life smransponyexcuonges y and Defensepysicmon U Essential Transport of Essent Materials for Survival an Protection ‘An organis and nutrient m’s body requires oxygen ts, which are supplied i d circulatory he respiratory and circula by Fems while the body is being Protected from invading pathogens. © Compare the structures or organs inwolved in gos exchange in plonis and animals © State factors that affect gos exchange © Explain the breathing mechanisms in vertebrates © Trace the pathway of air ina mammalian respiratory system through the organs and their roles * Explain the coordination of the respiratory system with the circulatory system in the transport | of gases to the body tissues +) Describe the major processes, structures, and mechanisms for gos exchange in plants '* State the functions of various structures involved in plant transport and circulation * Describe the transport of substances in the xylem and phloem Explain the functions of structures in animal circulation Trace the path of blood in the systemic ond the pulmonary circulation Compare the body’s innate defenses and adaptive immune responses no protection against the greatest icroorganisms, which are too small to tbe seen with the naked eye. We survive [ithe daily battle with these tiny attackers. | because we have evolved and developedBoroertons Why is HIV hard to kill? ‘cd nde tne wired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) was first clinically observed in the 1980s. The above infographic (a) shows that in 2015, the number of those afflicted globally is about 36.7 million, with the Philippines at having a range of 10000 cases (b) in the same year (2016, UNAIDS). Both data show a steady increase over the years in spite of the advances in medical research efforts. In fact, the country faces AIDS/HIV infection as a “youth epidemic,” topping other countries in Asia and the Pacific from 2010 to 2016. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that causes AIDS is a lentivirus that attacks the immune system. Itis interesting to note that the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) that infects monkeys and apes is related to HIV. The most accepted theory today is that the virus from monkeys were transferred to humans as a result of hunting chimpanzees for its meat or their blood getting into the wounds of people while they hunt. SIV to HIV transmission was believed to, have first surfaced in Congo, Africa, in 1920. Our awareness of is presence as a source of AIDS came in 1983 when it was fist identified and isolated by researchers from the Pasteur Institute of France and was originally called Lymphadenopathy-Associated Virus (LAV). Scientists from the US National Cancer Institute also isolated the same virus and called it HILY-IIl Both LAV and HTLV-II have been confirmed as one and the same. The most studied HIV strain is HIV-1 Group M, which is responsible for the spread of the virus throughout the world and isthe source for the majority of HIV infections today. After 35 years of finding a cure, billions of dollars have been spent and donated to find the elusive cure, but in spite of these efforts, no remedy has been found. Find out in A Closer Look Explained near the end of the chapter to why HIV is hard to kill. ‘Advocate to have a healthy and well-functioning ratory and circulatory systems + Defend the importance of having @stong immune system : © Appreciate how plants transport food for its use + “and the rest ofthe organisms Mee ses, fool Chapter 2 Life's Transport, Echt ‘and Defense System’: 29 * bas toe | tLesson 2.1 The Need to Respire and Exchange Essential Gases ‘Almost all organisms in the planet need oxygen to survive. The oxygen comes from the atmosphere, which contains a mixture of gases that blankets the planet. The air that you breathe is composed o 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, about 19 carbon dioxide, and minute proportions of other gases. Yout body constantly needs oxygen and nutrients and gets rid of wastes to function properly and keep you alive. The respiratory and circulatory systems work cooperatively to maintain this homeostasis. circulatory system moves blood to all parts of the body to bring vital supplies co the cells and will be carried away after as wastes. 30 Exploring Life Through Science—Generol Biology 2 Main Ideat Organisms obtain life-supporting stay alive, ses from their environment and release ife-damaging gases out oftheir systems to exchange of and the cells of organisms?Gas Exchange in Animals One of the major physi or physiological challer . and expelling excessive amounts of carbon dic of multicellular animals is obaining sufcient onygeo General Biology 1 that o; fioxide in a process called respiration. You may recall i respiration while carbon ie is needed by the cells to hamess energy from food dadgh cellular f lioxide is produced as a waste product. In additi us environmen | In addition, nin atonal ein a i ro fer of uid ehac cars rer seal esishees bret efgeo Eat dissolee > in € respiratory surface ins i that line the respiratory ga ‘ory surfaces. Specifically, oxygen diffuses into the epithelial cells — carry itto the body Fig. 2-1. Essential gases can oxsly fuse into the cll Fig: 2-2. Anearthworm exchange euentiol ass through Its shin ‘membrane of unicellular organisms. types of gas exchange systems that allow chem to obtain oxygen ls, tracheae, or lungs. The process involved in the bringing cory organs is called ventilation. Specifically, gas In animals, there are four major from the environment—body surface, gi of oxygenated water or air into contact with respirat exchange in unicellular organisms, such as protists and primitive phyla of animals, takes place ina respiratory surface in which the plasma membrane ofits cells must be moist all the time. Single-celled protists, being small in size, can easily diffuse essential gases and, therefore, will not require complex respiratory organs. Invertebrates, such as cnidarians, sponges, and worms, can easily exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide by diffusion also because their skin is only @ few layers thick. Earthworms use their entire Outcr skin to exchange gases; this is known as integumentary exchange ot cubantons iphibians, in addition to using their lungs, reathe through their skin as’a gas'exchange surface, and that is why they ave to be molee all che time, Although amphibians rely heavily on their lungs, they cannot breathe air when they are underwater. Thus, oxygen diffuses into a dense net of ‘thin-walled capillaries beneath their akin, which allows them to spend prolonged time underwater Chapter 2 Life's Transport, Excl Defense Systems 97Some animals have a skin surface that isnot adequate gas exchange all Over ee ne is why certain parts oftheir bodies evolved as highly branched large respirarory surfaces in che form of rachel systems among insects, gills in fishes so they could exchange geses in water crvinoDENe, Sf os in land animals. Arthropods, such as insects and spiders, have @ tracheal system ¢ com of brancheq internal rubes that extend throughout the body. On the surface of the ieee iy. iY beings called spiracles. Arising from these spiracles are sturdy tubes eves rae re aie rs = Uses these fine air-conducting tubules to carry out gaseous exchange. ee Bee aisle ae +h, wicl smaller tubes called tracheoles that can become smaller enouB!» of che tracheoles are filed with small amounts ofan aqueous substance where Oxygen S22 be dissolveg from air whereas carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction. ontemae blood i hearts vessel 20d Sabra ‘compound ayes ‘ganglion trove, antenna wings cbdomen Foe ;: recy yn fo a 872 ar cord Fig: 2-3. lec breathe though spaces where acon enter, allowing xnvaen to trvel long ‘netwcr Of tube called trachea to reach the call Gills are found in more advanced marine invertebrates and vertebrates; they are chin sheets of tissue that waves through the water, increasing the surface area available for diffusion. Marine invertebrates, such as mollusks and echinoderms, have external gills that are often in the form of extensive projections. These gills are highly folded, thin- walled vascularized epidermis that projects outward of the organism's body. Organisms that use this gas exchange mechanism ventilate by waving these gills back and forth through the water, an action that is important for sessile invertebrates that rely on water currents for ventilation. Despite having this adaption, external gills have some limitations: they are susceptible to damage from the environment as they are exposed; a considerable amount of energy is needed to move them continually through the water; and their appearance and motion makes the animal susceptible to predators by drawing attention to it. ae 32. Exploring Life Through Science—General Biology 2Fishes, on the flap open and clos other hand, have a set of feather-lik ap ope € with the exchange of gases. The gills internal gills found on each side of its head that fils te supporced by gill ches a, S20 The gil ar covered by abony pate clled oer. The sil Tameloe, Dissolved ee ae ea il laments composed of numerous plate anes ‘ ee the ino the axils, with carbon dioxide diffusing Meee ae ee ee ure ie iuachanitin is called coe ‘opposite direction to the outside environmen Ta payne ettnrret ean, whichis highly ficient in ccemcting arygen dialed sreively drawing water in oan = lower than in air, Different fishes can ventilate in three ae ways: js open so that water can ph shee mouth snd oye of chez cpezuisn,swimuning while their say ee het mney flow across the gills, and resting neat a water current while keeping Fesh. exppenoced weatce: sulci is flow-through system, it allows the fish to constantly be in contact with a + making the water move in one direction, and thus improving gas exchange. Higher forms of terrestrial vertebrates have evélved lungs that are internally lined with moist epithelium. Air-breathing -vertebrates have their Jungs locaved inside the chest of thoracic cavity, and are protected by the rib cage. Amphibian lungs are designed as a sac with convoluted internal membrane thatopens up to a certain cavity. Reptiles, being more active than amphibians, cannot rely on their skin t0 breathe and evolve dry, scaly skin chat is watertight to-avoid ‘rhoiscure loss. Their lungs are similar in structure with amphibians, but wich wider surface area and many small air chambers, thus increasing a adictre surface for more oxygen diffusion. Fig 2. ‘side from thelr sin, frogs breathe through & pair of thin-walled lungs that act ke bia <$0° Copter 2 life's Transport, Exchange. and Defers Si#=m* Pg 33Birds, on the other hand, have a different level of activity and metabolic needs due to their flight abilities. They have @ respirsoly demand far greater than the capacity of the lungs of an active mammal. Due to the intense beating of their wings during flight, the wing muscles must continuously contrac, using up most of their en¢FB) and requiring a large amount of oxygen. An avian lung has evolved into three components—a series of air sacs outside of the lungs called posterior and anterior air sacs, and the air passageways through the JUS known as barabronchi. Air passes through @ birds lungs and directly co its Pe ‘air sacs that act as holding tanks. During exhalation, the air flows from the posterior air sacs infront of the lungs and ro the lungs themselves, then om to another set of ancerior air sacs and out of its body. This ae ccomplicaced pathway has che advantage of creating # Un a‘Animal Transport System } ., animals must cake in nutrients, eal gases, and remove uawanted products ‘that must be maintained in every cell of its body. Ie is imporeant fot acirclaory system in any animal © allow dll chese things to happen. In a one-celled organism, Tike che procs (Amoeba) or bacteria, oxygen and other substances from the outside environment can eailY Pass through its body and ie can reach the center ofthe cel very ipidy by simple difasion or active transport Wosre materials diffuse across che cell membrane and ig, as. aeehand saree he environment. Thus, a self-sufficient amoeba in Ameebe via sinpe dftion does not need 2 more organized transport system. However, in multicellular organisms, such as animals, plants, and humans, there are many cell sicuted a she center ofthe body far away from the outside environment. Therefore, oxygen and foo tnaterals need to be distributed to the cells and wastes need to be removed with sufficient speed. this case, animals with thick, multiple layers of cells, will need a more advanced transport sys to carry substances from one part of the body to another. This transport method in animals w. require 2 more complex set of organs and structures, circulatory system. Fe Ee IRE eee ae i achicke lirect contact with either the outs environment or its gast ; c and distribution open ode aiua eer Gia cavity serves for both digest exchange materials directly fom the water and ico ie Hydra's body wall can allow the cells Materials are exchanged directly between the fui > its gastrovascular cavity due to its short dist the fluid in the body cavity and its body cells. In Planaria, the i ‘Movement of the animal helps it to stream fluid to its central cavity in whi tie isola es out ofits cells. Both cniarian and planarian have no blood fluid from one body part to the next. Their fluid is mixed wi respiratory gases, nutrients, and ftien ne nts, and other substances that are i ely enter their body cavities ilbigh thei te from the outside environment. ement. 40 Exploring lif Trough Scince—Genera io 2 logy‘Complex forms of animals wich higher metabolic rates cannot rely on diffusion and active transport co bring essential materials inside their bodies. ‘The transport system has evolved among animals over time, which enabled large animals co dedicate a specialized organ system to perform specific asks and distribute che products to other organs. Two basic types of circulatory system have emerged, which allowed multicellular organisms to perform complex activities. Most invertebrates, such as mollusks ‘ind archropods, have an oper circulatory system in which fuid is pumped through open-ended vessels sod transported among the cells with no distinction berween the circularing fiuid (blood) and the joversiialfisid (hemolymph. Dissecting a grasshopper will reveal a tubular heart, a muscular ruibe chat pumps hemolymph though a necwork of channels into chambers and drsins back tothe cena vey Higher forms of organisms, such as complex invertebrares and vertebrates, have = closed circulatory sso, The blood is confined within blood vessels separated from the interstitial fluid. Different blood vessels move the blood away from and to the heart, body organs, and tissues. In a closed circulatory system, blood circulates in one direction and passes through the animal's respiratory system Although higher vertebrates have closed circulatory systems, they also differ in terms of their efficiency, which is measured by the rate of transporting substances around their bodies. Annelids, such as the earthworm, he simplest closed circulatory system that consists of two main blood vessels connected £0 # series of heart-like structures called aortic arches. Blood flows into a series of smaller branching blood ‘rssels that leads to the internal organs and tissues of annelids where exchange of materials occurs across the thin walls of the capillaries. single woter ‘tubulor hearts feolode opening srocheo ‘wih oso tubular hearts ‘open-ended vessels (ol Heke {b) insect: opon circulation Goskovesclreovly Fig. 2-17. Circulatory systems among lower forms of animals ‘The heart of the fish has two main chambers organized into rows. Blood travels through these chambers and is pumped out through ventral cavity into smaller capillaries in its gills where respiratory gus exchange occurs. Having flowed through the gills, the oxygenated blood travels to the dorsal artery be deliveced around the body. This kind of circulation in which blood travels through the fish's heart only once in each complete circuit through the body is called single circulation. “Asaphibians, such 0s For leaders, ad rads, have a thre-chambered heat that consists of oe venice and wo ST ‘The right atrium receives blood that has returned from systemic circulation from the different organs of the body. The ventricle pumps blood to ‘capillary beds found in the lungs and the skin. As gas exchange occurs both in the lungs and the skin, this is also called pulmocutaneous circuit Chapter 2 Life's Transport, Exchange, and Defense Systems a an. a. oethe blood from the ewo atria can mj, > atl sh fi the left atrium. Althoug! cw 1 ost wn ee gol de jocutaneous circuit and the oxygen-ric systemic circuit. Because only soy Pal ircuil fh blood to the systemic circ e lood is ped i ice, ca eapibian circulation is sometimes referred to as incomplet : the blood is pum| . ahd h energy and vplooded vertebrates, have high energy and oxyp, circulation. Birds and mammals that are active, wn et is ae vapidly. Theit = ‘cles, The right side of the heart takes care of g, two ventricles. ‘h blood. From there, blood is pumped i, * body. This system is called the closed doy), requirements. Cellular activity also genes four-chambers consisting of two atria an ae coxygen-poor blood, whereas the left side receives OFYBE ic the largest blood vessel, the aorta, circulatory system. state Jingle lop circulatory sytem = gill copilories to the other parts of the lung copillare lung copil Gill Copilries Lung Copillaries lung Capillores pe Most Replies Crocoion, birds, ond mammals ‘Mammalian Circulatory System In humans, the closed circulatory system is also known as cardiovascular system (kardia meats “heare” and vasculum means “vessels”) consisting of the four-chambered heart, blood, and blood thar catty blood to every part of the body and the lymphatic systems. The fluids contained in systems are blood and lymph. The main-function of the circulatory system is to carry oxygen nutrients to every cell of the body and to remove carbon dioxide and other wastes from the same Aside from this main function, the circulatory system also performs other essential tasks. The circulatory system has three principal functions: * Transportation — transports three types of substances essential for cellular metabolism in following forms: respiratory (oxygen and carbon dioxide), nutritive (nutrients in the form food molecules), and excretory (metabolic wastes such as excess water and ions). * Regulation — transports hormones and participates in heat regulation. * Protection — protects our body from injury during blood clotting and plays a role in immune defense against toxins and pathogenic organisms. 42. Exploring Life Through Science—General Biology 2ee Human Heart ‘The heart, a muscular organ, positioned behind the rib cage and between the lungs, is the pump that pushes blood throughout the circulatory system. The human heart gctwally has two pumps—one on the left side and another ne on the tight side. The right side of the heart pumps blood co the lungs £0 receive oxygen whereas the left side pumps blood to the entire body. Blood is pumped through the heart through is fist chambers. In addition, a tissue ‘wall, called septum, divides the heart in half and prevents va om Bowing between the ewo atria or two ventricles. vert vv an uproot. ‘Oxygen-poor blood coming from the body flows to the right side of your heart into the right atrium. With a heartbeart, blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle and into the lungs. ‘The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the superior vena cava, which drains blood from the jugular vein that comes from the upper part of the body (brain and arms), and the inferior vena ‘ava from the lower part of the body (lower organs and the legs). Aside from that, the right atrium diso receives blood from the coronary sinus that drains deoxygenated blood from the heart itself. This deoxygenated blood then flows to the right ventricle via the atrioventricular valve, also known as the tricuspid valve, which is a flap of connective tissue that opens in only one direction, preventing the tuckflow of blood. After it is filled, the right ventricle contracts, pumping the blood to the lungs for reoxygenation. In the lungs, carbon dioxide is released while oxygen is absorbed via inhalation. After oxygen has been picked up, blood is pumped back into the heart via the left atrium, The left atrium receives the oxygen-rich blood from the lungs where it passes through another valve known as bicuspid ‘aloe ot mitral valve chen to the left ventricle where the blood is pumped into the aorta. The aortic temilunar valve or the aortic valve closes preventing the back flow of blood into the left ventricle. ‘The sorta is the major artery of the body, which, takes oxygenated blood co the organs and muscles. This process works in a perfect rhythm to circulate blood throughout the body and is referred to as double circulation. ey Describe pulmonary and systematic circulation. Bt Cure tas bicey Slime Glue for Mending a Broken Heart ‘A newly discovered slugrinspired glue, described in the Science journal in July 27, 2017, This material holds great promise to stick to wet ‘surfaces, including the surface of a beating heart. A major advantage ofthe adhesive is that iis not toxic to cells as compared to other surgical glues. Dr. Jianyu Li, a postdoctoral researcher at Harvard Universi, described it as very stretchy and tough when they applied it to a blood-soaked, beating heart of a pig. The glue is made up of polymers linked by two types of chemical bonds, as cross-linking. Chapter 2 Life's Transport, Exchange, ‘ond Defense Systems — 4a id BeaLal Ta aerate oii 2 lye Korl Landsteiner (1868-1943) was an Austrian biol physician, an immunologist. He is Indu for his discovery of human re rouge, Blood eo through accidents or illnesses is fatal whi sihy blood mus! bes placed ins er Landsteiner’s experiment studied why mixing people's b uma, Tofination. A hundred years before Landsteiner’s experiment, mony, Ti © Pees rarer. rem ene person fo the oer. In. 1901, he discovered thet Humans have different blood groups and that mixing incompatible grouy tages lea x lumping, which is the body's immunological reaction. Because © wey ing tals can now carry out blood transfusion safely without We oun Seas of mopar, His work on blood lyping wes awarded with a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930. The Blood “The blood is a collection of cells in the form of a fluid by which oxygen and nutrients reach ¢ body's cells and waste materials are carried away. In addition, blood carries hormones, which cont body processes, and cells that fight disease-causing microorganisms and produce antibodies to f invading germs. The movement of materials from blood to cells and vice versa happens through ¢ process of diffusion. The blood may seem like a plain red fluid but itis actually a complex tissue. In, tnicroscopic and chemical level, the blood is made up of two components: plasma (fluid portion) the blood cells (formed elements: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets). About 55 perce of the blood is plasma, a pale yellowish liquid that is about 92 percent water. The remaining 8 perce is made up of a dissolved complex mixture of various substances such as soluble or plasma prote dissolved mineral salts, food substances, excretory products, and hormones. ‘There are three types of cellular components suspended in the plasma of the blood. They are the red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The red blood alls (erythrocytes) that make up 4496 of your blood transport jgen and some carbon dioxide chroughout the body. An adule male may oxys have about 5.5 million red blood cells per milliliter of blood as compared to 55% an adult female of about 4.5 million red blood cells. Under the microscope, white blood — they look like biconcave disks, and because they have a thin middle portion, they can bend and twist easily in the tiniest blood vessels. amant (i ___ The red blod cell has iron-containing protein kriown, as hemoglobin, that red blood binds chemically co oxygen molecules. With the combination ofhemoglobin °*4* and orygen, the color ofthe lon tans bright red whe the one without oxygen, which isthe blood renurning to che heat, is colored dark red. Mature pug, a0, ; ; Blood red, whereas cells do not have a nucleus, thus they cannot reproduce or repair ofan portion, called itself. They live for about 120 days, shueling oxygen and carbon dioxide, ori thee ciferent typeset When they are worn out, they are destroyed in the spleen and the liver. doen 44 Exploring life Through Science—General Biology 2‘The white blood cells (WBC), also known as leukocytes, are colorless and do not contain i ‘They are larger than red blood cells and fewer in number, with one or two a ee 00 . Each WBC is irregular in shape and contains a nucleus. It can move, change its shape, and squeeze through the walls of the fine blood capillaries and into the spaces among the tissue cells. ‘WBCs begin its development in bone marrow and mature in the lymph organs and nodes. The main task of the WBC is to protect the body from diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances. The number of WBC increases dramatically when the body is fighting an infection. ‘There are many different kinds of WBCs that have specialized functions. Leukocytes could be categorized as granular such as the neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils, based on the staining properties oftheir granules, or nongranular, such as monocytes and lymphocytes. When you cut yourself or scrape your knee, blood oozes into the site, with platelets or thrombocytes forming to stop the bleeding. Thrombocytes are not true cells but fragments of cytoplasm from certain large bone marrow cells known as megakaryocytes. ‘They do not contain a nucleus and can break down quickly in the blood. They play a part in blood clotting to prevent excessive blood loss during injury. When a blood vessel is damaged, proteins in the blood plasma form long sticky strands of a substance called fibrin. The fibrin traps platelets, which collected to form a clot and seal the wound. The clot becomes hard, forming a scab as the wound heals. Like red blood cells, platelets are formed in the red marrow of bones. ¢ Nome and describe the components of blood. Fig. 2:2. When you have a skin inury, your ‘body begins the heating process White blood ‘cells rush into the area to fight off infection ‘causing bacterta, Red blood cells, platelets ‘and fibrin form a Jeli~-te thread and seal the blood dot jured blood vesel | ‘wound, The clot formed over the Injury can 0p blood los. Chopter 2 Life's Transport, Exchange, and Defense SYS s1 Science PA Allergologist know why asthma is' incurable? A career i allergology agnosis, reatment, ‘ond revention of allergic diseases offect the i system. Allergens "also handles cases © respiroony allergies, rhinitis, and ‘acute allergic reactions: ineluding patients wi immune system disorders. An. ‘llergologist is an o"e"aY physician that has undergone significant ‘education and training. This requires © bachelor’s degree in. health-related or ‘lied education ond a medical degree, Internship in a hospital is necessory as well as a fellowship of additional two years to specialize further ino subfield ‘of expertise suc! of blood vessels, like a series of pipeli shows the position of the heart and i Blood is carried throughout che body BY & vat. network wn the water station to homes. Figure 2-22 delivering water fro! Iocation and names of the major blood vessels. ‘eeraljugular.vein external carotid artery internal jugular vein internal cortid orery sublovian vein subclavian ortery superior vena cove ven or pulmonary vein heort cephalic vein brachial eriery inferior vena cova Sele rodiol rtery ilice vein tine artery femoral vein femoral artery great saphenous ea anterior tibial ortery posterior bil vein posterior tibial ortery |Fig. 2:22. Mojor blood vessels ofthe body 46 Exploring life Through Science—General Biology 2 4The three types of blood vessels are responsible for the transport of blood and its components. snes ae ood res thet mane blond away fom the heat Each of the two ventricles of the heart js connected to -major artery. As a result, blood is pushed into the arteries with each contraction of the ventricles. The artery's wall is generally very thick and consists of three layers of tissue. Its elastic scructure gives it che flexibility and strength to withstand the enormous pressure of blood as it is pumped from the heart. Ifyou lightly touch the inside of your wrist, you can feel the pulsating thythm of your artery as caused by the expansion and relaxation of the arterial wall. Smaller arteries, known as, Plosmodesmata calls vosculr issues ‘catered stems vaseuor tissues usualy ‘rranged in ing| Fig. 253 Dicot and monocot berboceous stem structures On the other hand, trees and shrubs, such as narra and roses, possess woody stems. In ‘maturation, a young woody stem has a central core of pith and a ring of vascular bundles, which into solid cylinders as the stem matures. Layers of xylem form the innermost cylinder that const the components of wood. A cylinder of phloem lies outside the cylinder of xylem. In full mat the wood in the center of a mature stem or tree trunk is called Aeartwood, The xylem in can no longer conduct water out rather functions only as a support. Sapwood, which lies outside heartwood, contains vessel cells that can conduct water. " 52 Exploring Life Through Science—General Biology 2 Minerals, just like water, are transported via the xylem However, the absorption of minerals is different from the mec] ia involved with water. Water may move via osmosis through the tog. °™ minerals, it is its concentration in the soil that creates a conc gradient that provides a mechanism for its movement. In the soil, iver, exist as ions dissolved in water contained in the soil. They are ig the roots vie ative transport. As the ions pas inc different layers of ty they will be incorporated into other compounds. These ions and min compounds will now be taken by the xylem vessels where th issue a DCF aig, water take a separate pathway, they are not entirely interdependent ‘one another as minerals must first be dissolved with water befo taken up by the plant. With ne being Conducting Manufactured Food via the Phloem ‘The phloem tissue conducts manufactured food (sucrose and am Acids) as well as hormones from the green parts of the plants, especial the leaves, to the other parts of the plant. It consists mainly of sieve and companion cells that aid the transport of manufactured food, phloem contains cells with living cytoplasm, and with porous cell allowing exchange of materials between neighboring cells. The p of transporting manufactured food though the phloem tissue is translocation. In plants, the stem houses the vascular tissue, which t substances between the roots and the leaves. Among herbaceous p with flexible bodies, the stem contains bundles of xylem and phi called vascular bundles. Monocot and dicot plants differ in terms of vascular bundle structures. In monocot stems, the vascular bundles scattered in the ground tissue. In dicot stems, however, the bundles are arranged in a ring.Several findings were observed by scientists when phloem transports materials: the phloem cells must be living, materials can move through the phloem in several directions at one time, phloem cells can transport large amounts of materials rapidly within che plant, and factors like oxygen deficiency and low temperatures ‘could affect its efficiency. The mass-flow theory is the most accepted explanation which combines the concept of osmosis and dynamic pressure in the movement of materials. Sucrose that is manufactured in the leaves through photosynthesis travels in storage areas as a solution to the plant's body, where it will be transformed into starch, or in plane tissues where it will be consumed as its food. When sucrose enters the phloem tissue through the leaf, its concentration increases, causing the water to move and consequently lead co an increased pressure on the phloem. The sucrose is then moved by the other tissues in the stem and the root. This situation will cause the water to move out via osmosis and the pressure in the phloem cambium Fig. 2°31. Woody stem structures are ‘associated wth fines ond non-green ‘appearance. Annual rings or concentric rout rings appear, showing the amount ‘of food produced for one growing season. decreases. When this happens, the pressure gradient between the root and the leaf will trigger the direction flow, which is through the phloem from the leaf to the root system for storage, or other parts for immediate use. @® Sugar is actively Zz transported into the sieve tube members of phloem. Weter flow by osmosis Higher water pressure Oe re phloem sop lo move forward the sink. @ seperti cite ‘and water returns fo the source via the xylem. Fig. 2-32. Sucrose is transported from source cells into companion cells, and into sieve ‘ube elements. Transpiration causes water to return to the leaves via the xylem tisue, wr Explain the mechanism of transport through the xylem and the phloem. Chapter 2 Life’s Transport, Exchange, ‘ond Defense Systems 53You live in an environment full of pathogens and chemicals that may cause diseases. When disease- causing agents, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi, Lak of do oo mich sac cause confusi jr immune Sen Protozoans, allergens, toxins, and other ‘chemicals, enter Srey cnileaale {eaten the body, they may cause abnormalities in its normal Se ee functioning. Luckily, the body is equipped with a serene job. bars high inc powerful immune system to defend itself from these | cortisol suppresses the immune cells io. Stes harmful foreign bodies. The immune system is able to fighting, so your body becomes su: distinguish the against harmless and harmful organisms « \'0 - and deal with it without posing risks to the organism. “The immune system is composed of special cells, proteins, tissues, and organs that protect the h from the potential dangers of foreign bodies, thus keeping the body healthy and free from infec Using special recognition patterns and processes, the immune system identifies the foreign bodies, distinguish them from the your body's own cells and tissues. The collective and coordinated performed by immune system upon the introduction of a foreign substance is called immune r Immunity refers to the protection of the body from infectious diseases or the reaction to foreign subst ‘The immune system is divided into two subsystems, the innate or natural immune system the specific or adaptive immune system. These two subsystems complement and coordinate with ¢ other during an immune response. easy Inflammatory response eae on immune response ral ile a5 cells Meee: response 54 Exploring Life Through Science—General Biology 2Nonspecific Immune System (Innate Immune System) ich a number of defense mechani sease-c a pathogens. They are said ro be nonspecific because thei Se erie Piece ‘vhen pathogens enter the body, che innate immune system serves as che first line Wr def ee amamane system defends the body against pathogens and chemicals inanonspecific or: ae am cy. Innate immunity involves physical and omnis: saliva, etc.), the process of inflammation, ‘Ac birth, we were born wit tnd it does not confer long-lasting immuni the surface of tissues and organs (skin, mucus, (Ggure 2.34) 0n complement proteins, ‘and specialized immune cells (phagocytes, natural killer cells, etc). First Line Of Defense ‘The first line of defense consists of a surface bicchemical Veet and phyial besder and nrernal structures that employ physicat amd —S get rid of many microorganisms =e they can invade body tissues. In mammals and most vereebrates, the skin, together with other ectodermal TJerivatives, acts as first physical line of defense when penetrated by microbes. ‘Theskin, accounting for 15% of your body weightand its dead skin layers, provides a nearly impenetrable barrier thar helps against che entry of microorganisms. The skin's dry outer layer contains a cough, indigestible keratin that js not an accommodating place for most microorganisms. ~ Good bacteria that symbiotically live on the skin digest Siooil then produceacids hatactasbacteria,and together vane with sweat form an acidic layer thac inhibies the growth spermine of pathogens. The oil and sweat glands give the skin a ae pH of 3-5, which is acidic enough to make it a hostile Fig. 233- Physical and chemical barriers of the thumon body as examples of lnnate immune systern environment for microorganisms. “Aside from the skin, the body must be able to provect (0 more entry ways-the digestive and the respiratory tracts. When microbes have breached other entry ways inside the bodies, such as via eyes, mouth, and nose, biochemical defense also helps counteract the invasion. Yout saliva, rears and sal secretions contain an enzyme, called /ysonyme, chat helps break down bacterial cell walls: The lining of both respiratory and digestive tracts “iso contributes to nonspecific defenses for potentially, dangerous microorganisms. Both are cove ‘emical defense, called mucus, that is ed with another chi secteed and acts as a protective barrier ehat blocks the bacteria from sticking to the inner epithelial cells, When microbes entered the breathing pathway, «cilia that lines the bronchial eubes with is beating motion leads the pathogen into the mucus away from the lungs. Chapter 2 Life's Transport, Exchange, ‘and Defense:‘When the airway is infected, extra mucus is secreted, Se Leet COURhing Sneezing responses so these microbes willbe forced outside of Your DOC. AUTEN Mae have a, the digestive trace wil hemical defense in the form of loric acid ey will be destroyed by a che ic acid can kill the mic ji " yed by rica ie vnydcochloric acid can kill the microg, in your stomach, Aside from its digestive function Te echanisms to get rid of toxie Present in food. ‘piastieweinhewomisiamlf duces mucus that has an acidic envin i : ina also pro irivaders enter the digestive system. The vagin® ‘may still enter the bod: ne ; yy still enter the body thr. Despite these physical and chemical defenses, pathogens ugh ys abrasions, wounds, or punctures. The successful invasion of a pathogenic organism inside th is called an infection. rte Ratikeriond Lacrimal glans (tears) Lemme pe ie Sebaceous glands ay secret ‘Mouth Salivary. a Digestive enzymes, lysozymes, IgA, IgG, = Ski Sweat glands (sweat) iysozyme, high NaCl, short-chain fatty acid i Sebaceous glands (sebum) “nd Stomach Gastric juices | Digestive enzymes (pepsin, renin), hydrochlor Second Line Of Defense ‘What will happen if the pathogen slips by our surface barriers and enter your internal environment? If the first_ line of defense is penetrated, the second line of defense is gxtory activated. The body will mount-a cellular counterattack "4 using certain cells and chemicals to kill the invaders, but it is still nonspecific. This means that the body will respond to killing all microorganisms without pausing to identify what the invader is. Although these cells that patrol the body are nonspecific, they reside into a central location to collects and distributes the cells of the immune system. ‘Also known as the other circulatory system, the lymphatic system, aside from collecting and recycling fluids chat leaked from the circulatory stem, it also plays a major role in fighting bacterial and viral infections. The lymphatic system consists ofa network of lymphatic vessels and organs, nodes, and tiny bean structures, called Jymph nodes, which store cells used in immune response. \ Fig, 2-34. Lymph nodes of the lymphatic 56 Exploring life Through Science—General Biology 2ETS ato CU SSCL Dangers of Too Much Disinefectant Too much cleaning and disinfecting can do more harm than good. We ray common ink ot xing dnfecons con be he mo fecive means However, being to avoid infection. too clean can also inhibit your immune system to function . lt is important to practice jiene but not ‘overdo it, Minimi perme also minimizes the PS ‘our immune system to develop antibodies agains them. Lymph tissues are also located in various parts of the body, which include the tonsils, thymus, spleen, and bone marrow. Once the leaked fluid passes by diffusion into the lymphatic vessels, it is called Iympb. The lymph eventually returns to the bloodstream through the two veins located in the neck. As it flows through the lymphatic system, lymph passes through the lymph nodes. These nodes are filled with white blood cells, called Jymphocytes, which fight off infections. When bacteria and viruses are present, the lymphocytes multiply rapidly to engulf and destroy chem. As a result, the lymph nodes may become swollen and sore during sickness. Lymphocytes are also produced in the spleen, the largest organ of the lymphatic system. Internal defenses of the innate immune response consist of the combination of white blood cells, antimicrobial proteins, and the inflammatory response. White Blood Cells In the second line of defense, various WBCs circulate the body endif cell presenting he toattack the invaders at the site of infection in a nonspecific response. Soabymphocye letotaicT a. Macrophages are large, irregularly shaped WBCs that fos patrol and ingest microorganisms through phagocytosis. They also engulf viruses, dust particles in the lungs, and other cellular debris. Monocytes, the largest WBC, = ontitc differentiate into macrophages. Neutrophils are the most abundant circulating WBCs similar to macrophages as they engulf bacteria through phagocytosis. They also release a disinfecting chemical that kills not only the bacteria but also the neighboring neutrophils. Natural killer cells are cells that do not attack the microbes directly. They only act on those that have been infected with viruses. They kill the infected cell by puncturing a hole into the plasma membrane of the target cell. Proteins, called perforins, are released by the natural killer ‘**™" cells through vesicles and disgorges the content, thereby oni forming a pore. In the pore, water will enter, causing it to yg, agg, Different white blod a swell and burst. Aside from infected cells, natural killer protec you from pothovec a7 cells also attack cancer cells before they even form a tumor. p Chapter 2 life's Transport, Echo, ond pager aere the adaptive immune that process and al between the innate 4% wey a. Dendritic cells are phagocytes resent. They act as messengers lymphocyte) when an antigen is pt adaptive immunity. get parasitic worms. €. Eosinophils are granular WBCs with a that cause inflammation 4, cont ; ey: { Basophils are a an ich sometimes lay oe inepanite infeen immune responses an x, sm histamines and other substances thar BCs that also contain bi p : a g ad aly “ eae orallergic reaction, together with basophils. themselves in response ais: bh. Lymphocytes are responsible for specific immonicis FY Difference between he first and the second line of defense. Antimicrobial Proteins ‘You have learned previously that macrophages are the ft WECs that pathogens can encounter as they patrol the incr fluid, engulfing and digesting everything except undamaged af iy cells. A foreiga substance, such-es.toxins or. the body part of a pathogen chan can trigger an immune respons, is called an antigen. ‘Macrophages also possess a receptor that can bind to an antigen. This would cause the Me. called cyokines, which can signal to . , neutrophils, and dendritic cells on che infection site. ‘The presence of an antigen can also trigger a series of 20 inactive complement proteins found in the blood plasma to get them involved with macrophages on the ifactiomates phagocytosis, With theit presence, phagocytosis is enhanced by _ ™ore white blood cells into the area, helping phagocytic cells to bind firmly on the pathogens to completely destroy them in the procs ‘When activated, complement proteins activate other complement proteins, causing a cascading that produces huge concentration ofthese proteins in the infection site. Some complement p can assemble into complexes that can puncture bacterial cell wall. Ifa virus enters the body, ano cellular defense, interferon, is released by virus-infected cells. In doing so, the interferon binds to nal infected neighboring cellsto produce antiviral proteins, which can interfere with viral replication, original host cell in this noble effort, will de in the hope of saving the rest. Lak a) ‘Your immune system can attack itself. These are what we call i dis The ir system attecks is ovm heathy tases because WBCS connct distinguish Loreen he cakogon od ves becous ingvish between the on normal cel The mos comon cusimmune diseases are rheumatoid crit, bean, ore oor vlc fr 4 face ne eed et Fes che cong yep loa 58 Exploring Life Through Science—General Biology 2compliment ii pose 4 ’ ond wee ‘compliment proteins from holes in holes ollow fluids and salts bed pond bacteria cell wall and membrane to enter the bacterium ‘unl it bursts Fig. 237. Activated complement proteins form that | Me daniels ver ete arcs this dation a, host ell ‘interferon protected against virus eketton ait” mckes interferon cond kiled by virus Fig. 2-38. Interferons are released by a virl infected cell to signal neighboring non-infected calls to produce antiviral proteins. Inflammatory Response ‘When you have been infected by microbes through a cut or scrape, swelling, redness, or heat are body's localized response. All these are symptoms of inflammation, which are our body's first reaction against injuries and infection. During a cut, tissues will become damaged. or damaged cells will release large amounts of chemical alarm signals, called bistamines and, ,, which will raise the temperature of the tissue and increase the blood flow to the area, Also, the area will become red and warm, The increased permeability of the local capillaries will cause tissue swelling, which is needed to allow phagocytes to migrate in rapidly. With high temperature and increased blood flow, WBC can work faster while the pathogens cannot tolerate the heat so they can be easily eliminated. Chapter 2 Life's Transport, Excl ie2 ae Pa . When the : robe in the area. bata, Jeasing chemists opts, cise call a ie inet : the Neutrophils will eee mixture a rem ef ee wil apy : , , whic sn sscamie. is over, pus is Scape the pathowe® i produce Bist#TITE' he blood to the brain, 7 ag lon yan a, can cas ERE Reus systemic or all ove é eciie 37°C in the form of a fey, vi le . to humans, pe uring ine oy! ae of white fever ond proliferation | ee ? BSTa nino vhieiod cl ‘esodated with local inflammation ore caused by the body's response to a Fig, 799: repfecton A ier temperate codered not conducive tothe pathogen. ‘tissue injury or Specific Immune System (Adaptive Immune Response) ‘Third Line Of Defense } Compared to the innate response, the adaptive immune response takes days or even weeks! become established. However, it is more specific to an invading patho, activated when innate immune response (second line of defense) is insufficient to contro! However, adaptive response is dependent on the information from the innate immune system, that is without: the adaptive response could not be mobilized, The specific immune system is a highly evolved mechanism characterized by specificity, specialization, and memory. Table 2-3 summarizes the differences of te adaprive andthe innate immune response. 60 Exploring Life Through Science—General Biology 2rr Characteristics and components of in oa Diversi Limited Specialization Relatively slereohypic ‘Memory No Fpl end chanical boris | Skin, mucosal epitalo, anlimicrobial chemical (defensins) Blood proteins ‘Complement Cells ‘Cutaneous and mucosal immune systems, secreted antibodies Antibodies Iymphocytes (T and B cells) Phagocytes (macrophages, neutrophils, dedtritic cell), eosinophils, NK cells, mast cells ved in specific immune response—macrophages and wo types of lymphocytes. Lymphocytes are divided into two specialized groups called T-and B-cells, Us, depending on where they mature. B-lymphocytes (B-cells) mature in the bone marrow whereas T-lymphocytes macure in the thymus glands. Both the B-cells and T-cells work together as a dual * that have breached the second line of defense. Activated defense system to get rid of the invaders ‘Teells help in che cellular immunity or cell-mediated immune response, whereas activated B-cells response. Both functions are under the control of the direct antibody immunity or humoral immune Tnlls and are initiated by the action of macrophages. The immune system is able co distinguish the difference between “self” or normal cells ofthe body against the “non-self” cells, which are either the savading organism or abnormal or infecced cells. Nonself cells usually have larger protein molecules anther aurface, called antigens, which can be recognized and engulfed easily by macrophages. During the process, che antigens from the foreiga cell are incorporated tothe surface of the macrophage’s cell membrane. Specialized receptors on the surface binding sites of the B-cell and T-cell can recognize and match the specific antigens, which can stimulace the increase in che lymphocytes’ sumbers to attack the invading pathogen. The dual mechanism can kill the pathogen directly or secrete 0 antibody to enhance phagocytosis and disrupt infection. Aside from identification, adaptive immunity initiates another specific immune response to provide long-term protection from reinfection, which is needed to facilitate rapid and immune reaction to fucure exposures to the same antigen. ‘Three groups of immune cells are invol Ce What eels are involved in specific immune response? Chapier 2 life's Transport, Exchange, and Defense systems 61 rat te pe es macrophage by engulfing it aa binds to a receptor. ‘The macrophage the led blper T-cell, by binding the ancigen £0 it and di ‘Teeells that aid in the stimulation of B and T: 1 a processed antigen to the B-cells. Be-lympho foreign antigens. When they encounter 2 t Il differentiate into two groups of cell: Humoral Immune Response jon, an antigen fit on its memb: is now recognized by the ane and then During an infecti incorporates a portion of presents che acigen co «special T-cell, al the helper T-cell. Helper T-cells are specialized Jmmune actions. An activated helper T-cell presen or Bucells are specialized to recognize particular satigen, B-els will divide rapidly and its progeny wil caerpaeed monary al Some ofthe daughter cells will become as memory cells with the same pot theit past ole ‘hich will be used during the actual infection. They will remain in che bo waiting for that encounter with the same antigen and provide you with the immuni The dé 7 5 pene oie onthe othet hand, wll produce a highly potent protein, called antibodies chat is specific neutralize the antigens by making them more susceptible to phagocytosis. 62. Exploring Life Through Science—General Biology 2| plasma cell memory eal plaima call memory call (antibody-secreting cell) (dormant cell. (onibody-scrating call) (dora cl) Figs 244. Mechanism of humoral immune response systems Antibodies are specialized proteins that circulate in blood plasma and lymph, which was discussed previously. Once antibodies recognize pathogens, they mark them for destruction by phagocytes. Some antibodies stay in the blood plasma for long periods of time such that they will render immunity to the person once the same antigen (pathogen) is ehcountered. There are three mechanisms by which antibodies inhibit infection: . Neutralization: Antibodies prevent a virus or toxic protein from binding their target. Opsonization: A pathogen tagged by antibodies is consumed by a macrophage or neutrophil. Antibodies attached to the surface of a pathogen cell activate the Complement activatior complement system. There are five general types of antibodies in humans that function in various circumstances. IgA (immunoglobulin alpha) — found in mucosal areas, such as the gut, respiratory ai, and urogenital tract, and prevents colonization by pathogens. Also found in saliva, tears, and breast milk. Chapter 2 Life's Transpor aa Chl functions mainly shown tO . " as an ancige? beaaier on B = thar he ep 9 nmanogabtin dln) Fiera sare bois 02 Ml oy n exposed to antigens. : antimicrobial factors. sand triggers histamine release from mag. ad psilon) ~ binds e eee srs agaist itic worms. jority of ancibody-based immunity 4 ny acenta to give Passive imm y * IgE (immunoglobulin ¢ and basophils, and is involved in allerBy- * i ides the mi © IgG (immunoglobulin gamma) ~ prov ae poate pathogens. The only antibody capable of crossing P as the surface of B cells (monomer) and in a sec, lobulin mu) — expressed 07 es of B cell humoral immunity before q * IgM (immunog! Sr ey 08 form (pentamer). Eliminates secretion of sufficient Ig. Cell-Mediated Immune Response << ciom, an antigen recognized by the macrophage pre Ina sir pathway a ce Bel aeiaion, an anges TOR an acivatd cs it to the helper T-cell by binding the antigen £0 5 0 bee oon Ton igen this € ial group ‘Teall presents a processed antigen this time to # specif : Bostik cervated cytotoxic T-cells will divide rapidly. Some will bind to the infected cells and kill it direct, ‘The binding will iniciace che synthesis of several toxic proteins such as perforin and other enzyme, Perforin will attach to the infected cell's membrane and make a hole in ic. T-cell enzymes can eng into the hole, promoting apoptosis oF th. The cytotoxic T-cell will move ax programmed cell deat ioe co desroy othe infected cells, Other T-els secrete chemicals known as cytokines which cy attract more immune cells in tt he infected area, Cytotoxic T-cells also play a role in stopping the spre of some forms of cancer such t ar hepatitis B can cause liver cancer and human papilloma virus ca irae cervial cancer. When a cytotoxic T-cell encouncers them, they can be destroyed and hal proliferation of the cancer cell. ‘After your body has destroyed the pathogen, B cells that were produced during the encoun can remain in your system for future exposure. Ifthe same pathogen enters your body, your imm system will have a faster response time and destroy it even before it makes you ill. This resistance illness is called immunity. Babies are given passive immunity from the ancibodies transferred to t by their mothers as they have not developed them fully at birth. On the other hand, active immuni is when your body makes its own antibodies that will enable you to fight specific pathogens. Acti immunity can be achieved through vaccination, when weakened or dead pathogens are delil injected or ingested into the body to simulate immune response. When the pathogens in the vaccit are recognized by B cells, it will produce antibodies as if it encounters the real illness. Today, vectit together with booster shots, are part of the medical routine to develop immunity for major ill particularly in small children, 64 Exploring Life Through Science—General Biology 2Despite the effective capacity of the immune system to combat pathogens, problems ma sometimes be encouncered Which can led ro illness and infection. There are eee broad ad Jnmune system disorders—autoimmune disorders, immunodeficiencies, and hypersensitivity reactions. iemfeimmune disorders are encountered when the body generates immune response against itself. Ie is “jac to the failure of certain immune cells to recognize self- antigens. Examples of autoimmune diseases du ie hemolyic anemia, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis systemic lpuserythemarns, and ine bees lis. Immanodefcieacy ies ocr when te body cannot generate appropriate se eaponse agains invading organisms. Examples of immuno-deficincies include AIDS, Seer Combined Immunodeficiency Disease (SCID), ‘and X-linked Agammaglobulinemia. Hypersensitivity reactions or commonly known as allergic diseases are the results of abnormal immune response to aay antigens (allergens), which causes adverse physiological eactons. Examples of hypesensiiviy reactions include allergic asthma, allergic rhinitis, atopic ‘dermatitis, and anaphylaxis. peer ae Dr. Rex Ferdinand M. Traifalgar of Universty of the Philippines Visoyas has been given the 2015 ‘Outstanding Young Scientist Award in the field of fisheries science by the National Academy of Science and Technology for his work in nutritional immunology to increase disease resistance of cultured shrimps. Dr. Traifalgar finished his doctoral degree in Kagoshima University in Japan, ‘and is currently teaching ot the University of the Philippines Visayas in lloilo. His work focuses on using the effects of immune compounds. found in brown algae to help improve the growth and immune responses ‘of cultured shrimps. His researches have been funded by the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and ‘Natural Resources Research and Development of the Department ‘of Science and Technology (DOST-PCAARRD). Chapter 2 Life's Transport, Exchange, and Defense Systems 65 asees iy Innerbody: Cardiovascular System ®_ heep://wwww.innerbody.com/image/cardov-heml Edumedia: Immune System t_ heeps:/fwww.edumedia-sciences.com/en/node/39-immune-system NobelPrize.org: Play the Immune System Game ; 'e_ heeps://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/immunity/ Eazy «Transport systems of animals have open or closed circulatory systems used to exchange materials with the external environment. © Cardiovascialar system consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels. © Blood is the transport medium consisting of the plasma and formed elements that circulate throughout the body. : + The respiratory system is responsible for breathing, and the external and internal exchange of gases. The respiratory and circulatory systems work together to maintain homeostasis. They bring together oxygen and nutrients to the cells. : * Gas exchanges occur in the alveoli of the lungs. ‘The immune system is composed of lymphatic organs, tissues and cells that usually help each other to fight infection. Immunity involves nonspecific and specific defenses. Specific defenses require the help of lymphocytes to provide immunity. Chapter 2 Life's Transport, Exche ind Defense System: