Department of education

Course Title: General Ecology

Course code: Bio 211

Topic: Ecological Productivity

Presented by:

Bed/555/20/21

Bed/568/21/22

Lecturer: Okumu Gladys

Date: 14/11/2022
Table of Contents
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….1
What is an Ecosystem? ……………………………………………………………………...2
Ecosystem Classification based on region …………………………………………………..3
Ecosystem Classification based on the basis of formation ……………………………….....3
Classification based on the size of the Ecosystem ……………………………………….….3
What is Productivity? ………………………………………………………………………..3
Different level Productivity ………………………………………………………………4
Productivity and Energy Flow Through the Different Trophic Level ………………………6
Ecological Productivity in Ecosystem ………………………………………………………8
Factors Affecting Components of Ecosystem ………………………………………………8
Factors influencing productivity ………………………………………………………….…9

Methods of Measuring Productivity ………………………………………………………...9

Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….13
Reference …………………………………………………………………………………...14
Introduction
Productivity in ecosystem can be defined as the rate of biomass production in the form of
the dry weight of biomass. Productivity can be categorized into two types- primary productivity
and secondary productivity. Green plants do primary productivity by the process of
photosynthesis. The unit of productivity is gm–2 yr–1 or (kcal m–2) yr–1. The rate of production
of organic matter during photosynthesis is referred to as gross primary productivity. Most of the
gross primary produce is lost in the form of respiratory loss. Net primary productivity is the
available biomass for the consumption of heterotrophs (herbivores and decomposers). Gross
primary productivity minus respiratory loss gives net primary productivity. Secondary
productivity is the rate of biomass production by consumers or herbivores. ( Natiq Faris,et.
(2022).

Plants use part of total energy fixed by photosynthesis as maintenance energy. The
remainder is used for new plant biomass and reproduction and is food for herbivores. The
amount distribution and the rate of turnover of biomass determine many important characteristics
of the community physiognomy diversity of herbivores and activity of decomposers. These
relationships are constrained by the efficiency which plant absorb light incorporate absorbed
energy into photosynthetic and convert photosynthetic into biomass. Productivity is measured by
several means. (a) Determining the rate of photosynthesis and respiration (b) estimating changes
in biomass over time, (c) Correlating biomass to an easily measured variable to estimate standing
crop, (d) Use of computer models to determine productivity over broad spatial scales and predict
response to changing environmental conditions. Productivity in terrestrial ecosystem is
influenced by numerous factors: carbon dioxide, light, temperature, moisture, nutrients, and soil
texture. The most productive ecosystems are those with optimal levels of such factors, ultimately
to maximize photosynthesis. These factors exert their influence simultaneously and interactively
often doing so in a non-equilibrium manner. (Wernberg, T. (2022).

1
What is an Ecosystem?

The term ecosystem was coined by Tansley in 1935. Organisms need to depend on one
another to survive. There is a strong dependence between living organisms and their
environment. All living organisms such as plants, animals and microbes depend on non-living
components to thrive and maintain a balance in nature. The ecosystem deals with this interaction
between living organisms and nonliving components. Thus, we may say that the ecosystem is the
structural and functional unit of nature. (Golley, F. B. (2019).

Ecosystem Classification based on region

Terrestrial Ecosystem: The ecosystem which exists on land is called a terrestrial ecosystem.
Example: Forest, grassland, desert and tundra ecosystem.

Forest Ecosystem: is a natural ecosystem, which consists of trees, herbs, shrubs, animals,
microorganisms, soil, water, wind, etc. It includes deciduous forests and tropical and coniferous
forests.

Grassland Ecosystem: consists of a large area covered with grasses and non-woody herbs. It
does not include taller plants or trees. Grasses are low to the ground and do not need much water
to grow. Their roots are deep and can survive in extreme conditions. It includes Temperate
grasslands, Savannah, Shrublands, etc.

The Tundra Ecosystem: is the earth’s coldest and harshest. These ecosystems are treeless and
are covered with snow and ice. There may be Alpine and Arctic Tundras.

Desert Ecosystems receive less rainfall, i.e., less than 10 inches of rain per year. These regions
are low in humidity or moisture deficient.

Aquatic Ecosystem: The ecosystem which exists in water is called an aquatic ecosystem.
Examples: Freshwater and marine water ecosystem.

1. Freshwater Ecosystem: Freshwater refers to water which has low salt content and is
continuously cycling. This is two main types: Lentic (static water, like a pond) and Lotic
(flowing water, like a river).
2
2. Marine Ecosystem: This ecosystem consists of high salt content in the water. Example:
Shallow seas and open oceans.

Ecosystem Classification based on the basis of formation

Natural Ecosystem: It refers to the ecosystem, which occurs naturally and can sustain its life
naturally without any human intervention. Like pond ecosystems, terrestrial ecosystems, etc.

Artificial Ecosystem – It refers to the ecosystem, that humans made artificially that mimic the
natural one. An aquarium is a good example of an artificial ecosystem. Others are gardens,
orchards, etc.

Classification based on the size of the Ecosystem

Micro Ecosystem – It refers to an ecosystem, which is very small, like pond ecosystems,
communities living under a rock, etc.

Meso Ecosystem – It refers to the ecosystem, which is of medium size like large lakes, etc.

Macro Ecosystem – It refers to the ecosystem, which is of large size as the entire rainforest.

What is Productivity?

Productivity in ecosystem can be defined as the rate at which the biomass increases per
unit area. It can be measured in units of biomass per unit volume per unit area, i.e., gm–2 yr–1 or
(kcal m–2) yr–1. Biomass can be defined as dry matter or dry mass. Productivity often depends
on the ecosystem. Each ecosystem has a different number of producers, consumers, and
decomposers, which affects productivity greatly. The ecological productivity can usually be
characterized as a pyramid structure that depicts the food web. Moreover, primary and secondary
productivity is as important as ecological productivity. (Wernberg, T. (2022).

Two different levels of Productivity:

Primary Productivity in Ecosystem

1. It is carried out by autotrophs or producers.

3
 2. Primary productivity can be defined as the amount of solar energy converted to
chemical energy by an ecosystem’s producers for a given area during a certain time
period.
3. Producers produce biomass by performing photosynthesis.
4. Some primary producers can be chemosynthetic as well, i.e., they produce biomass
by chemosynthesis. E.g., Purple sulfur bacteria.

Primary productivity can be divided into two types as below

Gross primary productivity (GPP): The total solar energy used to produce biomass
by the process of photosynthesis is referred to as gross primary productivity (GPP). It is the
rate of production of organic matter. Some amount of GPP is utilized by the plant itself, and
a very little amount is transferred to the consumers. Most of the GPP is lost due to plants’
internal metabolism or cellular respiration or growth and repair mechanism. The lost GPP is
referred to as respiratory loss (R). (Golley, F. B. (2019).

Net primary productivity (NPP): Net primary productivity is the amount of

biomass available for the consumers or heterotrophs after respiratory loss. This biomass is
stored in the plants. Net primary production forms the base of ecological food chains and is
heavily manipulated by humans in the production of food, fiber, wood, and increasingly
biofuels. (Hassan, F. M. (2022)

This can be described as:

NPP = GPP – R

4
Depiction of GPP, NPP, and R

The tropical forest has the highest primary productivity in terrestrial regions, while the
desert shows the least primary productivity. According to an estimate, approximately 170 billion
tons of net primary productivity occurs per year in the entire biosphere, while the ocean is
responsible for only 55 billion tons of biomass. (Hassan, F. M. (2022)

The primary productivity of a natural ecosystem largely depends upon the amount of
solar energy; there is a positive correlation between primary productivity and solar radiation.
Since solar radiation received at the Earth’s surface decreases as we move from the equator
towards the poles, primary productivity also decreases remarkably towards the poles. According
to E.P Odum, there are three levels of productivity on a world scale. (Michael, ed. (2006).

1. Shallow water areas, moist forests (tropical and temperate), alluvial plains, and regions of
intensive farming represent the regions of high ecological productivity.

2. Arctic snow-covered wastelands, deserts, and deep ocean areas represent the regions of low
ecological productivity.

3. Grasslands, shallow lakes, and farmlands represent regions of intermediate ecological

productivity.

Secondary Productivity in Ecosystem

Secondary productivity can be defined as the rate of biomass production by consumers or

herbivores. The organism that cannot produce its own food and can obtain energy from biomass
produced due to primary productivity. Now, the thing to be noticed here is unlike primary
productivity, at the level of secondary productivity, different trophic levels exist like herbivores,
carnivores, omnivores, etc. (Michael, ed. (2006)

Each trophic level consumes biomass but assimilates only 10% of it into energy, and the
rest of the undigested biomass is released in the form of fecal waste and left to be used by other
trophic levels or decomposers. The assimilated energy is used for various metabolic processes,
5
growth, and reproduction, etc. Entire secondary productivity represents energy flow through
trophic levels. Secondary productivity is basically the amount of energy stored in the tissues of
consumers of each trophic level.

In terrestrial ecosystems, productivity is highest in Swamps, marshes, tropical rain forests

(most productive), while lowest in the desert. In contrast, in aquatic ecosystems, productivity is
highest in the Estuaries, lowest in the open ocean. (Wernberg, T. (2022).

Productivity and Energy Flow Through the Different Trophic Level

6
 The amount of energy goes on to decrease whenever energy is transferred from one
trophic level to another. Only 10% of the energy is transferred to the next level, the rest 90% of
the energy is lost as heat. For example, the primary producers (Green Vegetation) produce
10,000 kcal of energy with the help of sunlight. Primary consumers will only be able to consume
1000 kcal as 9,000 kcal will be lost as heat while transferring the energy. The secondary
consumers will only be able to consume 100kcal while the tertiary consumers will be consuming
only 10kcal. The size and energy richness of the producer level decides the consumer trophic
levels.

7
Ecological Productivity in Ecosystem

Ecological productivity is defined as the subsequent use of energy by herbivores,

detritivores, carnivores, and the primary fixation of solar energy by green plants. Green plant
productivity is referred to as primary productivity by ecologists. Gross primary productivity
refers to the entire quantity of energy fixed by plants, whereas net primary productivity is lower
since it accounts for energy losses associated with plant respiration. The biomass of vegetation
increases over time if the net primary productivity of green plants in an ecosystem is positive.
(Golley, F. B. (2019).

Factors Affecting Components of Ecosystem

The components of ecosystem are affected by the following factors:

1. Solar radiation: Increased solar radiation increases productivity

2. Temperature: Productivity is highest near the equator terrestrial region

8
3. Moisture: Leaf water potential, soil moisture, fluctuation of precipitation, and transpiration
depend upon the moisture content of the atmosphere.

4. Mineral nutrition: Higher uptake of minerals from the soil increase productivity and nitrogen
metabolism while salinity and heavy metals decrease productivity.

5. Biotic activities: Above-ground herbivores, below-ground herbivores, predators, and parasites

decrease primary productivity.

6. Impact of human populations: Increased population causes reduction of plants and reduces
productivity.

7. In aquatic systems, deeper parts have scarce light and nutritional availability, which limits
productivity.

Factors influencing productivity

The production efficiency of plants depends upon factors such as light intensity the
quantum efficiency of light the leaf arrangement on the plants the leaf area index and the type the
plant whether C-3 or C-4. The environment factors that help promote net productivity include
warm temperature greater rainfall moving water that carries additional nutrients in natural
ecosystem and irrigation application of fertilizers and control of pest in agricultural crops
Swamps and marshes present at the interface of land and water have net productivity ranging
from 900 to 3300 g/m2/yr. (Woodwell, George (2015).

Methods of Measuring Productivity

Productivity is usually measured as the rate at which energy or biomass is produced per
unit area per unit time. This rate is expressed in such terms as kilocalories per square per year
(kcal/m2/yr) a measured or energy or germs per square meter per year a measure of biomass.
Various techniques used to estimate primary productivity are:

I. Light and Dark Bottle Method

II. Radioactive Tracer Method
III. Chlorophyll Concentration
IV. Harvest Analysis
V. Carbon Dioxide Flux
VI. Dimension Analysis
9
1 Light and Dark Bottle Method

This method is employed to measure primary productivity in an aquatic ecosystem such

as a pond. It is based upon the assumption that the amount of oxygen produced is proportional to
gross production because one molecule of oxygen is produced for each atom of carbon fixed.
Samples of water from different depths are placed in paired bottles. One of the paired bottles is
covered with black tape or aluminum foil to exclude light and other is kept clear to admit light
and allow photosynthesis. The oxygen concentration of the bottles is determined by Winkles
method. The bottles are suspended to the same depth from where samples were collected with
the help of string. (Allaby, Michael, ed. (2006).

After 24 hours the bottles are removed their oxygen concentration is determined and
compared with the concentration at the beginning. The decline of oxygen in the dark bottle
indicates the amount of respiration by producers and consumers where the oxygen change in the
light bottle reflects the net result of oxygen consumed by respiration and oxygen produced.
Adding respiration and production together or subtracting final oxygen concentration in the dark
bottle from that in the light bottles give an estimate of gross productivity for 24 hours. This
method has its problems. Some of the respiration attributed to phytoplankton may be bacterial.
The phytoplankton population may increase in the bottle during the experimental time but not in
dark bottle. Also, the procedure is based on the assumption that respiration in the dark is the
same as in the light.

2 Radioactive Tracer Method

It is one of the most useful and sensitive method useful to estimate primary productivity
in an aquatic ecosystem especially in lakes and oceans. It is based upon measurement of 14CO2
uptake. The method involves addition of radioactive carbon as carbonate to a sample of water in
clear and unstable carbon are assimilated into carbohydrates and become part of the protoplasm
of phytoplankton. The plankton material is removed from the water washed dried and place in a
counting chamber to determine the level of radioactivity. The radioactive counts are used to
calculate the amount of carbon dioxide fix in photosynthesis using the photosynthetic equation.
The estimate is based on the assumption that of radioactive carbon is proportional to that of
stable carbon. However, in practice these may not be proportional therefore a correction factor
for 14C adsorption in dark bottle is required. The technique has its deficiencies. It does not

10
discriminate between respiration of phytoplankton and bacteria the uptake and release of 14C by
bacteria and zooplankton and the abilities of different species of phytoplankton to use available
light.

3. Chlorophyll Concentration:

This method is based upon estimation of producer from chlorophyll concentration and
light intensity through the water column. The technique evolved from the discovery by plant
physiologist that a close relationship exists between chlorophyll concentration and
photosynthesis at any given light intensity. If the assimilation ratio and the available light are
known gross production can be estimated by the extracting pigments and then measuring the
chlorophyll concentration with a spectrophotometer. The method was first to use to estimate
primary productivity in large water bodies such as sea but later applied to terrestrial ecosystem as
well as. This method involves the determination of chlorophyll contents of phytoplankton in a
given volume of water. Because all plant need chlorophyll to carry on photosynthesis the amount
of chlorophyll in a given amount of water is a direct measure of the total biomass or standing
crop of phytoplankton it contains. The chlorophyll is extracted chemically and the amount of
chlorophyll is measured. The deeper the color the greater is the concentration of the chlorophyll
and therefore phytoplankton biomass. The technique has a problem that chlorophyll
concentration varies with phytoplankton species and even within the cells of species. Further
extraction technique may alter the chlorophyll. (Allaby, Michael, ed. (2006).

4 Carbon Dioxide Flux:

It is one of the most useful methods for estimating primary productivity in terrestrial
ecosystems. It helps measuring both gross and net primary production. It involves measurement
of the uptake of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis and its release in respiration. In this method a
simple of community which may be twig and its leaves a segment of a tree stem the ground
cover and soil surface or even a portion of the total community such as an onsite sample of
grassland is enclosed in a clear plastic tent. Air is drawn through the enclosure and the carbon
dioxide concentration in incoming air and outgoing air is measured with an infrared gas analyzer
or by absorption on a KOH column. The assumption is that any carbon dioxide removed from
the incoming air during the day has been incorporated into organic matter. Therefore, the
quantity of carbon dioxide in the enclosure is equivalent to photosynthesis minus respiration. A

11
similar sample may be enclosed in dark enclosure. The amount of carbon dioxide is produced in
the dark bag is a measure of respiration when photosynthesis stops. The quantity of carbon in the
light and dark enclosure added together estimates gross production. (Wernberg, T. (2022).

5 Harvest Analysis (Standing Crop Method)

Harvest method is widely used to estimate in terrestrial ecosystem. It is most useful for
estimating the production of cultivated land range and communities of annual plants were
production starts from zero at seedling or planting time becomes maximum at harvest and is
subject to minimal use by consumers. The technique involves removing vegetation at periodic
intervals and drying the samples to a constant weight. To obtain n accurate estimate the
production of plant biomass must be sampled throughout the growing season and the
contribution of each species must be determined. Different species of plants reach their peak
production at different times during the growing season. The difference in standing crop biomass
between harvests periods expressed as germs per square meter per unit time provides an estimate
of net primary productivity. Caloric value of the material can be determined through use of a
calorimeter and biomass can be converted to calories. Net primary productivity is then expressed
as kilocalories per square meter per year. Harvest method provides information about above
ground productivity usually because low ground productivity requires the samples of root
biomass which is difficult at best. Although the roots of some annual and crops plant may be
removed from the soil the task become more difficult with grass and herbaceous species and
even more so with forest trees. (Runtuwene, D. O. (2019).

6. Dimension Analysis

Because plant of different age, size and species make up the forest community modified
harvest technique called dimension analysis is used by ecologist. These methods help to estimate
standing crop and productivity from less intensive sampling. Dimension analysis involves the
measurement of light, diameter or breast height and diameter growth and age is determined by
growth ring analysis. Total weight both fresh and dry of leaves and branches as well as the
weight of also determined. Often the roots are excavated and weighted. similarly, biomass of
ground vegetation litter fall is also determined. Net annual production of wood, bark, leaves,
twigs, roots and flower is calculated. All this information is used to calculate production of trees
and other vegetation in a sample unit. After dimension analysis the standing crop can be

12
predicated by using data such as (diameter) 2 x height x and annual productivity by measuring
current wood growth. (Wernberg, T. (2022).

13
Conclusion

In ecology, productivity is the rate at which energy is added to the bodies of organisms in
the form of biomass. Biomass is simply the amount of matter that's stored in the bodies of a
group of organisms. Productivity can be defined for any trophic level or other group, and it may
take units of either energy or biomass. There are two basic types of productivity: gross and net.
i.e., primary and secondary. Green plants fix solar energy and accumulate it in organic forms as
chemical energy. As this is the first and basic form of energy storage, the rate at which the
energy accumulates in the green plants or producers is known as primary productivity.

Productivity is a rate function, and is expressed in terms of dry matter produced or energy
captured per unit area of land, per unit time. It is more often expressed as energy in
calories/cm2/yr or dry organic matter in g/m2/yr (g/m2 x 8.92 = lb/acre). Hence, the productivity
of different ecosystems can be easily compared. (Runtuwene, D. O. (2019)

There are various environmental Factors Affecting the Productivity in Ecosystem which
include, Solar radiation and temperature, Moisture, i.e., leaf water potential, soil moisture,
fluctuation of precipitation, and transpiration, Mineral nutrition, i.e., uptake of minerals from the
soil, rhizosphere effects, fire effects, salinity, heavy metals and nitrogen metabolism, Biotic
activities, i.e., grazing, above ground herbivores, below ground herbivores, predators and
parasites and diseases of primary producers, Impact of human populations, i.e., populations of
different sorts, ionizing radiations, such as atomic explosions, etc. (Golley, F. B. (2019).

In aquatic systems, productivity is generally limited by light, which decreases with

increasing water depth. In deep oceans nutrients often become limiting for productivity. Nitrogen
is most important nutrient limiting productivity in marine ecosystems. The largeness of primary
productivity depends on the photosynthetic capacity of producers and the existing environmental
conditions, such as solar radiation, temperature and soil moisture. In tropical conditions, primary
productivity may remain continuous throughout the year, provided adequate soil moisture remain
available. While in temperate regions, primary productivity is limited by cold climate and a short
snow- free growing period during the year. (Allaby, Michael, ed. (2006).

14
Reference

Natiq Faris, H., Talib Abedali, S., & Buhlool AL-Ghizzi, M. A. (2022). Seasonal
variations in primary productivity and biomass of phytoplankton in the waters of the southern
part of the general estuary/Dhi Qar/Iraq. Caspian Journal of Environmental Sciences, 20(2), 307-
314.

Pessarrodona, A., Assis, J., Filbee-Dexter, K., Burrows, M. T., Gattuso, J. P., Duarte, C.
M., & Wernberg, T. (2022). Global seaweed productivity. Science advances, 8(37), eabn2465.

Golley, F. B. (2019). Historical origins of the ecosystem concept in biology. In The

ecosystem concept in anthropology (pp. 33-49). Routledge.

Wahhab, T. A., & Hassan, F. M. (2022, September). Primary Productivity of Iraqi lakes:
A Review. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 1088, No. 1, p.
012006). IOP Publishing.

Allaby, Michael, ed. (2006). A Dictionary of Ecology (Third ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-860905-6. Retrieved 2009-12-03.

Johnson, Matthew P. (2016-10-26). "Photosynthesis". Essays in Biochemistry. 60 (3): 255–273.

doi:10.1042/EBC20160016. ISSN 0071-1365. PMC 5264509. PMID 27784776.

Woodwell, George (1 August 2015). "Primary Production in Terrestrial Ecosystems".

American Zoologist. 8: 19–30. doi:10.1093/icb/8.1.19 – via Oxford Academic.

9724962.

15