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FUELS USED IN CATERING INDUSTRY

What are fuels? They are the source of heat used to cook food.
Examples? Firewood, charcoal, kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and electricity.
Solid Fuels Liquid Fuels Gaseous Fuels Electricity (as heat source)
Wood, coal, peat, Petrol, Diesel, Coal gas, methane, Sources: Thermal, Hydel,
lignite, coke, Kerosene, Spirit, Oil LPG,producer gas, coke Nuclear, Non-conventional
anthracite oven gas energy
Advantages: Easy Advantages: Low ash Advantages: High Advantages:Ease of
transport & storage, content, easy to control calorific value, easy operation, easy control, no
low cost, moderate combustion, small combustion, easy smoke/ash/soot, clean to
ignition temp. storage space, easy transport through pipes, use, high effeciency
Disadvantages:High transport, high calorific no smoke/ash/soot, Disadvantages: High cost,
ash content, high value, high efficiency clean to use. Power cut disruptions
clinker, low burning Disadvantages: High Disadvantages: Large
effeciency, not easy to cost, special storage, storage tanks needed,
control combustion, high fire hazard, burner high fire hazard. Hgh
high handling cost, choking, cost, less natural
low calorific value, resources.
high chimney for
emission gases.

Primary fuels (Naturally occuring fuels) Secondary / Prepared / Derived fuels

Wood, coal, lignite, anthracite, oils, shale, crude Charcoal, coke, coal tar, spirit, kerosene, diesel,
petroleum/oil. water gas, butane, electricity

Non-Renewable Renewable
Nonrenewable resources are those natural resources Renewable resources are those resources that can be
that cannot be replaced once they are used up. Some replaced by nature as they are used up. Some
examples include: oil, coal, gas, uranium examples include: sun, water, air, wood, soil.

Properties of Ideal Fuel

Low non-volatile content
Moderate rate of burning
Easy to store & transport
Low smoke production

No toxic by-products
High calorific value
Low ignition point

Easy availability

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ENERGY RESOURCES – FOSSIL ENERGY RESOURCES:

OIL: Oil represents almost 40percent of the total energy consumption. Oil may be used in many products;
heating oil is only one of them. Other products include natural gas, solvents, gasoline, kerosene, diesel,
lubricating oil, & residue.

COAL: The second most commonly used source of energy for industry. Some large institutional complex
utilizes coal to produce electric energy, with heat as a secondary output (co-generation). Coal is also used
widely as cooking fuel in the hotel industry. Coal is one of the most abundant fossil fuel reserves on the
earth. The heat value of coal is derived from its carbon content.
1kilogram of carbon(c), when combined with sufficient oxygen (O2)  produces carbon dioxide (CO2) &
will liberate 14,000 btu per pound (9050 watts per kilogram).
The major classifications of coal are:-

Anthracite- Low sulphur content & high heat value.

Bituminous - High in sulphur & with a high heat value.
Brown Coal - Very low in sulphur & with medium heat content.
Lignite - Low sulphur & a low heat value.
Other fossil resources that are available in nature & could be used in future are shale oil, synthetic oil from
coal, petroleum from biomass resources.

Gases
Gas energy resources include natural gas (NG), liquid natural gas (LNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), &
synthetic natural gas (SNG).
Natural gas & LNG
The primary source of heat in natural gas is methane (CH4). When methane is combined with oxygen
(contained in air), the by products are carbon dioxide, water vapour, & heat but no pollutants. It is therefore
an ideal source of energy. Natural gas provides about 1000Btu per cubic foot (1035 watts per cubic meter).
Liquid natural gas is obtained when natural gas is placed under very high pressure. Some LNG is produced
when oil is refined.
LPG:-
Liquefied petroleum gases are primarily propane, butane, and isobutene & are usually extracted from NG.
LPG is an ideal substitute for NG since gas burning equipment can consume either NG or LPG with very
simple adjustments in equipment.
SNG:-
Synthetic natural gas can be produced from either petroleum products or coal. Coal or petroleum products
can be used to produce naphtha, the primary source of heat for SNG.

Electricity:
It is the cleanest fuel, controllable, with easy heat adjustment and requiring no storage space. It can be used
efficiently for roasting, baking and toasting than for boiling and frying. However, it is often plagued with
power cuts and interruptions. Insulation costs for electric equipment are higher than gas, owing to the
costly switchgears required.

NUCLEAR ENERGY:
Nuclear energy can be obtained by fission or fusion. Fission requires the splitting of the uranium atomic
nucleus, which results in the release of large amounts of energy. Many types of nuclear reactions are
currently known. Nuclear fission differs importantly from other types of nuclear reactions, in that it can be
amplified and sometimes controlled via a nuclear chain reaction (one type of general chain reaction). In
such a reaction, free neutrons released by each fission event can trigger yet more events, which in turn
release more neutrons and cause more fissions.
The chemical element isotopes that can sustain a fission chain reaction are called nuclear fuels, and are said
to be fissile. The most common nuclear fuels are U-235 (the isotope of uranium with an atomic mass of 235
and of use in nuclear reactors) and Pu-239(the isotope of plutonium with an atomic mass of 239).

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Fusion is the union of automatic nuclei, resulting in the release of enormous quantities of energy.

SOLAR ENERGY:-
Presently solar collectors provide temperature of 110 to 200°F (43.3TO 93.30°C).
Most building heating systems in use today require much higher – temperature energy resources. So far, the
greatest use of solar energy has been for domestic & swimming pool water heating.
Basic solar energy System-
Solar energy systems are classified as passive or active. Passive systems do not have mechanical
components. A structure is built to utilize solar energy, to capture it for immediate warmth, & to store it for
moderate night time temperatures.
Passive solar heating can be as simple as having many south facing windows & few windows on other
sides of the building. Building & overhang or installing awnings on the south side will prevent unwanted
heating in the summer. Variations on passive heating include:
 Installing brick in front of windows which is heated during the day & re-radiates the heat as night.
 Installing a wax-filled half –height wall in front of the windows which melts during the day &
solidifies at night giving its heat to the inside of the building.
 Building a porch or sunroom with a south facing glass front.
 Building glass over a south –facing brick wall & circulating the heated air into the building.
 Installing solar-wall siding on the south side of the building. This siding has small holes so that air
is drawn into it & heated. The hot air is then circulated into the building.
Active system requires some type of electromechanical device to capture, concert, utilize, & store energy.
These are costly systems. The system must have some type of solar cell, or receiver. The more common
cell are flat- plate thermal collectors that heat up fluids, water or air.
The most effective active solar heating method is to heat a fluid in solar collectors. To prevent freezing at
night, the fluid that is circulated to the collectors is generally a mixture of water & (non-toxic) antifreeze. A
large tank of water is then heated with a heat exchange taking the heat from the water – antifreeze mix &
transferring the heat to the water in the tank.

Heat is difficult to store for very long, but easy to store overnight. Heating a large tank of water is one way
to store heat. Solar cells can also be use to convert solar energy directly to electricity, which has instant
utilization. Electric energy can be conveniently stored in batteries for future use. These direct electric
energy conversion systems are called photovoltaic systems.

What is the measure heat? Heat energy is measured in unit called

Calorie. 1 calorie is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of Temperature conversion
water through 1C (eg. 25C to 26C) [1 kilocalorie  1000 calories] (F – 32)9  C5
CHU (Centigrade Heat Unit): Qty. of heat required to raise the Where C is centigrade
temperature of 1 pound (lb) of water through 1C. [1CHU=453.6cal.] and F is Fahrenheit
BTU (British Thermal Heat Unit): Qty. of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 lb (pound) of water through 1F. [1BTU = 252.16cal]
Specific Heat: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of substance by 1C,
compared with the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the same weight of water by 1C.
The specific heat of water is 1 calorie/gram °C = 4.186 joule/gram °C which is higher than any other
common substance.
Ignition Point or Temperature: The temperature to which a fuel must be raised to cause a chemical union
with oxygen and start burning. (For Coal -150C, Methane-700C, Hydrogen-595C, Petrol-343C)
Calorific value: The calorific value of a fuel is the quantity of heat produced by its combustion - at
constant pressure and under "normal" conditions (i.e. to 0oC and under a pressure of 1,013 mbar).
The combustion process generates water vapor and certain techniques may be used to recover the quantity
of heat contained in this water vapor by condensing it.
The Higher Calorific Value (or Gross Calorific Value - GCV) supposes that the water of combustion is
entirely condensed and that the heat contained in the water vapor is recovered.
The Lower Calorific Value (or Net Calorific Value - NCV) supposes that the products of combustion
contains the water vapor and that the heat in the water vapor is not recovered.

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The joule per cubic metre (J/m³) is the SI unit of heat content (Calorific Value). The metric system uses
the kilocalorie per cubic metre (kcal/m³) [1000 J/m³  [0.238846 kcal/m³], [1 cal  4.18 joules]
Combustion of Fuel: This is the chemical combination of fuel with oxygen to give out light and heat. Slow
combustion gives light, whereas rapid combustion gives both light & heat.
Ideal combustion (Stoichiometric): For proper combustion, the oil and air (oxygen) should be supplied at
correct pressure, temperature and quantity. The proper mixing of oil and air is essential.
Typical fuel oil consists of: 86% carbon (C), 12% hydrogen (H), 2% sulphur (S) by weight.
Air consists of: 21% oxygen (O2), 79% nitrogen (N2)
Combustion Materials Combustion Products
1kg Fuel  14.1kg Air (ie.3.27kg O2 & 10.83kg N2 )  3.15kg CO2  1.08kg H2O  0.04kg SO2  10.83kg N2

Total 15.10kg Total 15.10 kg

In actual practice, the mixing is not ideal and certain amount of excess air is needed to complete
combustion to release the entire heat. If air is less, it would lead to incomplete combustion and smoke. If air
is greatly in excess then surplus air will carry away heat in flue or exhaust gases. Hence optimum air
quantity should be maintained for efficient combustion.

Type of fuel Name Calorific Value

Kcal/kg (approx)
Solid Charcoal 7800
Coal General 6000 – 7500
Anthracite 8600
Peat 3800
Wood 4000
Dung cake 1500
Liquid Kerosene 11500
Properties of various Fuels
Petrol 12000
Fire wood: This is the traditional source of fuel
Diesel 10500
used in many applications. They are dried pieces of
Ethanol 7200
tree branches, coconut husks, coconut and palm
branches, trunks of trees. Furnace oil 10000
Methanol 5500
Gaseous Bio gas 9000
Butane (LPG) 12000
Methane 13000
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Producer gas 1400
Hydrogen 35000
1 kilojoule/gram = 239.0 kCal / kg.
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Advantages: 1.Less expensive as compared to the

other fuels 2.They are readily available
Disadvantages: 1.It makes the working area dirty.
2.The kitchen becomes smoky and uncomfortable.
3.Lighting the fire can be difficult if the firewood
is not dry. 4.Smoke can be scented in the food.
5.Heat cannot be regulated when cooking . 6.
Natural forests are depleted.
Charcoal: Is a type of fuel made from firewood
(wood charcoal) or peat (peat charcoal) using a
special process to burn the source leaving black hard carbon substances.
Advantages: 1.It is less expensive as compared to kerosene gas and electricity but more expensive than
firewood 2.It is available every where.
Disadvantages: 1.It makes working area and utensil
dirty. 2.Lighting of the fuel can be difficult if the
charcoal is hard. 3.One cannot regulate the amount of heat when cooking. 4.The cook will have to fan
the fire to maintain the temperature of the fire.
Kerosene: This is a petroleum product which can be used is specially designed stoves. The stove has a tank
that holds the kerosene and pieces of cotton cords passed through tubes that are attached to the cover of the
tank. The cords are pulled up the tubes with the remaining in the kerosene in the tank and then lighted to
generated for cooking.
Advantages: 1.It is inexpensive as compared to gas and electricity. 2.It is easy to operate but can become
smoky if not well assembled. 3.It can be used anywhere. 4.Worker and working area looks neat and tidy.
Disadvantages: 1.It can explode if kerosene is mixed with other petroleum products. 2.The stove cannot be
used if there is no kerosene
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG): It is a bye-product of petroleum. Its gaseous form is used as fuel to
cook. They are sold in gas cylinders of small, medium, standard and commercial sizes. Tubes are connected
from the stove or cooker to the cylinders to supply gas. It is one of the most convenient fuels used in the
catering business.
Advantages: 1.It is a very convenient to use. 2.Working area, utensil and cook are as neat as possible. 3.It
is less expensive as compared to electricity. 4.It can be used anywhere. 5.Worker can regulate the intensify
of the heat as you cook by turning the knobs on the cooker/stove.
Disadvantages: 1.It is very expensive as compared to fire wood, charcoal and kerosene. 2.When there is a
shortage by supply fuel becomes difficult to get. 3.The cooker/stove with which the fuel can be used is also
expensive. 4.Can be dangerous when there are leakages in the tube or on the regulator. 5.One cannot detect
easily whether there is adequate supply of fuel because the gas cylinders are not transparent and do not
have measuring gauges.
Electricity: It is a source of fuel generated from electric power, which are supplied through the electrical
mains. Stove/cookers having heater elements / coils are then connected to the mains and the knobs of the
stoves turned onto supply the heat.
Advantages: 1.It is very neat to use because it does not make the working area, utensils or worker dirty
2.The heat of fire can be regulated to suit the desired temperature.
Disadvantages: 1.It is very expensive to use because you have to pay huge electric bills. 2.Cannot be used
when there is power outage 3.The cooker/stove with which the fuel is used is expensive 4.Can give electric
shock when faulty.

Calculation of Fuel cost:
Fuel cost  Qty. of fuel consumed x Price
rate of fuel
Quantity of fuel consumption depends on:
1. Size of kitchen 2. Type of fuel
3. Effeciency of the system.
Total heat  Sensible heat  Latent heat of
vaporisation
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Example: Calculate the total heat required to heat 5 kg of
frozen meat at 4C to 74C, given that the volatile loss of
meat is 20% of its initial weight, the latent heat of
vaporisation is 536 kcal/kg and the specific heat of meat is
0.77.
Sol: Volatile weight loss of meat  20% of 5 kg  1 kg.
Latent heat required for above mass  Mass x Latent heat
 1 x 536  536 kcal.
Sensible heat required  Mass x Specific heat x Rise in
temperature  5 x 0.77 x (74 – 4)  269.5 kcal.
Hence, Total heat required  sensible heat  latent heat
 536  269.5  805.5 kcal. Narendra Varma
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Sensible heat  Mass x Specific heat x Rise

in temperature.
Latent heat is that heat which changes the
physical state of a substance without
changing the temperature. (eg. 1. Change of
state from water at 100C to steam at 100C
 536 kcal/kg. 2. Change of state from ice at
0C to water at 0C  80 kcal/kg.)

Modes of heat transfer:

Conduction: (Mainly seen in solid materials)Regions with greater molecular kinetic energy will pass their
thermal energy to regions with less molecular energy through physical contact, a process known as
conduction. Heat conduction is the transfer of thermal energy between regions of matter due to a
temperature gradient. It is a property of the matter and greater is heat conducted when greater is the
Thermal Coductivity. Heat spontaneously flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower
temperature, till thermal equilibrium is reached. To distinguish conduction specifically, it should be stated
that the heat flows through the region of matter itself, as opposed to requiring bulk motion of the matter as
in convection. Conduction takes place in all forms of matter, viz. solids, liquids, gases and plasmas, but
does not require any bulk motion of matter. In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
molecules with the energy transported by free electrons. In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the
collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.

Convection: (Mainly seen in liquids and gases) When heat conducts into a static fluid it leads to a local
volumetric expansion. As a result of gravity-induced pressure gradients, the expanded fluid parcel becomes
buoyant and displaces, thereby transporting heat by fluid motion (i.e. convection) in addition to conduction.
Such heat-induced fluid motion in initially static fluids is known as free convection.
Convection is the movement of molecules within fluids (i.e. liquids, gases) . It cannot take place in solids,
since neither bulk current flows nor significant diffusion can take place in solids.

Radiation: (All materials radiate thermal energy in amounts determined by their temperature, where the
energy is carried by photons of light in the infrared and visible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
When temperatures are uniform, the radiative flux between objects is in equilibrium and no net thermal
energy is exchanged. The balance is upset when temperatures are not uniform, and thermal energy is
transported from surfaces of higher to surfaces of lower temperature. Thermal radiation is the emission of
electromagnetic waves from all matter that has a temperature greater than absolute zero It represents a
conversion of thermal energy into electromagnetic energy. Thermal energy is the collective mean kinetic
energy of the random movements of atoms and molecules in matter.

Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity

Material Material
[Watt/mC] [Watt/mC]
Silica 0.004 - 0.04 Thermal epoxy 1 - 7
Air 0.025 Glass 1.1
Wood 0.04 - 0.4 Soil 1.5
Fibre Insulation 0.042 Concrete, stone 1.7
Alcohols 0.1 - 0.21 Ice 2
Polypropylene 0.25 Sandstone 2.4
Mineral oil 0.138 Mercury 8.3
Rubber 0.16 Stainless steel 12.11 ~ 45.0
LPG 0.23 - 0.26 Lead 35.3
Cement 0.29 Aluminium 237 (pure),120—180 (alloys)

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Epoxy (silica-filled) 0.30 Gold 318

Epoxy (unfilled) 0.12 - 0.177 Copper 401
Water (liquid) 0.6 Silver 429
Thermal grease 0.7 - 3 Diamond 900 - 2320
Tin 64 Zinc 1122

Use of Solar Energy

A solar cooker, or solar oven, is a device which uses the energy of sunlight to heat food or drink to cook it
or sterilize it. Temperatures around 100C can be obtained and pulses, vegetable etc. can be easily cooked.
High-tech versions, for example electric ovens powered by solar cells, are possible, and have some
advantages such as being able to work in diffused light. However at present they are not popular because
they are expensive. The vast majority of the solar cookers presently in use are relatively cheap, low-tech
devices. They have a rectangular enclosure, insulated on the bottom and sides and having two glass covers
on the top. Sunlight enters and heats the enclosure in which the food to be cooked is placed in shallow
vessels. A single glass reflector whose inclination can be adjusted is attached to tha box. This helps in
achieving temperatures higher by about 15C to 20C. The advantages are they use no fuel and cost nothing
to operate, reduce air pollution and slow deforestation and desertification, caused by use of firewood for
cooking. Disadvantages are that they cannot be used for making chapaties or for frying. Solar cooking is a
form of outdoor cooking and is often used in situations where minimal fuel consumption is important, or
the danger of accidental fires is high.

SOURCE EXTRACTION PROCESSING PRIMARY ENERGY

Coal Open Mines Grading

Purification

Thermal

Electricit
Power
y
Hydro Station

Nuclear Mining Enrichment

Natural Gas Wells Treatment

Gas

LPG
Cracking & Petrol
Crude Oil Diesel
Oil Well Refinement
R-2, 05/8/15 Fuel oilsNarendra Varma
Petrochemicals