Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering

J. Micromech. Microeng. 29 (2019) 075006 (9pp) https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6439/ab1db7

Enhancement of power output in passive

micro-direct methanol fuel cells with
optimized methanol concentration
and trapezoidal flow channels
Arjun Sunil Rao1,3 , K R Rashmi2 , D V Manjunatha1, A Jayarama2,3
and Richard Pinto1
1
  Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Alva’s Institute of Engineering
and Technology, Moodbidri, D. K., Karnataka, India
2
  Department of Physics, Alva’s Institute of Engineering and Technology, Moodbidri, D. K., Karnataka,
India

E-mail: arjunsr92@gmail.com and jrmarasalike@gmail.com

Received 12 March 2019, revised 10 April 2019

Accepted for publication 29 April 2019
Published 28 May 2019

Abstract
This work presents design, fabrication and optimization of methanol concentration and flow
channel cross-sectional geometry for enhanced power output in passive micro-direct methanol
fuel cells. Passive micro-direct methanol fuel cells are fabricated with flow channels in
silicon having both rectangular and trapezoidal cross-sectional geometry for flow of methanol
at anode and air at cathode using microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) fabrication
technique. The experiments are conducted at 25 °C by feeding methanol with a flow rate of
25 μl min−1 and supply of air at cathode by air-breathing method. Results show a peak
in open circuit voltage and power density at 7 M methanol concentration for passive
micro-direct methanol fuel cells having both rectangular and trapezoidal cross-sectional
geometry. A study of influence of silicon flow channel cross-sectional geometry on passive
micro-direct methanol fuel cell performance shows for the first time that the flow channels
with trapezoidal cross-section enhance the power density (6.64 mW cm−2) nearly by a factor
of two compared to that of flow channels with rectangular cross-section (3.9 mW cm−2) at
7 M methanol concentration.We believe that, though our results of significant enhancement
of power density with trapezoidal fuel flow channels are obtained with micro-direct methanol
fuel cells as a platform, they should also be applicable to other proton exchange membrane
fuel cells with ethanol or humidified hydrogen as fuel.

Keywords: passive micro-direct methanol fuel cell, gas diffusion layer, trapezoidal flow
channels, methanol concentration

(Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

1. Introduction is considerable body of work carried out to enhance the power

Passive micro-direct methanol fuel cells (μ-DMFCs) have
evolved over the last few years because of numerous advantages,
such as high power density, reliability and high fuel conversion
efficiency which could lead to many applications [1–3]. There
3
Authors to whom any correspondence should be addressed.
density and fuel conversion efficiency over the last decade in
the field of μ-DMFCs [4–8]. While the efficiency and power
density depend on thickness and equivalent weight of proton
exchange membrane (PEM), both power density and fuel con-
version also depend upon methanol concentration, flow channel
geometry and operating temperature [9–11].

1361-6439/19/075006+9$33.00 1 © 2019 IOP Publishing Ltd  Printed in the UK

J. Micromech. Microeng. 29 (2019) 075006
One of the most important parameters which limits the per-
formance of μ-DMFCs is fuel crossover from the anode side
to the cathode side through PEM (such as nafion) [12] and also
the formation of CO2 bubbles at the anode [13]. Crossover is a
phenomenon of methanol diffusion through PEM and it is found
to be dependent on methanol concentration and PEM thick-
ness [14]. Methanol crossover decreases the cathode potential
at open circuit which causes a mixed potential on the cathode
thereby diminishing the overall cell performance [5, 15].
In other words, the fraction of methanol which diffuses
through nafion membrane reacts with oxygen at the cathode,
thereby causing an internal short circuit and the consequent
loss of current in the external circuit [16, 17]. The crossover
increases with the methanol concentration and hence, can be
limited by utilizing a lower methanol concentration. In other
words, while a lower methanol concentration cannot provide
enough reactant to the catalyst sites due to the mass transfer
limitation, a higher concentration tends to harm the μ-DMFC
performance as a result of enhanced methanol crossover.
Hence, a trade-off has to be found for methanol concentration.
It has to be sufficiently small to diminish crossover through
the membrane, but at the same time, high enough to cause a
high performance in μ-DMFCs [16]. This optimum methanol
concentration depends on μ-DMFC design, the most impor-
tant parameter in the design being the membrane thickness.
In an active μ-DMFC, a fuel pump and an air/oxygen blower
are used which result in a maximum power density that can be
realized at low methanol concentrations [18, 19]. On the other
hand, a passive μ-DMFC has a built-in fuel reservoir for supply
of methanol of required concentration, thereby eliminating the
need for pumps [20]. Further, due to the low fuel flow rate in
passive μ-DMFCs, they require higher methanol concentrations
to realize maximum power density with minimal methanol
crossover [9, 21]. Hence, the optimum methanol concentration
for a passive μ-DMFC with low fuel flow rate may not be the
same as that of active μ-DMFC with high fuel flow rate [15].
Reports indicate that one of the important design considera-
tions determining methanol flow velocity is the cross-sectional
geometry of flow channels at anode/cathode in μ-DMFCs [10,
22–26]. In μ-DMFC design, there is an optimal micro-channel
geometry for fuel delivery; and it is reported that the min-
imal flow channel cross-section is about 100 μm  ×100 μm
[27]. Further, flow channel depth should also be an optimum
size [28], because too shallow channel depth will hamper the
removal of CO2 at the anode side in the case of methanol/
ethanol fuel cells [13, 20, 25]. There are very few studies on
the influence of triangular/trapezoidal and rectangular cross-
sectional geometry of fuel flow channels on optimal fuel cell
performance [10, 29]; the simulation studies on trapezoidal
cross-section have shown that it is more effective in ensuring
uniform reactant distribution over the reactant area of the fuel
cell [30]. Pressure drop in the fuel flow channel should not be
too high which limits the flow of reactants; on the other hand,
it should not be too low thereby meaning reactants spend very
little time at the reaction sites. Simulations show that as the
land-width decreases (from the rectangular cross-section),
fuel (methanol/hydrogen) consumption increases till an
optimal land-width below which fuel consumption decreases
2
A S Rao et al
due to excessive pressure drop [10, 31]. Hence, the optimum
fuel flow channel width, land-width and flow channel depth
(in trapezoidal cross-section) is essential for best performance
of fuel cells [10]. Since, there are only simulation studies
on the effect of cross-sectional geometry of flow channels
on the performance of μ-DMFC, it is essential to study its
effect experimentally for best performance of μ-DMFCs with
optim­ized methanol concentration.
This paper reports optimization of methanol concentration
and study of effect of cross-sectional geometry of fuel flow
channels in passive μ-DMFCs. Experiments were carried out
by fabricating passive μ-DMFCs with rectangular and trap-
ezoidal cross-sectional flow channels etched in silicon wafers
using microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) fabrication
process. The results of a very significant enhancement in power
density, nearly by a factor of two, realized in μ-DMFCs with
trapezoidal methanol flow channels as compared to μ-DMFCs
with rectangular fuel flow channels are reported in this paper.
2. Experimental
2.1. Design and fabrication of passive μ-DMFCs
Passive μ-DMFCs were designed and fabricated using sil-
icon flow channels for flow of methanol at anode and air at
cathode. The heart of the μ-DMFC is membrane electrode
assembly (MEA) which has an active area of 2.89 cm2 in our
design. MEA consists of micro-porous gas diffusion layer
(GDL) i.e. Toray carbon paper, which regulates the flow of
methanol to the catalyst at the anode, a high efficiency catalyst
layer (Pt–Ru) [20, 32] for the generation of protons (H+) from
methanol, a high proton conductance membrane layer (Nafion
117) for the transfer of protons and a high efficiency cata-
lyst (Pt) at the cathode [20, 33] for the conversion of oxygen
(from air), protons and electrons (from external circuit) into
water. A metallic layer (Cr–Au) on the flow channels of sil-
icon chips (both at anode and cathode) is used for the exit of
electrons from anode through the external circuit and entry
into the cathode for charge balance. A schematic of passive
μ-DMFC with two identical aluminium reservoirs is shown
in figure 1 and its exploded view showing detailed description
for silicon-based cell assembly is shown in figure 2.
2.1.1.  Fabrication of flow channels in silicon wafers.  MEMS
technology was used for the fabrication of micro-flow chan-
nels for flow of methanol at anode and air at cathode. The
flow channels in silicon wafers were fabricated with cross-
strip design since this design gives better fuel cell perfor-
mance [34]. In this process, 2 inch silicon wafers of 〈1 1 0〉
and 〈1 0 0〉 orientations were used which give rectangular and
trapezoidal cross-sectional geometries, respectively when
etched. The process flow schematic for fabrication of micro-
flow channels in silicon is shown in figure  3. The process
involves following steps: (a) wet oxidation of silicon wafers
for growth of 1000 nm thick SiO2; (b) spin coating of positive
photo resist (PPR) on both sides of silicon wafers followed
by ultraviolet (UV) lithography using level 1 through-hole
mask to define through holes; (c) development of PPR using
J. Micromech. Microeng. 29 (2019) 075006
Figure 1.  Schematic of passive μ-DMFC with aluminium
reservoirs.
Figure 2.  Exploded view of passive μ-DMFC showing detailed
description for silicon-based cell assembly with (a) aluminium
reserviors, (b) silicon flow channels with Cr–Au current collector,
(c) catalyst loaded GDLs, and (d) nafion 117 membrane.
MF319 developer followed by etching of SiO2 using buffered
hydrofluoric acid (BHF); (d) etching of silicon up to 190 μm
depth using tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) as an
anisotropic etchant with SiO2 mask; (e) spin coating of PPR
on both sides of silicon wafers followed by second level UV
lithography using level 2 flow-channel mask to define cross-
strip flow channels; (f) development of PPR by using MF319
developer followed BHF etching of exposed SiO2; (g) anis-
trophic TMAH etching of silicon wafers with SiO2 as mask to
obtain flow channels of depth 100 μm (width of flow channels
250 μm). While etching the flow channels, the through holes
were likewise etched totally. (h) Bi-metallic layer of chrome
(10 nm) and gold (150 nm) [34] was then sputter-deposited on
silicon flow channels for conduction of electrons (that accu-
mulate on GDL surface facing the flow channels) towards
external circuit. UV lithography mask design and optical
microscopic image of fabricated cross-strip micro-flow chan-
nels are shown in figures 4(a) and (b), respectively.
3
A S Rao et al
Figure 3.  Process flow for fabrication of micro-flow channels in
silicon wafer: (a) silicon wafer with 1000 nm SiO2; (b) spin coating
of PPR on both sides of silicon wafers followed by UV lithography
and development; (c) etching of exposed SiO2 using BHF; (d)
TMAH etching of silicon using SiO2 mask for through holes;
(e) spin coating of PPR on both sides of silicon wafers followed
by second level UV lithography and development; (f) etching of
exposed SiO2 using BHF; (g) TMAH etching of silicon using SiO2
mask for micro-flow channels; and (h) Cr–Au sputter deposition on
silicon cross-strip micro-flow channels.
2.1.2. Preparation of MEA.  As mentioned earlier, the MEA
consists of a nafion 117 membrane sandwiched in between the
two catalyst loaded GDLs. Before assembling the μ-DMFC,
nafion membranes were cleaned with acetone and isopropyl
alcohol (IPA). It was post baked at 100 °C for 1 h to remove
any water molecules present. 5 mg each of Pt and Ru nano-
particles were suspended in 0.2 ml of IPA. This suspension
was used as catalyst at the anode of the μ-DMFCs. 10 mg Pt
nano-particles were suspended in 0.2 ml of IPA which was
used as catalyst at the cathode of passive μ-DMFCs. The
nano-particles were coated on the GDLs with 3.5 mg cm−2 of
J. Micromech. Microeng. 29 (2019) 075006 A S Rao et al

Figure 4.  (a) UV lithography mask design of cross-strip micro-flow

channel design, and (b) optical microscopic image of micro-flow
channels fabricated in silicon wafers using MEMS fabrication
process.

catalyst density. Figure 5 shows field emission scanning elec-

tron microscope (FESEM) image of toray carbon paper GDLs
with and without catalyst loading.

2.1.3. Assembly of μ-DMFCs.  Aluminium reservoirs were
used for storage and supply of methanol at anode [35] and air
at the cathode as shown in figures 1 and 2. Methanol solution
was fed into the anode with a flow rate of 25 μl min−1 at 25 °C.
Air-breathing mode was utilized for supply of air at cathode
because it enhances the design flexibility which is desirable
in portable applications. Finally, the passive μ-DMFCs were
prepared by assembling the components in the following
order: starting from anode to cathode—Cr–Au sputtered sili-
con flow channels | Pt–Ru catalyst loaded GDL | nafion 117
membrane | Pt catalyst loaded GDL | Cr–Au sputtered silicon
flow channels. This assembly was sandwiched between two
identical aluminium reservoirs. The following two experi-
ments were conducted to optimize the performance of pas-
sive μ-DMFCs.
(a) Effect of methanol concentration on OCV of passive μ-
DMFCs: In this case we varied methanol concentration
from 1 M to 8 M to study its effect on OCV of passive μ-
DMFCs using rectangular and trapezoidal cross-sectional
flow channels at 25 °C with methanol flow rate of 25 μl
min−1 at anode and air-breathing at cathode.
(b) 
Effect of cross-sectional geometry of micro-flow
channels on passive μ-DMFC power density: In this
experiment, the effect of flow channels with two different
cross-sectional geometries (rectangular and trapezoidal)
on passive μ-DMFC performance was studied. Methanol
Figure 5.  FESEM images of GDLs (a) without catalyst loading,
and (b) with catalyst loading.
solutions of 2 M, 4 M, 6 M, 7 M and 8 M concentrations
were used as fuel at anode of μ-DMFC operated at 25 °C
with 25 μl min−1 methanol flow rate and air-breathing at
cathode.
3.  Results and discussion
3.1.  Effect of methanol concentration on OCV
The first parameter that was studied was the effect of concen-
tration of methanol on OCV of passive μ-DMFCs fabricated
with rectangular and trapezoidal flow channels etched in
〈1 1 0〉 and 〈1 0 0〉 silicon wafer orientations, respectively.
Passive μ-DMFCs were kept vertical with methanol flowing
through the flow channels through gravity. The concentra-
tion of methanol liquid feed was varied from 1 M to 8 M and
OCVs of passive μ-DMFCs were measured at each concentra-
tion at 25 °C with 25 μl min−1 methanol flow rate at anode and
air-breathing at cathode. The experimental results of variation
of OCV with methanol concentration are plotted in figure 6.
It is observed that at lower concentrations, the experimental
results show lower OCVs due to lack of methanol at the anode
catalyst sites.

4
J. Micromech. Microeng. 29 (2019) 075006
Figure 6.  OCVs of passive μ-DMFCs with rectangular and
trapezoidal flow channels as a function of methanol concentration
obtained at 25 °C with methanol flow rate 25 μl min−1 at anode and
air-breathing at cathode.
From figure  6 it is clear that the experimentally meas-
ured OCV increases with increase in methanol concentration
showing a peak at 7 M methanol concentration. The increase
of OCV with the increase in methanol concentrations is due
to the fact that higher methanol concentrations produce more
protons as well as electrons, and also generate higher diffu-
sion force which improves the transfer rate of methanol from
reservoir to the anode side and catalyst layers through GDL.
But beyond 7 M, the OCV gradually decreases due to meth-
anol crossover through nafion 117 membrane which increases
beyond 7 M methanol concentration. In other words, when a
higher methanol concentration (beyond 7 M in our case) is
used, a larger amount of methanol is oxidized at the cathode
(due to methanol crossover), leading to a higher mixed poten-
tial. This pulls down the OCV severely. It is commonly known
that in the case of a passive μ-DMFC, the methanol delivery
is mostly driven by a methanol concentration gradient [14]. In
this situation, a lower methanol concentration cannot provide
enough reactant to the catalyst sites due to the mass transfer
limitation, while a higher concentration also tends to harm
the μ-DMFC performance as a result of enhanced methanol
crossover [36]. Thus, an optimal methanol concentration of
7 M helps to achieve an optimal passive μ-DMFC perfor-
mance by more efficient utilization of methanol.
3.2.  Effect of cross-sectional geometry of flow channels
etched in 〈1 1 0〉 and 〈1 0 0〉 silicon wafer orientations on
passive μ-DMFC performance
We have observed that the cross-sectional geometry of the
flow channels which influence the flow of reactants has a
significant bearing on the performance of passive μ-DMFCs.
A schematic of cross-sectional geometry of flow channels is
shown in figure 7. As seen in the figure, a rectangular cross-
sectional geometry is obtained in 〈1 1 0〉 silicon wafer and a
trapezoidal cross-sectional geometry is obtained in 〈1 0 0〉
5
A S Rao et al
Figure 7.  Schematic of cross-sectional geometry of flow channels:
(a) rectangular on 〈1 1 0〉 silicon wafer, and (b) trapezoidal on
〈1 0 0〉 silicon wafer; micro-flow channel width, w  =  250 μm,
depth, d  =  100 μm, and land-width, wl  =  100 μm.
silicon wafer. This is an inherent property of anisotropic wet
etching of silicon with 〈1 1 0〉 and 〈1 0 0〉 orientations. The
flow channel length and the top width (exposed to catalyst
loaded GDL) in both cases are the same which are defined by
the design of the UV lithographic mask as seen in figure 4(a).
The cross-sectional FESEM images of flow channels fabri-
cated on 〈1 1 0〉 and 〈1 0 0〉 silicon wafer orientations are
shown in figures 8 and 9, respectively.
A set of experiments were performed in order to study the
effect of cross-sectional geometry of flow channels fabricated
from (1) 〈1 1 0〉 silicon wafer orientation (rectangular cross-
sectional geometry), and (2) 〈1 0 0〉 silicon wafer orientation
(trapezoidal cross-sectional geometry) on the performance of
passive μ-DMFCs. Polarization (I–V and I-P) curves were
obtained for μ-DMFCs at 25 °C for 2 M, 4 M, 6 M, 7 M and
8 M methanol concentrations with flow rate of 25 μl min−1.
Shown in figures 10(a) and (b) are polarization plots of passive
μ-DMFCs with flow channels having rectangular and trap-
ezoidal cross-sectional geometries, respectively. These results
indicate that the performance of the passive μ-DMFC with
both types of flow channels is almost similar in the low cur­
rent density region. At higher current density regions however,
the passive μ-DMFC with flow channels having trapezoidal
cross-section show better cell voltage and a nearly two-fold
J. Micromech. Microeng. 29 (2019) 075006
Figure 8.  FESEM image of micro-flow channels fabricated from
〈1 1 0〉 silicon wafer orientation: (a) cross-section, and (b) tilted
view.
enhancement of power density as compared to those obtained
with rectangular cross-sectional flow channels. These results
are true for all the methanol concentrations 2 M, 4 M, 6 M, 7
M and 8 M studied. As seen in figure 10, the maximum power
density is obtained at 7 M methanol concentration which is
found to be optimum concentration for both rectangular and
trapezoidal flow channels. This confirms the results shown in
figure 6 (OCV versus methanol concentration). It is found that
the power density obtained in our passive μ-DMFCs is better
when compared to other passive DMFCs reported earlier and
shown in table 1.
Our design for flow channels in rectangular and trapezoidal
cross-sections has the same channel length, width and depth.
But the channel land-width is less for trapezoidal flow chan-
nels as compared to that of rectangular flow channels. As a
result, the cross-sectional area of trapezoidal flow channels is
less than that of rectangular flow channels as seen in figure 7.
Therefore, the velocity of reactant in trapezoidal flow channels
should be higher than in rectangular flow channels for a given
flow rate (25 μl min−1). This can be explained as follows:
Q = v × A
(1)
6
A S Rao et al
Figure 9.  FESEM image of micro-flow channels fabricated from
〈1 0 0〉 silicon wafer orientation: (a) cross-section, and (b) tilted
view.
Q
Or v = ,
(2)
A
where Q is the reactant flow rate, v is the reactant velocity and
A is the cross-sectional area of the flow channel.
Hence, from equation  (2), reactant velocity is inversely
proportional to cross-sectional area of flow channel. In other
words, the reactant velocity in trapezoidal flow channels will
be higher than that of rectangular cross-sectional geometry.
This implies that due to higher flow velocities in trapezoidal
flow channels the fuel consumption rate at anode will be
higher in trapezoidal flow channels as compared to the one
with rectangular cross-sectional flow channels.
Polarization plots in figure  10 indicate that the two flow
channel geometries have insignificant effect in the low cur­
rent density region which is the activation polarization region.
Basically, at low current densities the activation polarization
is dominant due to the fact that the electronic barriers are to be
overcome before the ionic current flow takes place. Activation
losses are the main cause for voltage drop in a fuel cell in
this region [44]. As the current density increases however, the
J. Micromech. Microeng. 29 (2019) 075006 A S Rao et al

Table 1.  Comparison of power densities of passive DMFCs with

those published in the literature with nafion 117 membrane.
Maximum power Active Flow rate
density (mW cm−2) area (cm2) (μl min−1) Reference
6.64 2.89 25 This worka
3.90 2.89 25 This workb
2 0.18 1.38 [37]
2.45 0.39 1.38 [37]
2.8 0.39 2.76 [37]
3.7 0.39 5.52 [37]
0.29 0.25 0.166 [9]
0.38 2.64 1000 [38]
4.9 1 10 [39]
3.8 4 NS [40]
2.2 4 NS [40]
3.3 9 NS [41]
3 7.5 NS [42]
1.7 1 NS [43]
a
Passive μ-DMFC with trapezoidal cross-sectional flow channels.
b
Passive μ-DMFC with rectangular cross-sectional flow channels.
NS—not specified.

4. Conclusion

We have studied the effect of reactant micro-flow channel cross-

Figure 10.  Polarization plots (I–V and I-P curves) of passive
μ-DMFCs with micro-flow channels having, (a) rectangular, and
(b) trapezoidal cross-sections for various methanol concentrations
(2 M, 4 M, 6 M, 7 M and 8 M) operated at 25 °C with 25 μl min−1
methanol flow rate at anode and air-breathing at cathode.
μ-DMFC goes into the ohmic polarization region, and it is
in this region where the passive μ-DMFCs with flow chan-
nels with trapezoidal cross-sectional geometry give a better
performance. As mentioned earlier, this is due to the fact
that the flow channels with trapezoidal cross-section result
in higher flow velocities as compared to those with rectan-
gular cross-section as explained using equation  (2). Higher
flow velocity essentially implies a higher fuel consumption
[10]. In other words, μ-DMFCs having flow channels with
trapezoidal cross-section result in increased fuel consumption
as compared to those having flow channels with rectangular
cross-section, consequently leading to improved performance
in the ohmic polarization region, thereby, leading to improve-
ment in power density nearly by a factor of two. The peak
power densities were obtained at 7 M methanol concentration
for passive μ-DMFCs with both rectangular and trapezoidal
cross-sections. Hence, 7 M is the optimum methanol concen-
tration for our design.
section geometry on the power output of passive μ-DMFCs.
Both rectangular and trapezoidal micro-flow channels were
etched in 〈1 1 0〉 and 〈1 0 0〉 silicon wafer orientations, respec-
tively, by using MEMS fabrication technology. Experiments
were conducted to find the optimal methanol concentration
under passive mode in μ-DMFCs with methanol flow rate of
25 μl min−1 for maximum OCVs at 25 °C. Results showed
an increase in OCV with increase in methanol concentration
with a maximum OCV at 7 M methanol concentration beyond
which OCV dropped significantly for both the μ-DMFCs. It is
evident from these results that there is an optimum methanol
concentration, 7 M methanol, for passive μ-DMFCs operating
under passive mode at 25 °C.
We have also studied the effect of rectangular and
trapezoidal cross-sectional geometry of micro-flow chan-
nels on power densities of passive μ-DMFC performance
exper­imentally at 25 °C with 2 M, 4 M, 6 M, 7 M and 8 M
methanol concentrations. It was found for the first time that
the passive μ-DMFCs with trapezoidal flow channels show a
power density enhancement nearly by a factor of two as com-
pared to those with rectangular flow channels. The reason for
enhanced power output observed in passive μ-DMFCs with
trapezoidal flow channels is higher reactant flow velocity
in trapezoidal flow channels as compared to that in rectan-
gular flow channels for the same open-ratio, channel length
and depth and with constant flow rate (25 μl min−1); the
enhanced reactant velocity results in higher fuel consump-
tion and hence, improved power density. Though our results
of enhanced power output with trapezoidal flow channels for
flow of optim­ized methanol concentration were obtained with
μ-DMFC as a platform, we believe that they should also be
applicable to other PEM fuel cells including hydrogen fuel
cells.

7
J. Micromech. Microeng. 29 (2019) 075006
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Indian Nanoelectronics Users
Program (INUP) of IIT Bombay, Tata Institute of Fundamen-
tal Research, Mumbai and MEMS Lab of Alva’s Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Moodbidri for their support dur-
ing the course of this work. This research did not receive any
specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commer-
cial, or not-for-profit sectors.
ORCID iDs
Arjun Sunil Rao https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8537-3775
K R Rashmi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4966-1227
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