar radiation and convert-
ing it to heat in a fluid.
COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY: The fract-
ion of incoming iadiation
captured by th e collector.
If your system captures
half of the incoming radi-
ation, you have a system
that is 50 % efficient.
Efficiency varies accord-
ing to outside tempera-
tures, whether skies are
clear or cloudy, whether
it is windy or not, and,
the collector. There is
no way a collector can be
100 % efficient; that is, to
capture all the BTU's that
fall on the collector; 55 %
is good under desirable
weather conditions.
CONCENTRATOR: Reflector or lens
designed to focus a large
amount of sunshine into a
small area, thus, increas-
ing the temperature.
CARBOHYDRATE: A complex family
of organic compounds, ln-
cluding all sugars, starch-
es,· and cellulose which
make up 3/4 of the dry 117
weight of all plant matter.
 ;; 2\ }! P( iL
D G
DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION : The
burning 'with an acid and
heat to drive . off a l coho l
vapors .
DEXTROSE: A basic sugar, also
k nown as corn sugar.
DIASTASE: An enzyme which
breaks down starch. Found
in all grains and seeds.
Barley sprouts.
DI STILLATION: Heating a liquid
to a vaporous state and
condensing l iquid from the
vapor .
E H
ENZYME: An organic catalyst
secreted by cells, and
critical to life process -
es.
ETHANOL: Ethyl a lcohol .
ETHYL ALCOHOL: A primary a li-
phatic saturated alcohol
naturally produc ed by fe r-
mentation.
F ive a~d and powerful in-
FERMENTATION: A process by
which yeast acts on sugar
to convert it to carbon
d i oxide ga s and alcohol
in approximately equal
amounts.
FERMENTATION LOCK : A device
to insure that carbon di -
oxide gas can escape from
the carboy without allow-
ing air to e nter.
FRUCTOSE: A fruit sugar glu-
cose found in fruit.
118
GALACTOSE : A complex sugar .
GASOHOL: A blend of 10 % a lcohol
in gasoline .
GLUCOSE: The simplest suga r of
the carbohydrate family .
The base building block
for the entire plant king -
dom ; sourc e of bio logical
energy for all predators
of th e plant kingdom
GRAIN ALCOHOL: Ethyl alcohol
fermentated and disti lled
from grains.
HEAT PUMP: A device for trans - .
fe r of heat from one to
another.
HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM : A system
that uses both active and
passive methods to oper-
ate (e.g . , a solar system
which uses pumps to heat
and nocturnal cooli n g to
cool) .
HYDROCHLORIC ACID : HCL Digest-
dustrial chemica l .
HYDROMETER : A device to measure
relative amount of a sub -
stance disso l ved in water .
Sikes measures amount of a
sugar ~ Brix measures amount
of alcohol.
I
INVERTASE : A yeast enzyme which
convert s sucrose to glucose .
ISOLATION: The rate of solar
radiat i o n received per
u ni t area .
 K p
KILN: A large drum used to dry
and warm barley malt
KILOCALORIE, or 1000 calories:
The amount of heat need-
ed to raise one kilogram
of water (about a quart)
one degree centigrade. It
is equal to 3.96 BTU.
KILOWATT: One thousand watts of
power; equal to about 1 1/3
horsepower.
KILOWATT-HOUR (kWh) : The amount
of energy equivalent to 1
kilowatt of power being
used for 1 hour = 3,413
BTU.
L R
LACTOSE: A complex sugar found
in milk.
-M
MASH: The plant matter which
has been processed in pre-
·paration for fermentation
into alcohol.
MAJ;.T: Crushed, sprouted grain
which contains diastase
enzyme and maltose.
MALTOSE: Malt sugar which can
be converted to alcohol
and carbon dioxide gas
by the action of the yeast.
METHANOL: The simpliest member
of the complex alcohol fam-
ily.
N
NUTRIENTS: Organic compounds,
especially proteins, vit-
amins, minerals, and car-
bohydrates.
V
PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEM: A system
that uses gravity, heat
flows, evaporation or other
acts of Mother Nature to
operate without mechanical
devices to collect and
transfer energy (i.e.
south facing windows) .
PHOTOVOLTAIC: Direct conver-
sion of the sun's energy
into electricity.
PROOF: The percentage of alco-
hol in a solution with wa- V
ter.
PYRANOMETER: An instrument for
measuring solar radiation.
V
V
REFLUX COLUMN: A device which
cycles liquids through two V
or more distillations.
RESIDUE: The solids remaining
after ferm~ntation/dis­
tillation.
'-
V
s V
SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE: La-
tin name for brewers
yeast.
SOLAR CELL: A device, usually
made of silicon, that con-
verts sunlight directly y
into electrical energy. V
SOLAR DISTILLATION: Utiliza- V
tion of solar energy to
drive distillation pro-
cess.
11 ~
 SOLAR CONSTANT: The average
amount of solar radiation
reaching the earth's at-
mosphere per minute.
This is just under 2 lang-
leys, or 2 gram- calories
per square centimeter.
This is equivalent to
442.4 BTU/hr/ft2, 1395
watts/m2 or .1395 watts/
cm2.
SOLAR RIGHTS: An unresolved
legal issue involving who
owns the rights to the
sun's rays.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: Relative
weight of same volume of
water.
SULFURIC ACID: H204, an im-
portant powerful indus -
tial acid.
T
TRICHODERMA VIRIDE: A mold
which breaks down cellu-
l ose through enzyme ac -
tion .
w
WOOD ALCOHOL : Methanol which
is distilled from wood
products .

SYSTEM EFFICIENCY: BTU's are

lost from the time the
V
sun ' s rays hit the col-
lector to the moment they
are us e d in comparison to
the original number com-
ing in. The answer is the
efficiency of the whole
system. (A very impor-
tant consideration.)
V
YEAST: The organism that con-
verts sugar into alcohol
and carbon dioxide gas
during its reproductive
cycle .

SPROUT: A seed which has "ger- z

minated" by cracking its
shell and sending out a ZYMASE: A yeast enzyme that
living shoot which will be- turns glucose into a lcohol.
come a stalk .

STARCH: Very complex sugar

structures; literally, a
large group of carbohy-
drate compounds.

STILL: A distillation appara-

tus .

SUCROSE: A sugar; a disaccha-

ride, two glucose mole-
cules joined by removal
of one water molecule.

SUGARS: The simplest members

of the carbohydrate fami-
ly. The building blocks
of al l plant matter .

120
 "-'

,--------------------------------------------------------

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alcohol Fuels; House of Representatives; Committee on Science and
Technology. 1978. ..._1
The bibliography is extre mely rich in details of the costs
and economics of alcohol fuel production from various sources.

Alcohol Fue ls (citation f rom the NTSI data base) Report for
1964 - J une 1978. Cavagnaro, D.M. (National Technical Information
Service: Springfie ld, VA (USA)). July 1978. p. 193. NTIS PCNOl/
MFOl.
The bibliography covers Federally-funded research on alcohol
based fuels that might have to be us e d in the future as a fuel
source. The citations cover synthesis , chemical analy sis , per-
formance testing, processing, pollution , economics, environmental
effects, and f eas ibility. (This updated bibliography contains V
187 abstracts, 59 of which ar e new e ntries to the previous edition.)

Alcoho l Fue l s (citations from the Engineering Index data bas e )

Report f or 1970 - June 1978 . Cavagnaro, D. M. (National Te chnic a l
Information . Service. ~ Springfield , VA (USA)). July 1978. p 198.
NTIS PCNOl/MF NOl~
Worldwide research citations discuss the n ew technology in
the f ield of alcohol f uels. The bibliography covers the · differ-
ent problems of synthesis , processes used, properties, engine per -
formanc e evaluations, economics, safety meas ures, pollution ef-
fec ts, and combustion stud i es . The research also covers sources
from which alcohol fue l s can b e obtained; s uch as coal, solid V
wastes, industri a l byproducts, and agricultural wastes . (This J
updated bibliography contains 191 abstracts , 40 of which are n e w
e ntries to the previous edition.

Alcohol Fue l s ; Senate Hearings; Committee on Appropriations, 1979.

There ex1sts no better summary br1efing on the use of alcoho l
as a fuel and the e conomics of producing it.

Alcohols: Their Chemistry; Properties , and Manufacture. John A.

V
Monick (Rese arch and Developme nt at Cogate-Palmolive Company) .
Reinhold Book Corp, New York. 1968: LCC: 68-23906. V
The entire chimical basis of alcohol is prese nted ; the his-
tory and current industrial synthesis of a l cohol is set forth .
V

Bre w It Yourself: A Complete Guide to the Brewing of Beer, Mead , J

and Wine. Lergh P . Beadle; Farrar, Strauss, and Giroux: New York.
1971; LCC: 79-164535.
A fun, connoiseur's approach to home brewing . ..._
l 12J..__..,
'--"
~
\.._.,
,....
,...
..... Ch emica l Process Industries . R. Novu s Shreve , Con s u lting Ch emi ca l
En gine er ing , Pu rdue Un iversity; McGraw~ H i ll : New York . 1 967.

-
'-"
..-.. A definitive o u tline of al l c h emica l sys t e ms technology ;
'-" comprehensive description of chemicals and the ma n ufacturin g
.._., ste p s to produce them .
'-"
Chemicals From Fermen t at i o n. Peter A. Hahn; Doubl eday: New York .
'-'
~ 19 68.
'-'
,_... A succinct outlin e of b i ologica l ferme ntation t echniq u es
"--' to produce biological agents o ther t h a n a l coho l.
r
Chemistry and Technology of Wines and Li q u ors . Herstein and Greg-
-
v
"--'
ory; Van Nostrand: New Yor k . 1935 .
The ABC ' s of Commercial beverage manufacture .
,...
.J
Energy Primer: So l ar , Win d, a n d Bi o - Fue l s . edtd . Richard Merr i l ,
'-"
Thomas Gage ; De ll Pub li sh i ng : New York. 1978 .
-' A very rich o u tline and brief gl i mpse into a wide diversity
'-" of e nergy sources and technologi es ; no bet ter overall summary ex-
-.../ ists.
-.
._.....
Maki n g Al cohol Fuel. Lance Cromb i e ; Rut an Pu blish i ng: Post Office
Box 3585 , Minneapoli3 MN 55403 ; 1 979 .
\..;
An exce l lent source of technical information about how to
'--' make ethanol f u el in a variety of ways .
-'

'-'
"Mother is Making Fuel " ; Moth er Earth News ; Mar/Apr 1979 . pp . 114-
1 1 7.
'-"'
,.... Out l ine of small scale research; a l coh o l fue l exper i mentation.
'-../

'--' "Plowboy Intervi ew ", Lance Cromb i e ; Mo t her Eart h News; Jan/ Fe b . 1 979 .
.........
pp. 17 - 24 .
.... Solar alcohol p j o n eer ; al coho l fue l experimentation .
'-"

'--" Proceedings ; Conference on Capturin g the Sun t hrough Biocon version .

'- The Bio- Ene r gy Counci l: 1 337 Connecticu t Avenue N. W., Sui t e 204 ,
...._; Washington D. C. 20036 ; 1976.
"'
A very broad out l ine of the s t ate of the· ar t ; a collection of
papers .
'-'
'-' Su gar : Its Product i on , Technology , a n d Uses . An d r ew Hook; Rona l d
'-' Press : New York. 19 4 9 .
v An excel l ent histor i cal s ummary o f t h e American s u gar indu stry.
'-"
Syn thetic Meth ano l . I n dus t r ial Chemic a l s Dept .; Commeric i a l So l -
'--"
vents Corporation: New York . 1952.
A b ri ef on the c h aracte r ist i cs a n d u s es o f methano l .
'-'

'-'
The Report of t he Al coho l Fue l Po l i c y Revi ew . U. S . Department of
._..... Ene r gy; June 1979 .
An o utline br i ef of t he a l coho l f i e l d ; s ets f o r t h a bas i c po l-
'-" icy stance for the Department of Energy i n admi nistering i t s d eve l -
'-../
o p men t programs .
'--"
'--"
Use of Al coh o l F rom Farm Produ cts i n Motor F u e l . u.s . Agricu ltu r al
Economics Bureau; 1933 .
An exce l len t summa ry of t h e econ omi cs o f a lc ohol a nd product -
v ivity yie l ds i n 1933.
._..... 1 22
V

'-'

\....-
 '>...../

"--'

)('
)(
...
Conversions )(

•
)(

l Calorie = .00397 BTU heat required to raise one gram one degree ')(
Centigrade - C ,....
'w
l gallon water= 8.33 lbs (600F) 0.134 Cubic feet 120 oz =
8 pts = 3.785 .-:
'w
l BTU = 2~1.6 calories =heat r equired to raise one lb of water ') (
one degree Fahrenheit - F 'W
l Pound = 453.6 Grams
'-.
....
l Cubic Foot= 7 .48 gal liquid= 62.36 lb s H 0 at 60 F ')(
2
'.-
l Acre = 43,560 square feet- 4840 square yards '¥
~
To change from F to C, subtact 32 and then multip l y by 5/9
'I(
To change from C to F, multiply by 9/5 and add 32 •
"'
'¥ 1

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'(
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123'-;"

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