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Spring 2023
Lecture 1 (Chapter 2)
(Week 1)
1 基础知识复习
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1.1 常用函数及其导数
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函数 导数
d𝑓(𝑥)
(1) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 (𝑎, 𝑛 为任意实数) = 𝑛 ⋅ 𝑎𝑥 𝑛−1
d𝑥
d𝑓(𝑥)
(3) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 =1
d𝑥
KC
d𝑓(𝑥)
(4) 𝑓(𝑥) = e𝑥 = e𝑥
d𝑥
d𝑓(𝑥) 1
(5) 𝑓(𝑥) = ln(𝑥) =
d𝑥 𝑥
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Econ 425 (Spring 2023) Lecture 1 (Chapter 2) Week 1
1.2 导数的正负
对于任意两个经济变量 𝑥 和 𝑦:
d𝑦
• > 0 意味着 𝑦, 𝑥 正相关,亦即:𝑦 随着 𝑥 增大而增大(反之亦然)
d𝑥
d𝑦
– 例:𝑦 = 某产品的需求,𝑥 = 消费者的收入,则 d𝑥 > 0 意味着该产品是 normal
good
d𝑦
– 例:𝑦 = 产品 A 的需求,𝑥 = 产品 B 的价格,则 d𝑥 > 0 意味着该产品 A 和 B 是
substitutes
d𝑦
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• < 0 意味着 𝑦, 𝑥 负相关,亦即:𝑦 随着 𝑥 增大而减小(反之亦然)
d𝑥
d𝑦
– 例:𝑦 = 某产品的需求,𝑥 = 消费者的收入,则 d𝑥 < 0 意味着该产品是 inferior
good
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d𝑦
– 例:𝑦 = 产品 A 的需求,𝑥 = 产品 B 的价格,则 d𝑥 < 0 意味着该产品 A 和 B 是
complements
1.3 导数和极值
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一个函数如果存在极值(最大值或最小值)
,一般有两种情况:interior 或 corner。Corner
极值通常在 𝑥 = 0 时达到,interior 极值通常在某个不为 0 的 𝑥 值达到。¹
KC
d𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ∗ ) = 0 (FOC)
d𝑥 𝑥=𝑥 ∗
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Econ 425 (Spring 2023) Lecture 1 (Chapter 2) Week 1
𝑦 𝑦
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ∗ ) = 0
𝑔 (𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔 ′ (𝑥 ∗∗ ) = 0
0 𝑥∗ 𝑥 0 𝑥 ∗∗ 𝑥
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在本科阶段碰到 corner 极值的几率很低。但作为例子,在上图的可见定义域内,𝑓 的最小
值在 𝑥 = 0 时达到,𝑔 的最大值也在 𝑥 = 0 时达到。
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1.4 公司的利润和成本计算
一些有用的利润、成本函数公式变形:
d𝑇𝐶 d𝑉𝐶
𝑇𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶 + 𝐹𝐶 𝜋 = 𝑇𝑅 − 𝑇𝐶 𝑀𝐶 = =
d𝑞 d𝑞
= 𝑇𝑅 − 𝑉𝐶 − 𝐹𝐶
= 𝑃𝑆 − 𝐹𝐶
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Econ 425 (Spring 2023) Lecture 1 (Chapter 2) Week 1
𝑞 𝐷 = 𝑞 𝐷 (𝑝) 𝑝 𝐷 = 𝑝 𝐷 (𝑞)
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愿是 𝑝 𝐷
– 通常画图时用到的都是 inverse demand (𝑝 在竖轴,𝑞 在横轴)
• Demand 和 inverse demand 都是 downward sloping
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Supply 及 inverse supply
𝑞 𝑆 = 𝑞 𝑆 (𝑝) 𝑝 𝑆 = 𝑝 𝑆 (𝑞)
个体 vs 市场
KC
• 假设市场有 𝑚 个买家,𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑚
• 用 𝑞𝑖𝐷 代表买家 𝑖 的需求量,则市场总需求量(aggregate/market demand)为
𝑚
𝑄 = 𝑞𝑖𝐷 = 𝑞1𝐷 + 𝑞2𝐷 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑚
𝐷 𝐷
𝑖=1
• 假设市场有 𝑛 个卖家,𝑗 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛
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𝑗=1
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Econ 425 (Spring 2023) Lecture 1 (Chapter 2) Week 1
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– 这个假设意味着 sunk cost(通常是 𝐹𝐶)为 0
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• 𝑝 = 𝑀𝑅 (这个在其它市场模型下是不成立的)
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d𝑇𝑅𝑗 d𝑄
𝑇𝑅𝑗 (𝑞𝑗 ) = 𝑝(𝑄)𝑞𝑗 ⇒ 𝑀𝑅𝑗 (𝑞𝑗 ) = = 𝑝 ′ (𝑄) ⋅ ⋅ 𝑞𝑗 + 𝑝(𝑄) = 𝑝(𝑄)
d𝑞𝑗 d𝑞
𝑗
• Equilibrium: 𝑝 = 𝑀𝐶 (𝑀𝑅 = 𝑀𝐶 ⇒ 利润最大化)
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例题: Consider a firm in a perfectly competitive market that faces the following in-
verse market demand curve
KC
𝑝 = 100 − 2𝑄
𝑝 = 10 + 𝑄
𝑀𝐶 = 10 + 𝑄
通过 𝑀𝐶 = 𝑀𝑅 = 𝑝 求使利润最大化的产量及价格:
100 − 2𝑄 = 10 + 𝑄 ⇒ 𝑄∗ = 30 ⇒ 𝑝 ∗ = 40
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Econ 425 (Spring 2023) Lecture 1 (Chapter 2) Week 1
Monopoly 模型的主要假设:
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– 公司策略:控制了关键生产原料(De Beers 的钻石开采权)
,生产成本比竞争对
手更低(Amazon,Walmart)
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• Everyone has perfect information.
– 没有 search costs
– 在价格歧视 (price discrimination) 的模型里,卖家甚至可以知道每个买家的支
付意愿
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– 但在单一定价 (uniform pricing) 的垄断模型里,卖家仅仅知道 market demand,
而不是每个买家的支付意愿
Monopoly 模型的主要推论:
• 𝑚=1 ⇒ 𝑄 = 𝑞1 = 𝑞
KC
通过 FOC 求使利润最大化的 𝑞:
d𝜋(𝑞)
= 𝑝 ′ (𝑞)𝑞 + 𝑝(𝑞) − 𝑐 ′ (𝑞) = 0 ⇔ 𝑝 ′ (𝑞)𝑞 + 𝑝(𝑞) = 𝑐 ′ (𝑞)
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d𝑞 𝑞=𝑞 𝑚
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Econ 425 (Spring 2023) Lecture 1 (Chapter 2) Week 1
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price-cost margin (Lerner Index) = inverse elasticity
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* monopolist 只会在 demand curve elastic 的部分生产/销售
答案: 利用 𝑀𝑅 = 𝑀𝐶 的条件计算 𝑞 𝑚
100 − 4𝑞 = 10 + 𝑞 ⇒ 𝑞 𝑚 = 18 ⇒ 𝑝 𝑚 = 64
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Econ 425 (Spring 2023) Lecture 1 (Chapter 2) Week 1
𝑝
100
ly
opo
on n
M tio
p eti
64 m
t Co
c
rfe 𝑀𝐶
Pe
40
𝑀𝑅 𝑄𝐷
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10
𝑄
18 25 30 50
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2.4 Welfare Comparison 福利比较
• Equilibrium quantity 以左
• 𝑀𝐶 curve 以上
• Equilibrium price 以下
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• 竖轴以右
• Equilibrium quantity 以左
Total surplus = 𝐶𝑆 + 𝑃𝑆
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Econ 425 (Spring 2023) Lecture 1 (Chapter 2) Week 1
答案: 通过计算可得
CS 900 324 ↓
PS 450 810 ↑
DWL 0 216 ↑
TS 1350 1134 ↓
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𝑝 𝑝
100 100
ly
po
A
o
ion CS M on io n
t tit
eti e
CS mp 64 mp
Co Co
ct ect
rfe 𝑀𝐶 erf 𝑀𝐶
Pe PS DWL P
40 40
PS
10
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𝑄𝐷
10
𝑀𝑅 𝑄𝐷
𝑄 𝑄
30 50 18 25 30 50
KC
𝑝 − 𝑀𝐶 1
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𝐿𝐼 = ⒧= − ⒭
𝑝 𝜖
LI 的两个应用:
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Econ 425 (Spring 2023) Lecture 1 (Chapter 2) Week 1
LI 的缺点:
• If there exists more than one firm, and the firms are not identical, additional calcu-
lations must be done.
• Having a positive Lerner Index may not imply abusive market behaviour if sunk
costs are taken into account. The monopolist may be trying to recover their earlier
investments.
• Cost-saving technology among some firms in a market could cause the Lerner Index
to be underestimated.
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2.6 Government Policy 应对垄断的公共政策
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1) Government provision
• The government produces and sells the good (such as highways, postal service).
2) Government-regulated price
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• The government sets the price that a private firm can charge (for goods such as elec-
tricity).
• The government shortens patent lives, weakens copyright protections, increases open-
ness to foreign competition, …
4) Antitrust (反垄断法)
• The government uses competition policy (竞争法) to ensure that there are multiple
competitors in the market.
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– in the US: The Sherman Act (1890), The Clayton Act (1914)
– in Canada: The Competition Act (1985)
• 反垄断法的一个重要前提:Antitrust should protect competition, not competitors.
Competition policy should be about what consumers care about.
• Monopoly is not illegal. Monopolization is illegal.
– 反垄断法所反对的是“滥用垄断地位的行为”,而非“垄断地位本身”。
– 反垄断法并不会无端遏制大型企业的发展壮大。只有当大型企业滥用其所拥有
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Econ 425 (Spring 2023) Lecture 1 (Chapter 2) Week 1
的市场支配地位,限 制了竞争并因此损害了消费者的利益时,才会受到反垄断
法的规制。
• 横向合并比纵向合并更容易受到 Antitrust 方面的审查
– 横向合并:同级市场的公司间合并(如 Rogers 和 Telus 合并)
– 纵向合并:上下游产业间的公司合并(如汽车制造商和钢材生产商)
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A
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KC
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