Soft Ground Engineering 2018

Lecture 15(8)

埋立部 area
Reclaimed
桟橋部
Pier section Slit Column
スリット柱

Rubble mound
前面マ ウン at the
ド
front of seawall
(捨石) Cellular
鋼管矢 seawall
板井筒 with
steel pipe sheet pile

Tsuchida, Takashi
Hiroshima University
Topics 2
Ground Improvement Method of Soft Clayey
Ground in Seaport and Airport Projects
1. History of ground improvement of soft clay ground
- Replacement method -
2. Vertical Drain method
2.1 Design of vertical drain method
2.2 How to determine horizontal coefficient of consolidation
2.3 Case studies: Kansai International Airport and Tokyo International
2.4 Vacuum consolidation method
3. Sand Compaction Pile Method and Deep Cement Mixing Method
3.1 Sand compaction pile method
3.2 Deep mixing method
4. Artificial Geo-Materials and case studies
4.1 Cement treated soil, Pneumatic Mixing Method
4.2 Lightweight treated soil
4.3 Tokyo International Airport 4th runway project
4.4 Artificial sealing geo-material
Case Studies

4.3. Tokyo International Airport, 4th Runway

Project

4.4 Offshore Waste Disposal Facility

 Case Study 1
Tokyo International Airport
4th Runway Project, 2009
4.2 Tokyo international airport,
4th runway project and ground
improvement methods
 Construction of D-Runway in Tokyo Airport
- Pier structure and Reclaimed soil structure - Tokyo Port

B-Runway

A-Runway
1st Navigation
C-Runway Channel
Tama River of Tokyo Port

Taxiway Bridge

Pier Structure, 1100m Reclaimed land structure, 2920m

Connecting Structure
6
 Policy of ground improvement of foundation
1. Foundation of shelving bank revetment – SCP method, replacement
method and pipe mixing treated soil. (large bearing capacity)
2. Foundation of gravity type seawall – Cement deep mixing method ( large
bearing capacity)
3. Foundation of runway – Sand drain method (reduction of residual
settlements, increase of strength)
4. Backfill of seawall : Pneumatic mixing treated soil and lightweight treated
soil ( reduction of earth pressure, prevention of damage of piles)

Present Area of Landfill

Airport
Connecting
Taxi way Sand Drain Cement Deep
Mixing Method
Sand Compaction
Pile Method and
Area of Pier replacement method
Structure
Foam treated
soil Pipe Mixing
Treated Soil
 Placement of Jacket Structure
・The area to be constructed with the pier-type jacket structures was about 500,000 m2,
using 198 jackets in total with a typical length of 63 m and a width of 45 m.

・Due to the soft soil ground conditions at the site, 1849 driven steel pipe piles with a
diameter ranging from 0.9 m to 1.6 m and a length exceeding 70 m are required to
support the jacket structures.
1,100m

Reclaimed
Area

45m
Taxiway Bridge
63m
Specially equipped crane barge

Pre-installed steel pipe pile

foundation
Diameter=0.9 - 1.6m
Length= more than 70m 8
Placement of Jacket Structure

Each jacket structure needed to be placed on pre-installed piles with high accuracy.
The size of jacket structure 63 m in length and 45 m in width is the maximum possible
size in consideration of available work barges and carrying vessels. The runway
platform consists of a total of 198 of these jacket structures, each weighing about
1300–1,600 t .
9
 Pneumatic Mixing Method
Pneumatic flow and mixing in pipe

Injection of Mixing by
stabilizer turbulent flow
(Cement)

Plug flow

Transportation of slurry by pneumatic flow

 Pneumatic Mixing Method in Haneda D-Runway
Purpose of use of pneumatic mixing
method
1) Use of marine clay dredged for sand
replacement and new navigation channel
2) Lightweight fill and the reduction of
specification of ground improvement
3) Downsizing of structure of revetment due
to lightweight and high strength of pipe
mixing treated soil.

Pneumatic transport Vessel for Placement vessel of

vessel stabilizer supply PM soil
Transportation
Pipe

Stone
Stone
Dredging and replacement
by sand Mountain Sand
Mountain Sand
soft clay 1 SCP60% SCP60%
soft clay 2 Sand Drain Method
SCP 30%
soft clay 3
 Placement of Pneumatic
Placement vessel of PM treated soil mixing treated soil

Pipe Mixing
Treated Soil
Filling of
Mountain Soil

Pneumatic Pneumatic
Typical cross section of shelving bank revetment
Mixing Mixing
Embankment 2
Embankment 1

SCP, Sand Drain Method SCP,

As=30% As=30%
 Pneumatic transport Vessel for
vessel stabilizer supply

Transportation Transportation
Pipe Pipe

Pneumatic transport
vessel Transportation Pipe
φ＝35cm
Design strength of PM
treated soil

Volume: 5.2 million m3

*8.6 million m3 in Chubu
International Airport
qu=360kN/m2
percent defective
allowable(PDA)= 25%
 Pneumatic mixing method

The dredged clay is put in the pneumatic transportation vessel after removing the
foreign substances.
 Strength of pneumatic mixing treated soil

Result of check boring

The strength of pneumatic mixing
treated soil must be checked by the
unconfined compression test of
samples taken by check borings.

Depth (m) of sample

The average of qu was 707 kPa, and
The coefficient of variability,
V=0.342, the percent defective was
8.0%, which were enough for the
property requested in the design.

The strength variability of

pneumatic mixing treated soil is
much larger than that of treated
soil mixed with mechanical mixer.
Unconfined compression strength qu (kN/m2)
Reclamation/Pier Connection Structure
For the design of connection structure, the following problems have to be considered.
・ Differential settlements between the pier section and the reclaimed area.
・ How to reduce the lateral deformation of soft clay, which may give damages to pre-
installed piles, due to reclamation.
・Earthquake-resistant design, how to reduce the great seismic earth pressure.

埋立部
Reclaimed area
桟橋部
Pier section スリット柱
Slit Column

前面マ
Rubble ウン
mound at ド
the
front (捨石)
of seawall Cellular seawall with鋼管矢板井筒
steel pipe sheet pile
16
 Plane View of reclamation/pier connection structure

Reclaimed area

Existing
Steel pipe Seaside
Airport sheet pile

Pier section Pile for Pier

428.4m steel pipe sheet pile（φ1600）

Plane View

Cellular seawall with

steel pipe sheet pile

17
Technical points of reclamation/pier connection structure
Upper Structure
（Wave-Dissipation Type Seawall） Expansion/Contraction Device
・Slit column structure is used to ・To adjust the deformation due to
dissipate waves. temperature change or earthquake
伸縮装置
A.P. +13.7m 渡り桁 AP+13.7
Lightweight
軽量混合処理土 treated soil

管中混合固化処理土
Pnuematic treated soil
前面マウンド
（捨石）
A.P. -18.0m
AP-18.0 中仕切堤

SCP method
高置換SCP 低置換
SCP
Lightweight Soil and Pneumatic
①-C SCP mixing treated soil for reduce the
A.P. -36.0m
AP-36.0
seismic earth pressure and the
settlement of back filling
②-C
A.P. -60.0m
AP-60.0 鋼管矢板井筒
Cellular seawall with steel pipe sheet pile
・Use of large diameter steel pipe sheet pile
③-Ｓ （φ1600）
Rubble mounds and ground
improvement by Sand Compaction ・Use of high tensile strength joint of steel pipe
Pile (SCP) method were made to sheet pile to reduce the deformation of
reduce the lateral movement of seawall
・Driven to the base layer to reduce the
seawall structure. settlements. 18
 Connection Structure
Cellular seawall with steel pipe sheet pile

Reclaimed area

Pier Section

19
 Connection Structure
Dry-up Inside of Cell
Corrosion proof
for overlapping
concrete

20
 Foam Treated Soil

Cement-Foam-Clay
Continuous Mixer

Flow test

Density measurement 21
Placement of Foam Treated Soil
Special vessel for mixing and treatment
of lightweight treated soil

Berge transporting
dredging

22
 Unit weight and strength of foam treated soil

Target Target
1.02g/cm3 200 kPa
Placed
Target in air
1.12g/cm3
Elevation (m)

Placed

Elevation (m)
Target
in air 1.17g/cm3

Placed
in water Placed
in water

Wet density (kN/m3) Unconfined compressive strength, qu (kPa)

23
Comparison: Predicted and Measured and Horizontal Displacement
at the boundary between Steel Pier and Landfill
Horizontal Displacement (cm) Horizontal Displacement (cm)
-70 -50 -30 -10 0 -70 -50 -30 -10 0
0 0
Numerical analysis Numerical analysis
Shear stress=1700kPa Shear stress=1700kPa
-10 -10

-20 -20

Depth (m)
Depth (m)

-30 -30

-40 -40

-50 -50

-60 -60

-70 -70
Steel Pier Side Landfill Side
24
Construction of connecting area

25
Conclusions
In the project of Tokyo International Airport, ground improvement
technique and new geomaterials were used in various parts of the
constructions.
The methods and the methods were summarized as follows:
Foundation of shelving bank revetment
SCP method (inexpensive increase of bearing capacity)
Replacement method (Reuse of excavated clay)
Foundation of gravity type seawall
Cement deep mixing method ( large bearing capacity)
Foundation of runway
Sand drain method (reduction of residual settlements, increase of strength)
Backfill of seawall
Pneumatic mixing treated soil ( reduction of earth pressure and settlement,
inexpensive fill material by reusing the dredged clays)
Lightweight treated soil (reduction of earth pressure, prevention of damage of
piles due to lateral deformation)
 Case Study 2
Waste Disposal Facility in Seaport

27
Waste Disposal Facility in Seaport
The safe management of wastes is a key issue in mega cities.
To find a place for waste disposal facility in land is getting
more and more difficult, because the agreements of the
residents near the site would hardly be obtained due to
problems, such as, transportation noise, flying dust, bad Kobe Port
smell and especially potential risk of ground water pollution.
Due to these circumstances, waste disposal sites located in
seaport are more requested especially large cities facing to
sea. One of the advantage of the location in seaport is that
we can construct waste disposal with larger capacity.

Osaka Port

under construction
Cブロック

Tokyo Port Samukawa Port, Ehime

Tachibana Port, Tokushima
28
Waste Landfill Site in Seaport

Waste landfill sites in seaport are increasing in Japan.

Why ?
getting extremely difficult to find a place for new disposal site inland,
because the agreement of the residents near the site was hardly obtained due
to problems such as, transportation noise, dust, smell and especially
potential risk of ground water pollution.

 The large cities in Japan usually have seaports.

 In most seaports, landfill had been carried out to accept dredging of
navigation channels.
 In seaport, a waste landfill site can have a larger capacity than located

inland.
 Because of strict technical requirements, the construction and

maintaining cost becomes high, and small size waste landfill sites have
lost economical feasibility.
Definition of “Impermeable layer” in technical standard
of Ministry of Environments revised in 1998

1) Clay layer of more than 5m thickness whose permeability is less than

10-5cm/sec.

Equivalent barriers are defined as follow:

2) Clay layer of more than 50cm thickness whose permeability is less
than 10-6cm/sec, and a impermeable sheet
3) Asphalt concrete layer of more than 5cm thickness whose
permeability is less than 10-7cm/s with laying a impermeable sheet
4) two independent impermeable sheets
5) Installation of sheet pile up to the impermeable soil layer (lateral
barrier). The joint of sheet pile must be sealed.
 Typical cutoff layers of waste (1)
disposal site in Japan
Conti nuous layer,
thickness is Clay, k ＜1.0×10-5 cm/s
more than 5m

Light intercection tectile Light intercection tectile

(2) (3)

more
than 50cm
Covering material more
Covering material
than 50cm
more Clay, k ＜1.0×10-6 cm/s more
than 50cm
than 5cm Cutoff sheet
Asphalt Concrete
Cutoff sheet k ＜1.0×10-7 cm/s thickness is more than 1.5mm
thickness is more than 1.5mm

Light intercection tectile

Sheet pile up to the
(4) (5) impermeable soil layer
(lateral barrier)
more
Covering material Covering layer of
than 50cm
nonwoven textile

Cutoff sheet
thickness is more than 1.5mm Clay, k ＜1.0×10-5 cm/s thickness is
more than 5m
Technical Problems of Waste landfill Site in Seaport

Seawall Structures
・All works have to be done under sea water by machine.
・Sheet Pile → Cutoff at joint, Reliability of joint cutoff
・PVC or HDPE Sheet → Protecting layer in marine environment
In the case of inland landfill site, the protecting layer was
constructed by compacted clay layer.
・Earthquake-resistance of cutoff function of seawall structure

Cutoff of bottom ( in the case that the seabed is sandy soil)

・Possibility of PVC or HDPE sheet method
・Long-term reliability of PVC or HDPE sheet
・All works have to be done under sea water by machine.

Monitoring of cutoff function

・How to monitor the safety of waste landfill in seaport
Development of Artificial impermeable clay
“Clay Guard Method”, Case of Mishima Port

When the waste disposal site in seaport is constructed on sandy

seabed whose coefficient of permeability k=0.01～0.1cm/s, the
“impermeable layer” must be constructed on the seabed to prevent
the ground water flow thorough the bottom.
In order to construct an artificial impermeable layer on sandy
seabed, a new geotechnical material was developed and used.
 Laboratory Test of Impermeable Layer
Sample
Raw material A: marine clay dredged in Nagoya Port
Raw material B: marine clay dredged in Yokohama Port

Added materials
Bentonite A: expansive in sea water condition
Bentonite B + Sodium Silicate
Niigata sand

Testing method
Consolidation Test
Permeability Test
Observation of micro-structure of soil by SEM and
Mercury Porosimeter
 100

80 Soil Samples and

通過質量百分率 P (%)

60
the gradation curve
NC
NS1
40 NS2
NS3
NS4
20 NS5
新潟砂
YC
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
粒径 D s (mm)
Mark Sample Bentnite Sodium Siligate Sand Arranged water
content
NC Nagoya clay None None None 130%(2wL)
YC Yokohama Clay None None None 180%

NBA Nagoya clay A None None 110%

NBB Nagoya clay B Sodium Siligate None 110%

NS1 Nagoya clay None None Niigata sand 98%

NS2 Nagoya clay None None Niigata sand 94%
NS3 Nagoya clay None None Niigata sand 90%

NS4 Nagoya clay None None Niigata sand 89%

NS5 Nagoya clay None None Niigata sand 76%
Void ratio – Permeability Relationship

2.5
NC
NBA
NBB
2.0 YC
NC-k
e e
Ratio

NBA-k
間隙比

NBB-k
1.5 YC-k
Void

1.0 Permeability of
clay mixed with
bentonite

0.5
1.0E-09 1.0E-08 1.0E-07 1.0E-06
透水係数
Coefficient k (cm/s) k. (cm/s)
of permeability,
 Nagoya clay Nagoya clay +bentonite Nagoya clay +sand

1.2 1.2 1.2

圧密試験前 圧密試験前 圧密試験前
1.0
DV /Dlog D p (cm /g)
DV/Dlog D p (cm g)

1.0

DV /Dlog D p (cm /g)

1.0
3/

圧密試験後
3

圧密試験後 圧密試験後

3
0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2
0.2 0.2
0.0
0.0 0.0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
間隙直径 D p (m)
間隙直径 D p (m) 間隙直径 D p (m)

Observation of micro-structures by SEM and pore size distribution measurement by

Mercury Porosimeter
 Clay Guard Method

Construction of artificial impermeable layer for waste landfill site in

seaport
Penta-Ocean Corp. and Port and Airport Research Institute

Water Surface

Waste landfill
Reinforcement
Protecting layer
by geotextile

Clay guard
impermeable
clay layer
Sandy seabed
Design of Treated Clay

Design of mix proportion of clay guard

START

Soil test of raw marine soil obtained on or near site

Average water content of raw marine soil

Determination of mix of Check for necessary shear

pore control material strength

Determination of mix of
gelatification material

Determination of mix proportion of

Clay Guard for in-situ placing

Design of permeability Design of strength and stability

Mishima Port, Samukawa Waste Disposal Site
Plane view of Samukawa waste disposal site and
coastal landfill

500m

Waste disposal area

220m

Landfill area
Cross Section of Waste Disposal Site in Samukawa Port

220m

27.0m 119m 57.7m

Clay guard = artificial impermeable layer

 Void ratio-permeability relation and
determination of bentonite addition

1) The target void ratio e* was 4.5

4.5

obtained. 新居浜港浚渫粘性土
Site at Site D
4.0
4.0
2) The target water content w* 西ポンド堆積粘性土
Soil at Site C
was calculated as, 3.53.5
 東ポンド堆積粘性土
Soil at Site A
w*  w e * 100 (%)
s 3.03.0
②目標間隙比ｅ *

Void

間隙比 e
Void 2.5
3) The content of bentonite ratio,
ratio
2.5
埋立地中央部堆積粘性土
Soil at Site B
m* (g/cm3 or ton/m3) was e
e 2.0
2.0

calculated as,
1 w*
1.5
1.5
0  100 Target value of
Target value
w  w * permeability
s 100 1.01.0 of permeability,

100  w  (  s   0 )  s  (  0   w ) k
m*   0.50.5
s  w s  w -6 -5
*
1.0E-08 1.0E-07
w* 10-8 10-7 透水係数 k (cm/s) 101.0E-06 ①目標透水係数ｋ 1.0E-05
10
10 -5

ρs : density of soil particle Coefficient

Coefficient of of permeability,
permeability k (cm/s)k (cm/s)

ρw: density of pore water

Shear strengths-time relationship of treated soils
with different contents of sodium silicate

2.0
2.0

Shear 　ゲル化材添加量＝25 kg/m3 原料土：東ポンド堆積粘性土

Soil at Site No.1
Strength 　ゲル化材添加量＝20 kg/m3

(kN/m2)
　ゲル化材添加量＝15 kg/m3

Content of sodium
　ゲル化材添加量＝10 kg/m3

1.5
1.5
silicate 25kg/m
　ゲル化材添加量＝5
3
kg/m3

　ゲル化材無添加

20kg/m3
せん断強さ (kN/m2)

Design shear strength

遮水材料に必要なせん断強さｃ＝１kN/m 2

1.0
15kg/m3
10kg/m3
1.0

5kg/m3
0.5
0.5

None

0.0
0 0 7 14 21 28
0 7 14
経過日数 (日) 21 28

Elapsed Time (day)

 Placing of clay guard material in sea water

Guide Pipe
（φ800 steel）
Tremie Pipe
（8inch）
Valve for
control air pres. Lead

Tremie Pipe
打設状況（全景）
（8inch）
Clay Guard impermeable material
Construction of impermeable layer on sandy seabed in
Samukawa waste landfill site project

Pneumatic transportation pipe Working vessel for

pipe of mixed soil placing mixed soil
Transportation of
dredged clays

East Pond
(Stock Pond）

Mixing machine

GPS
Working Vessel
Antenna

Guide pipe and

tremie pipe
Flexible Pipe
Control room

Impermeable
Placing of artificial impermeable layer in sea water
(Samukawa Waste Disposal Site)
 Summary 1
1. For most of the local communities, to ensure the final waste
disposal site is an urgent need. However, it is getting extremely
difficult to find a land for new disposal site inland, because
the agreement of the residents near the site would hardly be
obtained due to a lot of problems of waste disposal site such as,
transportation noise, flying dust, bad smell and especially
potential risk of ground water pollution. Due to these
circumstances, waste disposal sites located in seaport are
getting more and more important.

2. In the government technical standard enforced in 1998, the

barrier to prevent the water contained in hazardous materials
from inside of controlled waste fill site to the open sea must be
doubled based on the failsafe concept.
 Summary 2
3. In Mishima Port, Samukawa waste disposal site was constructed
on the seabed of sandy soil with high permeability. The following
method was utilized:
1) The “impermeable layer” of 2m thickness was constructed at the sea
bottom of 19m depth with the artificially treated clay which was made
of clayey marine soil, bentonite and sodium silicate.
2) Bentonite and sodium silicate were mixed with clayey soil to reduce
the permeability and to get the shear strength, respectively.
3) The maximum difference of thickness of clay guard layer was 10 cm
(thickness range 2.00-2.10m) , meaning that the uniform impermeable
layer was constructed well.