Section 1

Introduction

During this course, we will be covering the safe use of cranes, which
are commonplace in every area of industry.

In almost every workplace, we wouldn’t be able to complete, or

sometimes even begin a job, without the assistance of one of the
various types of cranes available to us.

The mechanical advantage that cranes afford us, means that instead
of being restricted to lifting weights that we can personally lift, we can
plan and lift much heavier weights; tens or hundreds of tonnes, and in
some situations, even thousands of tonnes.

Unfortunately, this mechanical advantage and associated stored

energy come with hazards and risks that all personnel who are
involved in crane operations are exposed to.

Consequently, there must be a system to verify and assure equipment

readiness. This must be in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions, regulatory requirements, local OMS requirements,
national standards and where applicable Failure Mode Effect Analysis
(FMEA) recommendations, which give due consideration to the
environment and component life cycle.

Also, personnel who are involved with crane operations must…

 Possess a sufficient level of training, competence and

experience or be adequately supervised

 Understand legislation, regulations and standards that have

been implemented by governments, regulators and industry
bodies, and…

 Adhere to local OMS requirements

As a result, this course has been designed to raise your awareness
and understanding of cranes and their safe use.

In addition, upon completion of the course, it is advisable for

personnel to familiarise themselves, as much as possible, with the
relevant legislation, regulations, standards and guidance specific to
their location, and particularly within their own workplace.

Course Structure

The course is organised into a number of sections, these are…

 Cranes
 Legislation, Regulations and Standards
 Stability and Mechanical Principles
 Crane Types
 Boom / Jib Types
 Ballast and Superlift
 Outriggers
 Hoist Ropes
 Line Pull and Line Speed
 Hook blocks
 Crane Functions
 Limiting and Indicating Devices
 Load Charts and Range Diagrams
 Crane Certification
 Operator Competence
 Operator Checks
 Ground Bearing Pressures
 Soil, Ground Conditions, Trenches, Underground Services and
Voids
 Static and Dynamic Lifts
 Crane Selection
 Environmental Considerations
 The Lifting Team
 Communications
 Lift Plan Scale Drawings
 Lifting, Moving and Placing Loads
  Travelling with a Load
 Tandem Lifting
 Topping and Tailing
 Dismantling and Non-Returnable Loads
 Blind Lifts
 Lifting Personnel
 Live Plant, and…
 Maintenance

During this course the slides will stop periodically, at which point you
will be required to answer a series of questions to confirm
understanding. The questions must be answered correctly before you
can proceed to the next section. As a result, at the end of the course,
you will have met the course’s objective of acquiring a demonstrable
level of knowledge and understanding of cranes. However, before
moving onto the next section, we would advise that you have a pen
and paper ready to take notes as you progress through the course.
This will assist you when you are required to answer the questions at
the end of each section.

Cranes

First of all, what is a crane? How can we define or describe exactly

what a crane is, what it does, or how it operates?

A crane is a mechanical device, which is used for the lifting, lowering

and the horizontal movement of a load via a boom and hoisting
mechanism. It generally has six basic motions, which are…

 Hoist up

 Hoist down

 Boom up

 Boom down

 Slew left or swing left as it is known in the US, and…

  Slew or swing right

The lifting capacity of any crane, referred to as the rated capacity, is

dependent on many different criteria, such as the type of crane, the
grades of steel used, its components, dimensions, etc. Two of the
most important elements we must accurately know during lifting
operations are the boom length and the working radius.

Different countries, companies, yards, installations or even colleagues

within one workplace, regularly use different words to describe items,
components or procedures. Sometimes the correct terms are
universally used, but unfortunately, just as often, differing words or
terms are used and can be confusing and or ambiguous in their
meaning. It is therefore essential that each individual involved in the
lifting operation be under no misconceptions or misunderstanding
regarding the terminology before the lifting operation starts.

Legislation, Regulations and Standards

Legislation and regulations will normally be supported by national

and / or international standards, which to a great extent set the
minimum criteria for the design, manufacture and operation of cranes
to ensure they are safe under normal working conditions. Next there
are official and industry bodies, which offer technical guidance.

Onshore in the US there is the Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA) and various other institutes and commissions
such as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).
Offshore there is The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management,
Regulation and Enforcement (BOEM) and the American Petroleum
Institute (API).

Examples of OSHA standards include…

1910.180, Crawler Locomotive and Truck Cranes

1917.45, Cranes and Derricks
1917.50, Certification of Marine Terminal Material Handling Devices
1918.55, Cranes
1918.66, Cranes and Derricks other than Vessel’s Gear and…
1926.1400 Subpart CC, Cranes and Derricks in Construction, which
was issued in August 2010

ASME standards include…

B30.4, Portal, Tower, and Pedestal Cranes

B30.5, Mobile and Locomotive Cranes, and…
B30.22, Articulating Boom Cranes

Along with API recommended Practices and Specifications, such as…

2C, which details the requirements for design, construction, and the
testing of offshore pedestal mounted cranes, and 2D, Operation and
maintenance of Offshore Cranes, which is the most widely used lifting
standard in the Gulf of Mexico.

In Norway, there is the Working Environment Act, which applies to all

land-based operations. With regards to the Oil and Gas Industry, the
principal legislation is the Petroleum Act.

Specific standards include for example…

NORSOK R-003, the Safe use of Lifting Equipment

EN 13852-1, Cranes, Offshore cranes and General-purpose offshore
cranes, and…
NS EN 13001 Part 2, Crane safety

In the UK there is the Supply of Machinery, the Lifting Operations and

Lifting Equipment Regulations (LOLER), and the Provision and Use of
Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER).

Specific crane standards include, for example…

BS EN 13001 Part 1, Cranes, General design, General principles and

requirements
BS EN 13001 Part 2, Crane safety, General design, Load actions,
and…
BS 7121, which is a incomplete series of standards on the safe use of
cranes, and comprises…

BS 7121 Part 1, which provides general recommendations for cranes

BS 7121 Part 2, covers in-service inspection, thorough examination
and, where appropriate, testing for the safe use of all types of crane

Subsequent published parts deal with the specific crane types as

follows…

Part 3, Mobile cranes

Part 4, Lorry loaders
Part 5, Tower cranes
Part 11, Offshore cranes
Part 12, Recovery vehicles and equipment
Part 13, Hydraulic gantry lifting systems, and…
Part 14, Side boom pipe layers

Generally, regulations require that any and all lifting equipment

provided for use at work is strong and stable enough for its intended
use, that it is constructed properly using good quality steels and
components and that it is clearly marked to indicate safe working
loads. Not only must this equipment be correctly positioned and
installed to minimise any inherent risks, but it must also be used
safely, and in the manner for which it was designed. This means that it
is absolutely imperative that every lifting operation must be properly
planned, organised, performed and supervised by competent and
experienced personnel.

SECTION 2

Stability and Mechanical Principles

Cranes are able to lift loads by applying the principles of leverage and
mechanical advantage.
A crane uses its counterweight to balance the load being lifted around the
fulcrum (tipping point) allowing it to remain stable, and therefore safely lift
the load, so long as the crane’s leverage is greater than the load’s leverage
(moment) on the crane. A crane “moment” is found by multiplying the load
weight by the radius.
The term load moment is an engineering term, which refers to the product
of a force and its moment arm. The moment arm is the perpendicular
distance between the force (weight of the load) and the crane’s centre of
rotation. Therefore, with a one-thousand-unit force acting at a ten-unit
radius, the load moment is the product of these two factors, which is ten
thousand units.
Load charts are designed, taking into account both the structural and tipping
limitations of the crane. The high capacity short radius portion is normally
restricted through structural limitation; the low capacity long radius
generally tends to be limited by tipping. The manufacturers of modern
cranes are now using higher-grade steels, which has resulted in the
structural limitation of the load chart increasing. Second, with lighter booms
constructed from more elastic steels, boom deflection has increased; hence
when load is applied the radius increases unless compensated by the Crane
Operator.
It is critical that the Crane Operator not only knows the weight of the load,
but also the exact radius of the load.
Other critical factors, which can affect the safe operation of a crane, for
example…
 Environmental conditions, such as wind, extreme heat and cold

 Ground conditions, such as voids, underground services, load

spreading, and…
  Amplification factors such as shock loading, significant wave height,
etc.
All these factors need to be considered, clearly defined and accounted for in
the lift plan.
Crane Types
Lifting equipment comprises lifting appliances and lifting accessories and is
further divided into five categories, which reflect their different purposes,
certification requirements, control, marking, etc. These categories are…
 Portable lifting equipment

 Fixed lifting equipment

 Transit equipment and slings

 Cargo Carrying Units (CCU), and…

 Mobile Lifting equipment

We will now look at each type individually, beginning with mobile cranes.

Crawler Cranes
Crawler cranes are mounted on an undercarriage with a set of endless
tracks, commonly known as crawlers that provide for both the stability and
the mobility of the crane.
The most common type of jib or boom fitted to a crawler crane is a lattice or
strut jib, although some manufacturers have fitted telescopic jibs to some of
their newer machines.
Crawler cranes have both advantages and disadvantages depending mostly
on their intended worksite and usage. The main advantage of a crawler is
that it is capable of travelling with a load. Whereas the disadvantage is that
it does not have the ability to self-level and therefore must be on level
ground or shimmed.
It also cannot be easily moved from one job site to the next without
significant expense, time and logistical input.
Crawler cranes can range in lifting capacity from 10 tonnes to in excess of
1200 tonnes, with the most common capacities being between 30 and 150
tonnes.
Truck Mounted Cranes
A truck-mounted crane is one that the crane upper works, or
“superstructure”, is mounted onto a truck or lorry chassis, either with or
without a sprung suspension system.
This type of crane should not carry out pick and carry operations because
the suspension set-up is not equipped with effective locks to prevent
unwanted suspension movement while the crane is in operating mode.
It is also important to remember that Hiabs are included in this category of
crane and may not always be fitted with a Rated Capacity Indicator, which
must be taken into consideration during the risk assessment process.
Rough Terrain Cranes
Rough Terrain cranes are mounted on a high chassis or undercarriage with
large rubber tyres. They are designed for static and “pick-and-carry”
operations and for ‘off-road’ and ‘rough terrain’ applications, making them
ideal as semi-permanent site cranes.
Road travel with these cranes is discouraged and will even occasionally be
contrary to local road traffic regulations because of their weight and
dimensions, so normally, they will be transported from site to site by a low-
loader / low-boy.
Most Rough Terrains are fitted with outriggers that are used to level and
stabilize the crane during static lifting operations.
These telescopic cranes are single-engine machines, with the same engine
powering the chassis and the crane. Most have four-wheel drive and four-
wheel steering, which allows them to traverse tighter and uneven terrain
better than a standard truck crane and require less site preparation.

All Terrain Cranes

These are telescopic mobile cranes with the necessary specification of the
chassis and running gear to enable travel at normal road speeds, as well as
on rough terrain at the job site. These machines are manufactured with all-
wheel and crab steering, height adjustable and lockable suspension systems
and have multi-axle drive with lockable differentials.
This type of crane can operate on full, intermediate and retracted
outriggers, and may have duties for ‘on-rubber’, which are static duties and
not pick and carry duties.
All Terrain cranes have between 2 and 9 axles and maximum capacities
ranging between 8 tonnes and in excess of 1000 tonnes.
Compact Cranes, Industrial Cranes and Wheeled Harbour Cranes
Compact cranes, sometimes known as “city cranes” are a short-chassis
version of all terrain cranes fitted with short base section telescopic jibs.
They have a narrow outrigger spread and are designed to allow the crane to
slew a full 360 degrees within that outrigger footprint, ideal for areas where
space is restricted. Capacities are slightly lower than comparable All Terrain
cranes, ranging between 10 tonnes and 70 tonnes.
Industrial cranes, also referred to in the US as Carrydeck cranes, are small
mobile cranes found in engineering factories and workshops the world over,
built by manufacturers such as Iron Fairy, Franna, Broderson and Shuttlelift.
With a short chassis and rear or four-wheel steering that gives them
excellent manoeuvrability, they can access and lift in congested or tight
work areas.
Depending on the manufacturer’s specifications they will usually be fitted
with a fixed or telescopic jib and may or may not be equipped with
outriggers.
Capacities can vary from 2 tonnes to 25 tonnes, with many having ‘pick and
carry’ duties.
Wheeled Harbour cranes are, as the name suggests, designed and
manufactured for working at harbours and on quaysides. They are more
mobile and versatile than harbour cranes that only run on tracks adjacent to
the quayside.
They are predominately fitted with lattice jibs, although there are several
different configurations such as box section and knuckle jibs. They typically
have high mounted operator cabs, also known as High Portal cabs, so that
the Crane Operator can see into the ships hold when loading and unloading.
They may or may not be fitted with outriggers, and have capacities ranging
from 5 tonnes to 40 tonnes.
Pedestal Cranes
The next group are pedestal cranes. As the name suggests, these are cranes
that are mounted on raised platforms or pillars, known as pedestals. This is
the configuration commonly seen on offshore installations throughout the
world, and although usually fitted with a lattice type jib, increasingly knuckle
jib cranes are becoming more available, both offshore and on marine
vessels.
Specifications such as basic crane capacities, jib length, hoist winch capacity,
pedestal height, crane slew and hoist speeds, along with crane position must
all be assessed and evaluated before the crane is installed and brought into
commission.
Capacities vary widely but on offshore installations, they are usually
between 15 tonnes to 80 tonnes, although specialised installations may
have larger cranes fitted.
Marine vessels can also have a range of different cranes installed, all with
different capacities, for example small box section or knuckle jib cranes with
a capacity of 1 or 2 tonnes, up to large lattice or knuckle cranes with
capacities in excess of 300 tonnes.
This type of crane can also be quite sophisticated and include systems such
as emergency release systems, heave compensation and dynamic and static
lifting applications.
Tower Cranes
Tower cranes are not covered in detail in this course but are a modern form
of balance crane. In general, tower cranes offer the best combination of
height and lift capacity and are mostly used in the construction of tall
structures and buildings.
Heavy Lift Barge or Vessel
These are generally used for offshore construction with the largest being
semi-submersible types, which offer increased stability. The crane is usually
mounted on a pedestal allowing the crane to rotate but there are also
sheer-leg type cranes, where the crane is fixed and cannot rotate, and
therefore the vessel has to manoeuvre to position loads. Examples include
the Thialf, which has two cranes, both with a capacity of up to 7,826 ton at
31.2 metres or 102 feet. The Saipem 7000, which has two fully revolving
bow mounted cranes, which both have a capacity of 7,000 tonnes at 40
metres, and the Hermod which, with both cranes working in tandem, can lift
8,100 tons at 39 meters or 128 feet.
Spider Cranes
Spider cranes or mini cranes offer a wide range of applications, being
specifically designed for confined and restricted access operations. These
cranes are commonly used for glass installations, internal lifting, rooftop
maintenance, plant maintenance, steel installations, in-between floor
operations, etc. They can be controlled either from an onboard Operators
seat or by remote control.
Section 3’
Boom / Jib Types
We will now look at the various different elements of a crane, starting with
the various types of jib or boom. The different types have differing
characteristics with regard to the manner in which they are attached to the
crane superstructure and also in their weights and capacities.
Telescopic jibs
First of all, we will look at telescopic jibs, as fitted to most truck mounted
and all terrain cranes. A telescopic hydraulic jib consists of a number of
concentric steel tubes fitted one inside the other. These sections can be
constructed with different cross sections, according to the manufacturers
preferred design, and to the intended capacity and utilisation of the crane.
If you imagine looking at them in cross section, there are square or
rectangular shaped jibs and ovaloid shaped jibs, which are very similar to
square section jibs, but they have heavily radiused corners for better
strength characteristics.
To extend or retract the sections, a hydraulic ram is used to increase or
decrease the total length of the jib. This will happen either sequentially, for
example, all sections telescope in and out in equal proportions to each other
using a double action hydraulic telescopic ram or rams or by a single ram
system that operates by employing a gripper unit and a positive pinning
mechanism.

Guyed Jibs
To increase the capacities of large telescopic jib cranes, various mobile crane
manufacturers have developed systems that counteract the jib deflection
involved when lifting with long telescopic jib configurations.
Known as the Sideways Super Lift by Demag and the Y-Guy by Liebherr,
these load-enhancing attachments greatly improve the rated capacity by
providing extra lateral and torsional stability to the boom along with
providing linear support behind it.
Two tensioning wires are attached to the jib cathead and are reeved through
pulleys on the end of the two lateral masts. As the crane boom is being
telescoped out to the required length and configuration, these tensioning
wires are pulled out of the freewheeling winches they are attached to at the
base of the boom. When the boom is at the required length and the masts
have been set to the required angle, the winches are then activated to
tension the guy wires.
When not in use and when travelling by road, the masts fold down on top of
the jib.
Lattice or Strut Jib Design
This type, depending on the currently used terminology is comprised of
several bolted or pinned together sections that are constructed from
lightweight, thin walled steels. Most use tubular components but there are
manufacturers that prefer to use angle or hollow square section steel.
Whatever the construction, they must have adequate strength and torsional
rigidity, and are designed to take the compression loads applied to them
while lifting a load.
The most commonly seen jib construction is tubular, comprising main
chords joined together by diagonal braces known as “lattices” or “struts”
fitted with picture frame lattices at each end.
The crane manufacturer will have set tolerances on corrosion degradation,
damaged chords or lattices, cracked welds, and any other problems that
may adversely affect the strength or otherwise compromise the integrity of
the lattice jib. For example, a common rule of thumb in the industry is that
the crane should be removed from service if there is any damage to a chord,
a picture frame lattice or more than three lattices in any one section but
specific manufacturer's tolerances must be followed.

Knuckle Boom
The other commonly seen boom type is the knuckle boom, as seen on lorry
loaders, for example Atlas, Hiab and Palfinger types, but also on much larger
marine cranes on board vessels. Similar in cross section to square or
rectangular shaped booms, these are more usually of a simpler construction
with effectively welded and sealed ends rather than having telescoping
sections.
However, more manufacturers are now providing telescoping sections in the
upper boom section, arising in an ambiguity problem with regard to the
crane hand signals to be used. More than ever, it is vitally important during
the planning or pre-work stage of any lifting operation to ensure that there
are no doubts that the Banksman, or Signaller, and the Crane Operator have
discussed and agreed on the exact signals they will be giving and receiving.
Increasing or decreasing the working radius of a knuckle boom crane can
require the co-ordinated movements of both main parts of the boom, which
can move independently, yet relative to each other by means of an
articulated joint, known as the knuckle.
The variable but common terminology in use for these main boom parts are
the “boom” for the primary, lower part, and the “knuckle” or more
obviously “arm” for the smaller higher section.
Its advantages are the ability of the boom tip to get close to the load during
pick-up and landing, thereby keeping any pendulum load swing to a
minimum. However, by keeping the load close to the boom tip, pendulum
oscillation may increase and therefore the crane's designed slewing and
boom speeds would have to be sufficient to compensate for this. For
example, the slew speed must be sufficient to remove load swing.
It should also be noted that the radius and boom length are different from
the standard fixed length boom, and that the boom is strongest with the
second section hanging vertically down.

Ballast and Superlift

The crane ballast or counterweight is critical in ensuring crane stability.
Imagine a child’s seesaw or teeter-totter with an adult’s weight on one end,
which counteracts the weight of the child on the other.
On smaller mobile cranes, the counterweight is fixed and cannot be easily
removed. However, on larger cranes counterweights are designed to be
added or removed with the aid of hydraulic rams or other cranes when
longer or shorter booms and different lifting configurations are used or
when road travel is required. Therefore, it is essential to attach the correct
type and number of counterweights to the crane according to the
manufacturer's instructions.
Where the crane is fitted with a Rated Capacity Limiter, the input into this
system must be correct for the amount of counterweight and the boom
configuration and it must relate to the configuration and capacities shown
on the appropriate load chart.
Another form is the suspended counterweight, often referred to as superlift
or maxilift, which can be found on large crawler, strut or mobile cranes. In
this configuration the additional counterweight is mounted on a hanging
frame attached to the lattice back mast. Under load, the counterweight is
designed to lift from the ground between 85 percent to 90 percent of the
capacity. However, when unloaded the counterweight rests directly on the
ground and therefore, in order to slew the crane, the counterweight must
be temporarily detached from the back-mast hangers. In addition, once the
superlift touches back down, loadings may be transferred back to the track
tips instead of being distributed evenly along the length of the tracks when
the superlift is raised.
Next there is also a ring attachment, known as a “Ringer” available for many
large lattice boom cranes, which can more than triple the capacity and
radius of the base crane. The basic configuration consists of the boom base
attached to a large diameter external turntable or ring. This ring takes the
place of the normal slewring, which greatly increases the tipping fulcrum
and also the available capacities. The crane’s superstructure is mounted in
the centre of the ring. A large mass of counterweight rests on the ring (on
rollers) at the rear when unloaded and hangs from the mast tip when under
load. Once set up, a ringer is not mobile and it may take many days or weeks
to set up or move.
Another configuration is the Lampson Transi-lift, which is a specialized crane
and not an attachment. It consists of a boom and back mast mounted on a
crawler base with the counterweight mounted on a separate crawler base, a
sizable distance behind, normally 15 to 20 metres or 50 to 65 feet.
This arrangement gives the Transi-lift a very large tipping fulcrum. The
machinery deck spans between and connects the two sets of crawlers,
which gives this crane a great deal of mobility on-site, both loaded and
unloaded.
Outriggers
As we mentioned earlier, stability is one of the most important safety issues
relating to mobile cranes. Many crane incidents have occurred because the
crane or outriggers were not set-up properly with the following causing or
contributing to the failure or collapse…
 Failure to extend the outriggers fully

 Not extending all outriggers

  Failure to lift the crane wheels clear of the ground

 Allowing non-authorised personnel to operate the crane

 Not accounting for poor ground conditions, and…

 Failure to level the crane

Therefore, it is essential that outriggers are set according to the
manufacturer’s operating instructions and the crane duty chart.
Other than increasing stability, outriggers also enable the crane to be set up
level.
If not level, then side loadings are introduced, which can cause instability or
structural damage. Modern cranes may have self-levelling capabilities while
the majority of all cranes will have level indicators.
Once set up, you can carry out a secondary visually level check by using the
crane's unladen hoist rope as a plumb line.
Outrigger pads are designed for good or ideal ground conditions but
irrespective of this, packing, floats or cribbage should always be placed
under the outrigger pads. The size of packing is dependent on the maximum
allowable ground bearing pressure but can range up to 5 metres by 2.5
metres for larger hydraulic cranes. At this size the cranes may have difficulty
in climbing onto the outriggers and in some cases a ramp is needed to raise
the crane body.
In addition, it must also be level and always be larger than the outrigger pad
because its purpose is to distribute the weight of the crane and its load over
greater ground area than the pad.
The ground pressure applied by a crawler crane is different to that applied
by a crane on outriggers. It is sometimes assumed that the ground pressure
will be the same at any place where the track is in contact with the ground.
In practice this is rarely the case.
For example, when the crawler crane is being used with a suspended load,
generally the ground pressure will be greater in the direction of the load. If
there is no load suspended on the crane, the ground pressure will be greater
towards the rear of the crane. Then, as the boom slews around, the ground
pressure will be greater over one end of the track. If it continues to slew
around until it is at right angles to the track. The ground pressure will be
distributed over the nearest track to the load.
Hoist Ropes
There are generally three types of rope used on cranes; single layer, multi-
stranded (layered) and compacted. A single layered rope consists of one
layer of outer strands (usually six or eight) laid helically over a central core of
steel or fibre. This type has a certain amount of rope spin, which is natural
during use but should be kept to a minimum, with the aid of a swivel
because excessive rotation can cause serious fatigue in the rope.
A multi-stranded rope, which usually has two or three layers, is more
rotationally resistant than single layered rope, making it ideal as hoist rope,
where strength, greater height of lift and durability are required. A low-
rotation multi-stranded wire rope consists of an inner layer of strands laid in
one direction covered by one or two further layers of strands, laid in
alternate directions. This has the effect of counteracting rotation by
reducing the tendency of the finished rope to rotate. This type is ideal for
whip or fast line ropes.
With a compacted rope, the outer strands are subjected to a compacting
process such as drawing, rolling, or swaging. They are generally significantly
stronger than their non-compacted equivalents because they have a greater
cross-sectional area in a given diameter. This gives the rope a greater
Minimum Breaking Load combined with lower stress levels and a greater
bending fatigue resistance. This type is ideal for boom hoist ropes.
Compacting also gives the rope a smooth external surface, which results in a
smoother wearing surface between adjacent wraps and between the rope
and the drum or sheaves.
The Crane Operator, during the pre-start up and periodic checks, should
examine all accessible areas of the rope, paying particular attention to the
main areas of deterioration, which are…
 Areas of the rope that pass over sheaves

 Areas of the rope that remain exposed to the elements for long
periods of time

 Areas adjacent to terminations

 Drum terminations and cross over points

Whilst carrying this out, the Crane Operator should examine the wire rope
for any signs of deterioration or damage, which could affect the safe use or
reduce the capacity of the rope. These include…
 Broken wires

 Wear

 Internal / external corrosion

 Waviness / kinks

 Bird caging, strand or core protrusion

  A decrease in rope diameter, which could be caused by a core collapse

 Flattening / crushing

 Increase in lay length, and…

 Thermal damage
The Operator must also inspect any terminations fitted to the wire, such as
wedge sockets, which are suitable for most wire rope constructions.
Another is the spelter socket. The most important factor to ensure a
satisfactory termination is the cleaning of the wire rope broom and socket.
Sockets are assembled with either zinc or a two-part resin material and are
available as open or closed types.
If possible, the poured socket termination should be tested to verify its
integrity after fitting. However, this is not a mandatory requirement if
personnel have been deemed competent to fit the socket and have followed
an approved procedure, which is the same after fitted a wedge and socket.
The rope may also be fitted with a mechanical or fold back termination,
which is made when the wire rope is passed through an oval shaped ferrule,
formed into a loop and passed back through the ferrule where upon the
ferrule is compressed to a cylindrical shape.
Other elements to consider here are spooling and reeving.
The most important objective when spooling a wire rope onto a winch drum
is to ensure it is wound on under tension and without trapping any twists in
the rope. This can be achieved with the use of a back-tensioning winch and
ensuring the wire rope is fitted according to the location of the drum
termination and the lay of the rope.
In addition, manufactured wire rope has a natural curve, or memory. When
spooling wire rope from a storage drum onto the winch drum, to avoid
reverse bending, which is detrimental to the lay of the rope, always spool
top-to-top or bottom-to-bottom.
It is also essential, when spooling multiple layers, to get the first layer and
future layers as secure and well fitted as possible. The first layer will provide
the grooving for upper layers and if not carried out correctly, will allow
upper layers to pull down between wraps and layers already on the drum.
This will cause damage and a reduced rope strength and service life.
Reeving is the passing or threading of the wire rope around sheaves, which
are generally designed to be 15 to 18 times the diameter of the rope, to gain
mechanical advantage. The crane manufacturer’s guidelines, specific to the
crane type, must be followed. In addition, you must ensure that the sheave
groove contour is smooth, free from defects harmful to the wire rope and in
general, supports one third of the rope’s circumference, with the groove
angle tapering out and finishing in a rounded edge. Remember, as bend
radius reduces, so does the rope’s capacity.
Line Pull and Line Speed
The calculations of boom length and radius on a crane’s load chart to find
the capacity must also take into account the “line pull”, or capacity, of the
hoist winch.
If for example, the line pull is five tonnes, when using only the hoist line
secured to the hook block, the crane’s maximum capacity can only be five
tonnes. To achieve more lifting capacity, as long as the design of the crane
permits this, mechanical advantage can be gained by increasing the number
of “falls” of rope between the sheaves at the boom tip and the sheaves in
the hook block. This is known as “reeving”, and by using this procedure a
heavier load can be lifted, although the speed of the hoist line will be
reduced proportional to the number of falls of rope used.
For example, if you require a load of 12 tonnes to be lifted but the crane
available only has a winch that has a five tonne line pull, by reeving the
crane with three falls of rope, presuming the crane design allows, we
effectively multiply the winch capacity by the number of falls (less friction).
In this case, five tonnes multiplied by the three falls, making the required lift
possible.
The resultant figure is slightly less than the straight multiplication answer, to
allow for the frictional forces needed to turn the sheaves in the boom tip
and in the hook block, but the Rated Capacity Indicator (RCI) in the crane
operator’s cab will calculate this for you.
Remember though, that the hook block speed has also now been reduced to
a third of the single line speed, which can have an impact on offshore cranes
during vessel loading and unloading operations.
Hook blocks
A crane or sheave block is a frame that encloses one or more sheaves and is
usually provided with a swivel hook that allows for the attachment of the
load.
The purpose of a block is threefold. Firstly, it is used to change the direction
of the wire rope line. Secondly, used in combination with the boom tip
sheaves, to give mechanical advantage by allowing the use of multiple parts
of line and third to apply enough weight to overhaul the wire rope laying on
top of the boom and maintain the correct spooling of the wire on the winch
drum.
An overhaul or headache ball is fitted to the fast line or whip line and
typically consists of a swivel hook, a weighted body and a wire rope
connection point. The latter being in the form of a wedge socket or pinned
clevis connection. Its purpose is to allow for the attachment of loads and
retaining tension in the wire.
Both these items require periodic inspection, and if they operate in severe
environmental conditions or undergo heavy usage, it is recommended that
they be removed for service; dismantled, inspected and subjected to a non-
destructive test examination at intervals not exceeding five years.
SECTION 4
Crane Functions
The controls that activate all crane movements, actions and motions should
generally all be within easy reach of the operator.
Furthermore, the controls, either in the form of levers, foot pedals, buttons
or toggles, should be designed to be intuitive and natural for the operator to
use. This means that if a control is moved to the right, then the desired
motion of the crane will follow in the same direction, mimicking the motion
of the operator.
Each control should be marked to identify the motion it controls and the
direction of movement. These markings should either be in the appropriate
language, or consist of internationally agreed symbols, which should be
adequately maintained. In addition, a crane’s computer shall also be
compatible with these requirements.
To enable a Crane Operator to control the crane safely, they will require
feedback from the crane’s gauges. These can be electronic, pressure or
mechanical devices, which will provide the Crane Operator with real time
information relating to the crane’s vital systems.
It is also worth mentioning in this section that the Crane Operator should
always be present when a load is suspended from the crane and the crane
should never be left unattended, even for short periods, unless…

 All loads have been removed

 The crane and hook have been left in a safe position, recommended by
the manufacturer
  The power supplies to all motions have been switched off or the
engine has been stopped

 The risk of boom drift due to thermal contraction of hydraulic oil has
been mitigated

 Appropriate motion brakes and locks have been applied to put the
machine in a safe condition, and…

 The ignition key and any other keys have been removed
For longer periods and for out-of-service conditions, switches should be
locked off, fuel supplies cut off and any doors giving access to machinery or
control cabs locked to prevent unauthorised access.
Limiting and Indicating Devices
Limiting devices are fitted for the purpose of stopping a specific crane
motion before it moves into an unsafe situation.
Indicating devices are used to relay real time information and to warn the
operator, either visually or audibly, that the crane may be approaching its
set limits or an unsafe situation. If there is a risk of overloading or tipping a
crane, it should be fitted with a Rated Capacity Indicator (RCI), Automatic
Safe Load Indicator (ASLI), Load Moment Indicator (LMI) or Load Limiting
Device.
Both limiting and indicating devices are intended as an aid to Crane
Operators. They should not be relied upon or used to replace the crane’s
load chart and operating instructions under any circumstances. In addition,
the operator should always approach any limit with caution, bearing in mind
that it may have become damaged. Sole reliance on limiting and indicating
devices can cause incidents.
A rated capacity limiter prevents overloading of the crane by stopping all
relevant crane functions when an overload is detected. Rated capacity
means the maximum load that can be lifted and lowered by the crane and
may not include the weight of the hook block, falls of rope, slings and rigging
hardware.
Motion limiting devices can trigger braking, deceleration and stopping,
when the following permissible positions have been reached…
 The highest position of the hook, often called anti-two block device

 The lowest position of the hook

 The upper backstop and lower boom positions

 The end positions of a telescoping or movable boom, and…

 A slewing / rotation limit

Limiting systems may be mechanical, electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic in
nature.
In addition to the limiting devices the crane may be fitted with a Gross
Overload or Over Moment Protection system, Ultimate Protection System,
or an emergency load or hook release, or lowering device. These are
designed and fitted, as the name suggests, to prevent gross overload and
structural collapse. Manufacturers utilise different systems to achieve this,
so it is important that the Crane Operator is competent with the system that
is fitted to their crane.
Load moment indicators or rated capacity indicators measure and display
the weight of the load being lifted. They may also display the working
parameters of the crane. The indicator assists the Crane Operator to stay
within the safe capacity of the crane and gives, in most cases, a visual
warning when approaching the rated capacity and visual and audible
warning when the crane is overloaded.
The most common device used to confirm radius is the radius indicator,
which should be fitted to all cranes. The simplest form of radius indicator is a
quadrant shaped scale, which is fixed to the boom. A weighted pointer,
which gravity keeps in the same position, will indicate the radius of the hook
in any boom position, for example, as the boom moves, the scale also moves
but the pointer remains static. Radius indicators are also sometimes
calibrated to show capacity.
Remember, it is of vital importance that each Crane Operator is fully
conversant with not only the physical operation of their crane but have a full
working knowledge of how to correctly set the variable crane indicators and
limits, along with heave compensation systems and line-out meters, for
example.

If the wrong details were to be entered or if the Crane Operator does not
fully understand how to correctly enter the various elements of the crane
configuration, the consequences can be catastrophic. Structural collapse or
failure of the crane is a very real possibility, as are stability problems that
could cause the crane to tip over.
If either one of these possibilities should become a reality, the
consequences could be equipment damage, serious personal injury or even
fatalities.
Load Charts and Range Diagrams
A load chart is a table or graphic illustration, showing load curves produced
by the manufacturer to identify the maximum capacities of the crane within
defined radii, and must be readily available to the Crane Operator and for
consultation by the Appointed or Competent Person before they begin the
process of planning a lifting operation.
A range diagram is another graphic illustration, which can be used to
convert boom angle to radius or vice-versa.
To use a load chart to determine the capacity of the crane, you must know…
 The length of boom, which is measured from the boom foot pin to the
centre of the boom tip sheave

 The load radius, which is the level horizontal distance from the crane’s
centre of rotation to the load’s centre of gravity

 The boom angle, which is measured from the centre line of the boom
to the horizontal, and…

 If applicable, which quadrant. The crane’s load chart may designate

specific duties relative to a quadrant, such as over the front, sides or
rear
This information should then correspond with information listed along the
edges of the load chart, which is used to determine a capacity that is located
within the chart. However, if a determined value is not noted on the load
chart or if it falls between two specified values, it is recommended that you
should use the lower of the two.
The rated capacity is based on the strength and stability of the crane and
takes into account the stresses applied to the pendants, boom, outriggers,
slew ring, etc. Therefore, short radii are governed by the boom and
outrigger strength, whilst, at longer radii, stability is the governing factor.
Hence, crane load charts may have a bold line drawn through their chart or
shaded areas, dividing it into two sections. Capacities above the line are
based on structural strength with capacities below the line being based on
the crane’s stability.
The appropriate and durable load chart needs to be fixed inside the
operator’s cab and display, for example, the following information…
 Manufacturer’s name and model

 The full and complete range of manufacturer’s crane capacities

 Any limitations and caution or warning notes

 Recommended reeving

 Tyre pressures

 Boom length, particularly where different boom configurations may be

used

 Track or outrigger width, where this is variable, and…

 Deductions for attachments

The Crane Operator must not exceed the capacities detailed in the load
chart.
On some mobile cranes, there may be several load charts for differing boom
and counterweight configurations. Important factors that are sometimes
overlooked when reading a load chart are…
 The need to subtract the weight of the hook block and lifting slings
from the capacity of the crane, unless they are noted on the load chart
  The need to subtract the weight of the fly jib, even when stowed, from
the capacity of the main hook unless this is allowed for and noted on
the load chart, and…

 Over which quadrant will the lift take place

To use the load chart when the weight of the load is known…
 Add the weight of hook block to the load weight, when applicable

 Add the weight of the rigging to the load weight, however if the load is
pre-rigged, the weight of slings and shackles are usually included

 Confirm the boom angle / radius, both hoisting and lowering if

different

 Locate the capacity of crane in the proper column or load curve

 If the angle, radius or load weight falls between values, do not

estimate. Use the safer lower value

 Remember to use the correct static or dynamic capacity, and…

 Do not exceed the lowest rated capacity for the lift. For example: if the
lift moves from being a static to dynamic, use the lower dynamic
capacity
To use the load chart when the weight of the load is estimated…
 Confirm boom angle / radius
  Locate capacity of crane in correct column or load curve

 Subtract the weight of hook block from capacity, when applicable,

check and, if needed, adjust zero setting on load indicator, and…

 Pick the load at a reduced radius and confirm the weight before
proceeding to the required radius
Crane Certification
Inspection is the act of examining and evaluating equipment or component
parts, to determine compliance with relevant regulations or standards.
Testing is a process to verify that the design, workmanship, material
integrity and operating systems are fit for purpose.
Defects arising from the inspection or test should be reported to the
Appointed or Competent Person, who must assess if the safe use of the
crane is affected. If it is affected, the crane should be removed from
operational service and caution notices displayed in key areas and access
points until the defect has been rectified.
All lifting equipment shall be periodically dismantled, thoroughly examined
and / or tested in accordance with manufacturers’ guidelines, legislation,
local OMS procedures and the requirements of the Appointed or Competent
person. In addition, periodic dismantling, thorough examination and testing
of lifting equipment shall only be carried out by authorized and competent
personnel.
In the UK this is carried out in accordance with the requirements of the
LOLER. This stipulates that appliances shall be inspected periodically every
12 months. If used for man-riding purposes then this shall be carried out
every 6 months. Testing requirements may be found in BS 7121 Part 3, Code
of practice for safe use of cranes: Mobile cranes. In the US this can be
carried out in accordance with the requirements of, for example, OSHA
1910.180 Crawler Locomotive and Truck Cranes, OSHA 1926.1412
Inspections, or ASME B30.5 Mobile and Locomotive Cranes. These
documents both stipulate periodic inspection at 1 to 12 month intervals,
depending on usage, or as specifically recommended by the manufacturer.
The inspection and examination requirements for the Norwegian sector are
set down in the NORSOK Standard R-003 Lifting Equipment Operations. This
specifies the following regime….
 Inspection and examination prior to first use

 Regular inspection during operation, to include operational checks

prior to every use, frequent inspection at daily to monthly intervals
and inspections at monthly intervals

 Periodic inspection (also known as Periodical Control), to cover all

critical elements of the equipment, scheduled adjustments, overhaul
and maintenance

 Inspection and examination when equipment is resold or brought back

into use following a long period of inactivity (6 months or more)

 Inspection of any equipment that has been subject to an overload

resulting in permanent damage, or which has been installed at a new
site, and….

 Inspection of transit lifting equipment and lifting equipment on hired

equipment prior to deployment offshore
Operator Competence
It is a requirement that each person shall have achieved a defined level of
competence. Where individuals have not achieved or are working towards
the required level, intervention or mitigation measures shall be in place
through support and supervision by a competent person.
However, training and competence requirements differ greatly between
regions and it is therefore essential that the contractor’s competence is
assessed and reviewed at pre-qualification and that a system is in place to
address any shortfalls.
Crane Operators must be properly trained and competent with all aspects of
safe plant operation for the particular equipment in use.
Whether permanent or temporary, they shall have a valid certificate that
meets local regulatory requirements and shall be certified by an accredited
agency to a standard which is detailed in Local OMS procedures and
recognized by the Regional Lifting Technical Authority.
Crane Operators must also receive an appropriate induction to ensure that
they are fully conversant with the controls and characteristics of the crane
to be operated. In addition, the Crane Operator must understand all
procedures and instructions relevant to safe operation of the cranes, which
should include the following…
 Crane manufacturer’s operating and maintenance manual

 Relevant sections of the site’s safe operating procedures manual,

and…

 Site standing instructions or orders pertaining to crane operation

Finally, on this subject it is worth noting that training and competence can
be impaired by fatigue, which can cause reduced performance, reduced
productivity at work and increase the risk of an incident. To combat this,
responsible working hours need to be monitored and adhered to, along with
the operator ensuring that they make appropriate use of their rest periods
and are fit for duty.
Operator Checks
The Crane Operator must carry out a series of initial, pre-start up and pre-
operational checks before the start of each work shift. The results of these
checks should be entered into a logbook and kept with the crane.
Initial checks should ensure, for example, that…
 All access ladders: walkways, gates and hatches are free from
obstructions and cleaned of any residual oils and greases

 All deck plates and gratings are secured and access hatches closed

 Service hoses, for example diesel, air, and water are neatly stowed

 Warning signs and barriers are prominently displayed

 Machinery spaces and cabs are in a clean and tidy condition

 All personal belongings or clothing is stored in such a manner that it

does not interfere with the safe operation of the crane

 The operator’s cabin windows are clean, windscreen wipers are in

good condition and that the screen wash system operates

 Cladding and panel work is secure

 The crane’s structure is free from all loose material, which may have
the potential to result in dropped objects
  Tracks, wheels and outriggers are fit for purpose

 The suitability of ground conditions

 The stability of outriggers if already extended

 The crane is set up level, and…

 There are no hazards within the crane’s operating range, for example
power lines, derricks, etc.
The areas to be inspected during the pre-start check should include, for
example…
 The boom, chords and lattices

 Security of connections and fittings

 Hook blocks

 Sheaves

 Wire ropes and pendants (including spooling, rope terminations and

any anchorage points)

 Brake / clutch linings

  Oil levels

 Coolant levels

 Fuel levels, and…

 Guards
Prior to start-up, the Crane Operator should ensure that all controls are in
their neutral position and that the main clutch, where fitted, is disengaged.
On start-up of the prime mover, ensure that all air and oil pressure gauges
are within their safe operating range before carrying out a function check of
the crane controls.
When carrying out a function check on all the crane’s controls, on friction
clutch and brake type cranes it is imperative that the efficiency of these
components are ensured as there is potential for ingress of foreign material,
which could cause slippage, for example water, grease, etc.
The Crane Operator should then carry out a function check on…
 The boom minimum radius limit

 The hook blocks (main and auxiliary) over hoist limits

 Maximum radius and maximum pay out limits, if fitted

 The rated capacity indicator to ensure the correct configuration and

reeving is displayed, and…

 The rated capacity indicator’s visual and audible alarms

When checking the limits, always approach them with caution. During
normal operation, reliance must not be placed on limit switches or cut-out
devices to stop crane motions and they shall not be overridden without
approval from the Competent person.
Next, ensure that the appropriate load / radius chart is in good condition
and posted at a strategic point within the cab.
Ensure that the manually applied Emergency Load Release, if fitted, is secure
and cannot be inadvertently activated during normal operations. This type
of system must be function checked under controlled conditions, generally
with an unladen hook and only by a Competent Person who is authorised to
perform this activity.
The Crane Operator must also ensure that all available safety equipment is
secure and in good condition. In addition, that fire extinguishers are of the
correct type and size as specified by the Owner, and that they are familiar
with their application and use.
Finally, during the operation of the crane, the Crane Operator should
check…
 Gauges to ensure that all pressures and temperatures remain within
their safe operating range

 Listen for unusual engine or machinery noises, and…

 Be aware of slight ‘shocks’ which could indicate bad spooling of hoist

ropes or imminent equipment or machinery failure
Any indication that systems are not functioning correctly or if anything out
of the ordinary occurs, the Crane Operator must stop and make the load
safe.
To enable the condition of the crane to be determined, records must be
maintained. These records should include the following…
  Technical information including maintenance instructions and
performance data provided by the manufacturer

 Records of reports of thorough examinations or tests certification,

including rope changes

 Records of significant repairs and modifications to the crane including

renewal of major parts and confirmation of that they have been
completed

 A record of daily and weekly checks, and…

 Details of occurrences for example, shock loadings

SECTION 5’

Ground Bearing Pressures

When using mobile cranes the safe working position must be ensured every
time they move from one lift position to another.
One of the most obvious, but essential considerations must be the condition
of the ground on which the crane is to be set up. You must assess and
determine the Ground Bearing Pressure (GBP). This will establish if the
ground conditions are capable of withstanding the weight of the crane, with
or without a load, while it is carrying out its duties.
GBP is expressed as pounds per square foot or tonnes per square metre.
There are several methods to ascertain whether the GBP of the ground is
actually substantial enough to withstand the weight, or more correctly, the
force, being exerted upon it. These include physical inspections, load tests,
geotechnical engineering tests, which can involve drilling and compression
tests of soil samples, previous method statements, which may already have
this information from earlier work undertaken on-site, and directly from the
employing organisation who may also be the client or the land owner.
The GBP figure must be made common knowledge to any personnel that are
involved in lifting operations using a crane. It must be robustly adhered to
and never exceeded; if a crane was to break through the ground surface,
with or without a load on the hook, it could overbalance and topple over.
The Appointed or Competent Person must establish the loadings to be
imposed by the crane from the crane manufacturer’s data and determine
the size of mats to be used to ensure the allowable GBP is not exceeded. It
should be noted that in some instances a crane without a load on the crane
hook and the boom towards minimum radius, could impose a greater
outrigger pressure from the crane counterweight being over a single
outrigger.
If no data can be established, a conservative figure for the anticipated
loading can be established on outrigger-based machines by using the gross
crane weight plus the gross load weight, multiplied by 0.75.
Prior to using any material for load spreading, it must be assessed as
suitable for its intended purpose. In addition, if two timbers are placed side
by side under an outrigger pad, then the outrigger pad must extend beyond
the centre line of the two lower timbers.
Soil, Ground Conditions, Trenches, Underground Services and Voids
When dealing with onshore cranes, the Appointed or Competent Person is
responsible for ensuring the ground conditions are suitable to safely set up
and operate the crane. Crane Operators are not, nor are they meant to be
Geotechnical Engineers. If any doubt about the suitability of the ground
exists, the Appointed or Competent Person must contact a Competent
Engineer.
In order to determine the support arrangements required for the crane, it is
necessary to gather the following information…
  Ground characteristics, using a Factor of safety of two to one

 Water conditions

 Engineering properties with regards to foundations, and…

 The location of any underground hazards, services, voids, etc.

Common problem areas, for example, are on…
 Greenfield sites, where there has been no previous construction
activities, next to rivers and flood plains where there are soft deposits
and high ground water tables

 On beaches where there is low sand density and there may be a high
water table

 Filled construction sites present unknown conditions, such as covered

basements, badly filled open pits, underground storage tanks, etc.,
and…

 Town centres, which have underground hazards such as basements,

sewers, tunnels, live services, manholes, etc.
A basic check of the support area for settlement would comprise of raising
the retracted boom to the minimum radius and slewing 360 degrees, while
pausing momentarily over each outrigger. If any settlement were observed,
then this would indicate the need for a larger support base or ground
improvement.
When setting a crane up or operating near to excavations and foundations
the pressure of the outrigger pad can be considered to pass into the ground
at an angle of 45 degrees from the outside edges of the pad. Therefore, the
distance between the edge of the outrigger pad and the edge of an
unsupported excavation should be greater than twice the depth of the
excavation or greater than four times the width of the outrigger support.
An outrigger pad can be placed closer to an edge that is suitably supported
but the Appointed or Competent person must seek expert guidance.
Static and Dynamic Lifts
A static lift means that the load applied to the crane never becomes greater
than the weight of the load. If a load is lifted very slowly, gradually
accelerated, carefully slewed, then slowed down and stopped, it will remain
static.
A dynamic lift means the load applied to the crane can be more than the
weight of the load. This may be caused by, for example…
 A sudden acceleration in the hoist or boom systems

 Swinging loads, caused by starting or stopping the slew too quickly

 Loads that are lowered quickly and stopped abruptly

 Environmental conditions, for example strong winds or gusts

 Sling failure or slippage, and…

 Lifting a load to or from a floating vessel

During lifting operations on the deck of a semi-submersible, the lift may
appear to be similar to an onshore or platform lift, except that the roll and
pitch caused by the sea state can cause the load to swing directly after
lifting.
A lift to or from one floating object to another floating object, for instance
semi-submersible platforms, supply vessels, marine vessel cranes or floating
cranes can be subjected to higher dynamic factors. This is because the
motion caused by the sea state can greatly multiply the relative dynamics in
the hoisting speed and vertical boom tip speed at the moment of lifting and
landing.
In addition, the dynamic factors of subsea lifting operations cannot be solely
related to the weight or mass of the load and the characteristics of the
crane. The hydro-dynamic characteristics, which include perceived and
actual added weight, inherent or additional buoyancy, drag forces and the
suction forces of the seabed on the load, will all influence the dynamic being
applied to the load on the crane.
This generally means that crane load charts defining the capacity that may
be lifted cannot be relied on exclusively.
Therefore, the crane owner and Crane Operator must be responsible for
analysing the load that has to be lifted or lowered into the sea, taking into
account all the variable dynamic factors and for determining if the crane can
actually perform the lift or lifts with an adequate factor of safety. To ensure
a suitable factor of safety, the load weight is multiplied by a Dynamic
Amplification Factor, which can be stated in tables or calculated by
determining the sum of the dynamic and static load and then dividing it by
the static load.
As ever, a thorough risk assessment, planning and confirmation that the
lifting operation will only be carried out by competent and experienced
personnel, will help reduce the added potential hazards of dynamic lifts to
an acceptable minimum.
Crane Selection
In an offshore and marine environment, the crane has already been chosen
and installed; therefore, the crane will dictate the size of load that can be
lifted.
However, before the type of crane is chosen, many elements must be
considered because using a crane for tasks outside its design intent is a
major cause of crane failures and downtime. The various elements include,
but are not limited to…
 The cranes functional purpose, for example, is it for internal lifts, sub-
sea construction, ROV support, supply vessel operations, vessel to
vessel lifts, vessel to platform lifts, is it to be a marine crane or an
offshore platform crane, etc.

 Crane arrangement, for example, is the crane to be placed, forward,

aft or amidships? Does it need to be on the centre line to serve both
sides of the vessel or towards one side to favour the vessel’s usual
operations? Vessel motions are greater towards the bow and stern of
the vessel and therefore the ideal location for a crane will be nearer
the midships portion of the hull

 Vessel motions, which are used to define off lead angle limits, strength
of structural components, weather limitations, requirements for the
design of heave compensation systems, etc.

 Crane type

 Boom type

 Lifting capacity and working radius

 Lift height and depth

  Hook, luff and slew speed

 Environmental operating conditions

 Constant tension or heave compensation

 Wire construction, etc.

There are also various technical standard classification systems available
that enable the purchaser and the manufacturer to match a particular crane
type to the required duty and utilization. Classification can be determined by
using the following parameters…
 The total number of working cycles during the specified useful life

 The average distances

 The relative frequencies of loads to be handled, and…

 The average number of accelerations per movement

When onshore, the load dictates the size of crane that is required.
With regards to crane hire under UK legislation and regions that adopt these
practices there are two approaches; you can opt for either crane hire
(operated and maintained), or contract hire.
With crane hire, you hire the crane and the operator only. The Crane
Operator will then work to your instructions and this therefore makes you
responsible for…

 Carrying out all the work in compliance with all legislative and
regulatory requirements
  Supplying a qualified Appointed Person

 Assessing correct craneage requirements

 Having adequate and appropriate insurance cover

 Producing a written risk assessment and lifting plan, and…

 Ensuring the certification of the crane and the competence of the

operator are suitable
The alternative, if you do not have the relevant expertise, is contract hire,
whereby the previous responsibilities are passed to the crane hire company.
However, even though a contract hire has been agreed, the site owner or
operator must still check that the Crane Operator, lifting plans, risk
assessments, ground conditions, load weight and centre of gravity, lifting
points, etc. are all fit for purpose.
Environmental Considerations
Environmental considerations can be divided into two elements: the
working environment, such as…
 Adjacent structures

 Overhead power lines

 Ground conditions
  Underground services

 Voids

 Live plant

 Proximity to public areas and airports

 Congested areas

 Confined spaces

 Simultaneous operations, etc

…and environmental conditions, such as…
 Poor visibility

 Wind speeds

 Sea states

 Currents

 Tides

 Snow and ice

  Extreme heat, etc.
Regarding overhead electrical cables, certain precautions must be taken to
ensure the safety of the operator and any personnel in the vicinity of the
crane.
First and foremost, the crane should not operate in close proximity to
overhead power lines, except where electrical distribution and transmission
lines have been de-energized and visibly grounded at the point of work, or
where insulating barriers have been erected to prevent physical contact
with the lines.
Cranes can only be operated next to power lines in accordance with the
following requirements. In the US…
For voltages up to 50 Kilovolts, the minimum clearance distance is 10 feet

Over 50 to 200 kilovolts, 15 feet

Over 200 to 350 kilovolts, 20 feet
Over 350 to 500 kilovolts, 25 feet
Over 500 to 750 kilovolts, 35 feet
Over 750 to 1,000 kilovolts, 45 feet, and…
Over 1,000 kilovolts, as established by the utility owner.
The minimum clearance distances while traveling with no load…
For voltages up to 0.75 kilovolts, the minimum clearance distance is 4 feet
Over 0.75 to 50 kilovolts, 6 feet
Over 50 to 345 kilovolts, 10 feet
Over 345 to 750 kilovolts, 16 feet
Over 750 to 1,000 kilovolts, 20 feet
Over 1,000 kilovolts, as established by the utility owner or operator or
registered professional engineer who is a qualified person with respect to
electrical power transmission and distribution.
In the UK…
The appointed person should ensure that the local offices of the electricity
board or other line operator are consulted, if the crane is used within…
 15 metres plus the maximum jib length, of overhead lines on steel
towers, or

 9 metres plus the maximum jib length, of overhead lines on wood,

concrete or steel poles
When a crane must travel underneath an overhead power line or cable, the
crossing route should be clearly marked and “goal posts” erected each side
of the crossing’s approach, to ensure that the jib or moving parts are
lowered to a safe height.
Another environmental consideration is wind, which can affect the stability
and structural integrity of the crane. It can also cause the load to move,
material to fall and personnel to be knocked over.
The Crane Operator has the final decision when determining if a lift should
be carried out. However, this decision should be made with reference to the
crane manufacturer’s guidelines.
Finally in this section, a crane jib, particularly a long one, can act as a
conductor and attract a lightning strike during a thunderstorm. Therefore, if
there are clear signs of an approaching thunderstorm, lifting operations
should cease and all personnel should be moved out of the vicinity of the
crane, until the possibility of danger passes.
If the crane is struck by lightning it can be seriously damaged both
structurally and mechanically. A thorough examination must therefore be
carried out before it is returned to service.
The Lifting Team
All personnel involved in the lifting operation shall be competent and
familiar with the crane’s operational characteristics, parameters and the
working environment.
While there is a shared responsibility for the safety of each lifting operation,
the Banksman, or Signal person as they are known in the US, shall remain
the person in charge of the activity and be easily identifiable from other
personnel by wearing a Hi-Vis jacket or waistcoat, which is clearly marked to
indicate that they are the authorised Banksman.
The minimum number of personnel involved in each lifting team shall be
three. They are the…
 Crane Operator

 Banksman and…

 Slinger or Load Handler, or Rigger in the US

Detailed roles and responsibilities are contained in the UDP and local OMS
procedures.
Communications
A uniform continual communication system is essential during all lifting
operations and must be clearly understood by all personnel taking part in
the lifting operation before the lift starts.
Only the hand or radio signals given by the Authorised Banksman should be
responded to, unless an emergency situation clearly exists. Any person
observing this type of situation may give the emergency stop signal.
When hand signals are being used, visual contact with the Banksman must
be maintained. Lifting operations must cease if visual contact is lost. The
operation can only restart when a clear line of vision has been re-
established.
Special or site-specific signals may be developed and used, when the
situation requires it, but all personnel must understand these signals before
use.
When radios are being used, the Crane Operator shall reach a clear
understanding with the Banksman before lifting operations begin. If there is
any interruption to communications, such as a third-party transmission, the
lifting operation should cease until communications are restored. All
instructions should be relayed twice.
When the load is being hoisted, lowered or suspended, initial instruction
should be given and the Crane Operator updated on a regular basis to
assure the operator that the line of communication is still active and that
the Banksman is maintaining control of the lift. During blind lifts,
communications shall be continuous.
Remember, radio messages should reflect work requirements only, and
under no circumstances should offensive language be used whilst
transmitting. In addition, if the lift team is multi-national, then a common
means of communication must be implemented.
Lift Plan Scale Drawings
When planning crane operations, a diagram or sketch of the overall lifting
operation, showing where the load is travelling from and to, is invaluable to
the team doing the work. During production it can also help identify the lift
radius, obstructions, headroom problems and clearance problems. It is
better to identify these at the planning stage than discover them when you
are actually doing the job.
However, a diagram, sketch or drawing should never be used in isolation.
The method statement must always be studied in detail.
All onshore crane lift plan drawings should be drawn to scale, and detail as a
minimum the following information…
 Crane Model

 Crane counterweight to be used

  Outrigger configuration, position and load spreading details

 Tail clearance at slew path

 Crane location and set up dimensions

 Proximity of underground services

 Load, rigging, hook block and total weights

 Load clearances

 Worst-case radius and capacity

 Percentage of capacity utilisation

 Pick up, set down locations, direction and path of slew

 Headroom limitations

 Boom length and clearances, and…

 Height of load at worst case

The majority of information just listed should also be included in lift plan
drawings for offshore and marine crane operations.
If a previous lifting plan is to be re-used it must be reviewed to ensure there
have been no changes, which could affect the efficiency and safety of the
lift.
SECTION 6
Lifting, Moving and Placing Loads
The crane should only be used for the specific purpose for which it has been
designed and not adapted for any other purpose without the approval from
the manufacturer.
Before lifting any load, a check should be made to ensure that the route to
be travelled is clear and the lay-down point is of adequate size and capable
of taking the weight of the load. In addition, it may be necessary to provide
suitable landing supports or packing.
If necessary, a warning to personnel to clear the area prior to moving the
load should be made.
In addition, the Crane Operator must be aware of the weight of the load to
be lifted and the Banksman must correctly position the hook over the load’s
centre of gravity, to alleviate any ‘drift’ in the load when picked up.
However, it should be borne in mind that when lifting a load from a
quayside with a berthed vessel’s crane, the crane hook may need to be
positioned inboard of the load’s centre of gravity to compensate for any
vessel roll as tension is applied.
With ALL lifting operations, the load should first be lifted a nominal distance
under the direction of the Banksman, this is called a trial lift.
The trial lift allows load balance, stability and general security of the load to
be assessed while it is in a relatively safe position. If any discrepancies are
found, the load should be lowered and the slinging revised. This sequence of
trial lift and adjustment should be repeated until the operator is satisfied
that the load is balanced, stable and secure.
As the load is lifted, the operator should monitor the Rated Capacity
Indicator for any possible overload situation developing and check the
operation of the hoist brake.
Next the load should be lifted high enough to clear all obstacles, such as
handrails on a vessel when lifting inboard and outboard, and to minimise the
risk of the load striking a person. In addition, where the risk assessment
determines that the load requires to be handled when the load is below
waist height, a hand-safe policy shall be used.
During the lift, all crane movements should be carried out in a controlled
manner. The smooth operation of the crane reduces the possibility of the
inherent risks involved with undue shock loading to the structure or
machinery. In addition, avoid travelling the load over running machinery or
critical equipment and never over personnel.
When lowering the load, under direction from the Banksman, it should be
brought to a stop a short distance above the landing site to allow the Crane
Operator to steady it, check the area and to ensure that all personnel have
their fingers and feet clear of the load. The load should then be inched down
into position.
Before fully removing tension, the load should be safe and stable. If not, it
should be lifted slightly, under direction from the Banksman, to allow the
load to be adjusted, and then lowered again. This trial landing procedure is
very similar to the trial lift procedure and should be repeated until all those
involved are satisfied that the load is safely landed.
Remember, loads must always be kept within the specified radius and the
hoist rope kept vertical within operating tolerances. The crane slew or boom
motion shall not be used to drag the load, as this will impose severe stresses
on the crane boom.
Travelling with a Load
Many cranes have tipped over during pick and carry operations.
Working on a slope has the effect of either increasing or decreasing the
working radius, which affects the stability of the crane. Hence,
manufacturers specify that the crane should be operated on firm and level
ground and that working or travelling on sloping ground is avoided.
Factors that need to be considered and controls to be implemented when
re-positioning and when carrying out pick and carry operations include…
 Ground bearing pressure

 Ground conditions, for example voids, potholes, undulations, rail

tracks, etc.

 Underground services, for example, drainage, pipelines, etc.

 Structures, for example, buildings, power lines, barriers, etc.

 Tyre pressures

 Suspension movement

 The Banksman, who is guiding the crane and who remains in sight of
the Crane Operator at all times, but not in the path of the crane or the
load

 The slew brake or lock is applied

 Travelling slowly to prevent excessive load swing

  Load positioned as low as possible, and…

 Reversing alarm and flashing warning light are both functioning

However, the majority of the above considerations and controls also apply
when travelling or re-positioning a crane when it is not lifting a load.
Special care must also be taken to observe weight limits and width and
height restrictions. Remember, you will need to plan your route.
Tandem Lifting
Tandem lifting is the term used when two cranes or two appliances are used
to lift one load. This can be a hazardous operation and should be avoided if
at all possible.
To mitigate or reduce these hazards, cranes of equal capacities and similar
characteristics should be used where possible. In addition, the cranes and
the rigging gear should be selected to have a capacity greater than that
needed for its share of the load.
UK standards stipulate that cranes are compatible in lifting characteristics,
with sufficient margins within the rated capacity of each crane, to allow for
any additional dynamic loading that could be transferred from one crane to
another during movement of the load.
If the appointed person is satisfied that all factors that can induce loads into
each crane are accurately known, and that they are monitored by
instruments (including side loads on the jibs, etc.), the cranes may be used
up to their rated capacity.
If all factors cannot be accurately evaluated, an appropriate down rating of
at least 20 percent should be applied to each of the cranes involved.
Finally in this section, the use of both hoists on a single crane at the same
time, must only be undertaken by cranes which have been specifically
designed for this purpose, or only after approval from the crane
manufacturer and the Regional Lifting Technical Authority. This is because
the use of both hoists on a single crane at the same time can cause…
 Out of vertical hoist lines, which can damage the ropes and sheaves

 The rope to come off the sheave if the angle is excessive

 Operator error, which may place more than half the load on the tip
extension, and thereby overload or overturn the crane

 The LMI system to indicate incorrect data or only monitor one hoist,
and…

 The load to swing

It should be noted that lifts using two powered lifting appliances are
category three lifts and must be endorsed by the Regional Lifting Technical
Authority.
Topping and Tailing
Topping and Tailing or overturning a load is very similar to tandem lifting in
that two cranes are again used to lift one load. In this operation however,
once the load has been lifted clear of the ground, one crane (the primary)
raises, while the other crane (the secondary) lowers, rotating the load
through 90 degrees.
In this way, tanks, silos, reactors, etc. which are laid horizontally for
transportation by road or ship can be raised to the vertical, or vice-versa.
In this type of operation, only the primary crane and rigging equipment must
have the capacity to lift 100% of the load, plus an additional safety factor.
The secondary crane and rigging need only be capable of lifting its expected
proportion of the load, plus again, an additional safety factor.
To increase the safety factors involved when topping and tailing, it is
therefore recommended that the secondary crane and lifting accessories
should have the capacity to lift its calculated load share plus 20 percent.
Personnel should also be aware that during a top and tail operation, the
tailing crane’s radius will increase, but the load applied will not dramatically
reduce until the load gets to an angle of 85 degrees.
In many workplaces, it has been common practice to attempt these types of
lifts using only one crane, by using the main and auxiliary hoists at the same
time. This practice is not advised and should never be attempted if the
manufacturer of the crane has not designed it for this type of operation.
Dismantling and Non-Returnable Loads
The Appointed Person should ensure that a dismantling operation is
properly planned. If the structure to be dismantled is a process plant, some
build up of process material could be present.
Allowance should therefore be made for the extra weight that deposits of
process material could add to the schedule of weights. A minimum
allowance of 20 percent should be added to the weight of the load if the
deposit build-up is estimated to have occurred throughout the lifetime of
the process plant.
The Appointed Person should also arrange for a thorough inspection of the
structure and plant before a final lifting plan is drawn up. The inspection
should include an analysis of the effects of corrosion. Dynamic effects that
could occur from movement of fluid, etc., in containers should also be
considered prior to making the final crane selection.
The safe system of work should include steps to ensure that all loads are
free from adhesion to any supporting surface prior to lifting.
Objects should not be dismantled from a point above ground if it is not
possible to return them to the original position. If this is unavoidable, the
Appointed Person should ensure that the crane, rigging, ground, etc. have
an adequate capacity for twice the weight of the load to be freed.
Blind Lifts
Blind lifts should be avoided as much as reasonably possible, however if a
blind lift is unavoidable, communications should be given the highest
attention during the risk assessment, planning, toolbox talk and the lift.
There always needs to be at least two persons, a Banksman and a Slinger,
who have visual contact with the load and each other, and have radio
contact with the Crane Operator. Any closed-circuit television that monitors
the work area is considered to be an aid, and not a replacement for either of
these persons.
The Banksman shall place themselves in a position where they have line of
sight with the Crane Operator and can give the stop signal manually in the
event of radio equipment failure. If this is not practical, a second Banksman
shall be in place, to be able to transfer the stop signal from appointed
Banksman towards the Crane Operator.
Communication from the Banksman to the Crane Operator should be
continuous, two way and confirmative by the repeating of each command.
If a load has to be positioned manually by the Slinger, then the Banksman
shall be present by the load or as close to the load so that they can direct
the Crane Operator safely and thereby address the safety of the Slinger.
In addition, during container loading and unloading operations, the
container must be disconnected from the crane and the Crane Operator
informed. This is to avoid the container being unintentionally moved.
Lifting Personnel
Cranes are primarily designed for the purpose of handling materials. They
can however, be used to lift personnel if designed for the purpose and when
they are fitted with a suitably designed carrier or working platform. In
addition, if the risks have been minimised and deemed as low as reasonably
practicable, you can then carry out the lifting operation in accordance with
local OMS procedures for personnel lifting operations.

Cranes that are not specifically designed to lift personnel should only be
used in an emergency situation.
Furthermore, cranes used for lifting personnel shall, as a minimum, have a
freefall capability lockout and be equipped with appropriate devices to
enhance their safety, such as a Rated Capacity Indicator or limiter and an
anti-two-block device.
Personnel carrier transfers to or from installations, using Personnel Transfer
Capsules (PTC) such as the Frog, are also considered as a high-risk operation
and should only be used if rigorously risk-assessed and fully managed
according to OMS procedures. The Site Lifting Coordinator shall consult the
Site Manager before approving a lifting plan for personnel carrier transfers.
In addition, all personnel lifting operations shall be categorised as Category 3
apart from where a dispensation is granted during drilling, wells and subsea
operations.
Whichever part of the world you work in, cranes used to lift personnel need
to be adequate and suitable for the task. However, depending where you
are in the world will also dictate the minimum regulatory criteria, along with
the local OMS requirements that must be met. In addition, cranes that are
used for lifting personnel must be assessed by an Appointed or Competent
Person before each personnel lifting operation.
Live Plant
Lifting over or in close proximity to live plant is defined as; any lifting
operation where there is a process safety risk of the load, lifting appliances
and / or lifting accessories impacting, damaging and / or rupturing live plant.
Live plant is defined as equipment containing a hazardous, pressurised,
energised or strategic resource. Therefore, lifting over or in close proximity
to live plant, regardless of lift category shall not be undertaken unless…
  An operational contingency plan is in place

 Risks are reduced to as low as reasonably practicable, and…

 No other feasible alternative exists

The operational contingency plan shall define the potential worst-case
consequences in the event of a dropped object or catastrophic failure of the
lifting equipment, documenting the mitigation measures to be taken prior to
the lift and the emergency response actions required in such an event.
An exclusion zone used during the lift shall be extended to match the
requirements of the operational contingency plan. An operational
contingency plan shall only be reused for repeat operations, where the
original lift plan, equipment, assumptions made and operating conditions
are verified as unchanged.
Regarding the risk assessment process, consideration must be given to crane
failure. The following figures are only recommended percentages of capacity
utilization, but it should be borne in mind that, as the percentage of capacity
utilization increases, so does the risk of overload, tipping and collapse. For
mobile cranes where tipping is a consideration…
 When using up to 50 percent of the cranes capacity it is being under
utilised. It may also be assumed that at this utilization there is a risk
from dropped objects

 Optimal utilisation would be between 50 percent and 80 percent. At

this utilization there is a risk of pulling the crane over towards the load

 At 80 percent to 90 percent, this is the upper acceptable utilization,

which would require additional precautions and controls to be
implemented. At this utilization there is a risk of the boom being
 propelled backwards by stored energy if the rigging were to fail and
hence would require a full 360-degree exclusion zone to be
implemented

 At 90 percent to 95 percent of utilization, pre-warning alarms have

activated and the crane may become overloaded at any moment

 At 95 percent to 100 percent, pre-warning alarms have activated and

again the crane may become overloaded at any moment. It is
recommended that cranes are not used at this utilization
For fixed lifting equipment such as pedestal cranes, different percentages
should be used but the risk of crane failure must be considered.
Maintenance
All cranes should have an appropriate maintenance manual, which gives
details of servicing, repair, essential spares and any special tools required for
maintenance purposes. Failure to carry out appropriate planned inspections
and preventative maintenance programs can lead to structural or
mechanical failure and collapse of the crane.
Maintenance MUST be carried out in accordance with an approved MAXIMO
maintenance programme, which complies with manufacturers’ instructions
and FMEA findings where applicable. The programme of weekly, monthly
and quarterly inspections should include, for example…
 Checks specified in the manufacturer’s handbook

 Functioning of controls for speed, smoothness of operation and limits

of motion

 Checking of emergency and safety switches and interlocks, including

limiting and indicating devices
  Lubrication of all moving parts

 Inspection of filter elements and fluid levels

 Checking tyre pressures and for damage

 Visual inspection and measurements, as necessary, of structural

members and other critical components such as brakes, gears,
fasteners, pins, shafts, wire ropes, terminations, sheaves, locking
devices and electrical contractors

 Signage, including warning signs and control markings

 Wear on components

 Checking of hooks and other load lifting attachments, safety catches

and swivels for damage, and…

 Check for creep in hydraulic rams

All replacement parts must be identical or equivalent to the originals and a
written report supplied upon completion of the inspection.
A crane service record, such as a maintenance logbook, should be kept,
recording any significant events concerning the safety and operation of the
crane. These records should be kept in a suitable, easily understood format,
and should be transferred with ownership of the crane. All entries in the
maintenance logbook should…
  Clearly describe any work undertaken and list any parts that have
been replaced

 Be dated, and…

 Record the name of the person who carried out the work
The importance of the maintenance history, especially that of a second-
hand crane, cannot be underestimated. Before a second-hand mobile crane
can be operated for the first time, you must ensure that the crane is subject
to an inspection.