What are Semiconductors and How They Work Electronically

Semiconductors have undoubtedly been one of the discoveries that have had a positive impact on
the development of the world. Semiconductors are at the heart of any electronic device we use
today, such as transistors, processors, and so on. Everything that is computerized or uses radio
waves necessarily depends on semiconductors.

Importance of Semiconductors

Today, most transistors and semiconductor chips are made from silicon. A diode is possibly the
simplest and most basic semiconductor component, making it a great starting point if you want to
understand how semiconductors work. In this article you will learn what a semiconductor is step
by step, how doping works and how a diode can be created using semiconductors. But first we
must familiarize ourselves and learn more about silicon, a key element and starting point in its
construction.

Semiconductors chemical table

Silicon is a fairly common and very abundant element on earth; it is the main element in sand and
quartz. When looking up "silicon" in the periodic table, it is found next to aluminum(Al) below
carbon(C) and above germanium(Ge). Carbon, silicon, and germanium (also used to make
semiconductor components) have a unique property in their electronic structure: each has 4
electrons in its outer orbit. This allows them to form beautiful crystals. The 4 electrons form
perfect covalent bonds with four neighboring atoms, creating a network. In carbon, we know the
crystalline form as diamond. In silicon, the crystalline form is a silvery, metallic-looking substance.

How Semiconductors Work

Metals tend to be good conductors of electricity as they normally have "free electrons" that can
easily move between atoms and electricity involves the flow of electrons. Although silicon crystals
appear to be metallic, they are not actually metals. All the outer electrons that we have in a silicon
crystal are involved in perfect covalent bonds, so they cannot move. Pure silicon is practically an
insulator which means that electricity will not flow through it.

But this insulating property can be changed through a process called doping. You can change the
behavior of silicon and make it a conductor by doping. In doping: it is mixed with small amounts of
impurities in the silicon crystal.

Types of Semiconductors According to Doping:

semiconductors example of electrons with phosphorus

N-Type Semiconductors: For N-type doping, phosphorous or arsenic is added to silicon in small
amounts. Phosphorus and arsenic each have 5 outer electrons as shown in the image above, so
they are out of place when they enter the silicon lattice. The fifth electron of the phosphorus has
nothing to attach to, so it is free to move. Only a very small amount of the impurity is needed to
create enough free electrons to allow an electric current to flow through the silicon. Electrons
have a negative charge, hence the name N-type.

semiconductors example of electrons with boron

P-Type Semiconductors: In P-type doping, the dopant used is either boron or gallium as well.
Boron and Gallium each have only 3 outer electrons as shown in the image above. When they mix
with the silicon lattice, they form holes in the lattice where a silicon electron has nothing to attach
to. The absence of an electron creates the effect of a positive charge, hence the name P-type.
Holes can conduct current. A hole happily accepts an electron from its neighbor, moving the hole
over space.

compound semiconductors example of electrons

Compound semiconductors: are those that combine the elements of group III and V with elements
of group II and VI. For example, (Ga) with (As), (In) with (P), (In) with (Ga) with (Al) and (P) to give
some examples. These combinations are mainly used for high-frequency devices and for optical
devices or semiconductors. A practical and very common case is the combination of (In)(Ga)(N) for
blue LEDs and laser diodes. SiC and GaN are also very useful for achieving power semiconductors.
Also with more gallium than arsenic it produces p-type semiconductors, but with more arsenic
than gallium it produces n-type semiconductors.

A small amount of N-type or P-type doping converts the insulating silicon crystal into a reliable
conductor; not an excellent conductor as other metals would be that are conductors hence the
name "semiconductor". N-type and P-doped silicon are not surprising on their own