Thermoregulation and fluid balance

Stephen Burns

Environmental Exercise Physiology

SS3111

1
 Overview
• Introduction
• Water requirements
• Heat balance
• Heat production
• Heat loss
• Heat storage
• The environment
• Summary
• Recommended reading
Introduction
 Dehydration and heat stress

• Gabrielle Andersen-Scheiss, 1984 - 1st Women’s

Olympic Marathon, Los Angeles, USA.

• Heat stress.
• Really dehydration?

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HWtY7Maqwts
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cNw31Ug5HmA
Excess fluid - hyponatraemia
Family of "Hold Your Wee for a Wii"
Victim Awarded $16m
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ioKDf-JvKDo

Dr. Cynthia Lucero

2002 Boston
Marathon.
 North Face 100km trail running race 2009

From: Dr. Lee Kai Wei Jason. DSO National Laboratories, Singapore. Personal communication.
• Typically recommended that reductions in body mass with exercise do not exceed >2-3%.
Water requirements
Body water content

1. 40-70% of body mass

2. 65-75% of muscle weight

3. 10% of fat mass

From: Exercise Physiology: Energy,

Nutrition and Human Performance.
McArdle WD, Katch FI, Katch VL 7th Edition,
2010. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
 Water balance
• Increases in fluid intake are required
when athletes undertake intense
exercise in hot climates.

• Water provided from foods, liquid and

metabolism.

• Water lost from urine, faeces, skin and

lungs.

• One individual lost 13.6 kg of water in a

2 day, 55 mile run across Death Valley.
With fluid and salt ingestion actual body
weight loss only amounted to 1.4 kg.
From: Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition and
Human Performance. McArdle WD, Katch FI, Katch
VL 7th Edition, 2010. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
Heat balance
 Temperature homeostasis
• The aim of temperature
regulation is to maintain a
constant core-body
temperature and prevent
overheating or cooling.

• Heat loss must match heat gain

to do this.

• An increase in body
temperature above 45ºC may
destroy the protein structure of
enzymes resulting in death. A
temperature below 34°C may
cause slowed metabolism and
abnormal cardiac function.
From: Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to Fitness and
Performance. Powers SK, Howley WT. 8th Edition, 2012. McGraw-
Hill.
 Variable set-point
• However, the temperature
around which heat balance is
achieved (set-point) is not a
fixed value.

• The set-point of core

temperature varies with factors
such as ovulation, food intake
and digestion and exercise.

• There are also daily variations

in the set-point (~1°C) that
occur in a cyclical fashion (over
24 h), known as circadian
(Reilly & Waterhouse, Journal of Thermal Biology, 34:161-170, 2009) rhythms.
Mesor: mean value (37.2°C)
Acrophase: time of peak (17.00 h)
Amplitude: half the variation from peak to trough values (0.3 - 0.4°C )
Heat production
 Heat production
• Heat production during
intense exercise is high.

• >75% of energy produced

during muscle contraction is
lost as heat.

From: Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to Fitness and Performance.

Powers SK, Howley WT. 5th Edition, 2004. McGraw-Hill.
Heat loss
 Heat loss
• The body has four
methods for heat loss:
1. Radiation
2. Conduction
3. Convection
4. Evaporation

• The first three of these

mechanisms require a
temperature gradient to
be effective.

From: Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to Fitness and Performance.

Powers SK, Howley WT. 8th Edition, 2012. McGraw-Hill.
 Radiation
• Radiation: heat exchange via electromagnetic
energy transfer between a relatively warm
and cool body (occurs without contact).

• Driven by temperature gradient between skin

and environment.

• In hot and sunny climates, thermal radiation

(mostly solar) is added to the body.

• Differences in thermal radiation can be as

From: Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to Fitness and high as 15°C in some countries.
Performance. Powers SK, Howley WT. 8th Edition, 2012. McGraw-Hill.
• Posture and orientation of the athlete to the
sun determine effective radiative area of the
body and thermal radiation absorbed.
 Conduction

From: Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition and Human Performance. McArdle (Singapore Canoe Federation)
WD, Katch FI, Katch VL 7th Edition, 2010. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.

• Conduction: heat transfer from direct contact of body with other objects.

• Driven by temperature gradient and thermal qualities of the surfaces.

• Some internal heat conduction from muscle through deep tissues to skin (temperature ~33 - 35°C).

• External heat conduction is negligible for most exercise scenarios (e.g. running) but may be some heat loss in sports
such as kayaking.
 Convection

From: Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to Fitness and From: Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition and Human Performance. McArdle
Performance. Powers SK, Howley WT. 8th Edition, 2012. McGraw-Hill. WD, Katch FI, Katch VL 7th Edition, 2010. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
• Convective heat loss is facilitated by the flow of air (or water) across the skin.

• Also dependent on temperature gradient between skin and ambient environment.

• When air temperature is equal to skin temperature no convective heat exchange occurs irrespective of air velocity. At
higher temperature (> 35°C) heat loss becomes convective heat gain.

• Heat is transferred internally from core to the surface (skin) via the convection of blood.

• Some additional convective heat exchange via respiration but contribution is small in warm environments.
 Evaporation
• For evaporation, heat is transferred to
water on the surface of the skin.
When this water gains sufficient heat
(energy) it is converted to gas (water
vapour) and evaporates from skin
taking the heat away.

• Requires a vapour pressure gradient –

difference in humidity between skin
surface and ambient air.

• It is important to remember that it is

From: Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition and Human
Performance. McArdle WD, Katch FI, Katch VL 7th Edition,
2010. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
only the evaporation of sweat that
liberates heat from the body (2430 J
for every 1 g of sweat vaporized) and
not the production of sweat.
 Effective evaporation
• Evaporation from the skin is dependent on:
1. The temperature and relative humidity (together these give absolute
humidity).
2. The convective currents around the body.
3. The amount of skin surface exposed to the environment.

• Humans have an upper limit for evaporative heat loss (Emax) determined by
different characteristics depending upon the type of environment.

• In hot dry environment Emax is capped by the physiological capacity to

secrete sweat; but in humid environments is determined by the maximum
proportion of the total body surface area that can be completely covered
with sweat i.e. maximum ‘skin wettedness’ (ωmax).

• ωmax is lowered in athletes with spinal cord or burn injuries that have
greatly altered regional sweat function.
 Importance of evaporation
• “Elite marathon runners sustain an oxygen uptake of about 4 L/min and….power output
of about 1200 W…..a rate of heat production of 1200 W would cause the body
temperature to rise by 1°C approximately every 3 minutes.”
(Maughan RJ and Shirreffs SM In: Physiological Bases of Sports Performance. Editors: Hargreaves M,
Hawley J. 2003. McGraw-Hill. Chapter 4: Thermoregulation and Fluid Balance. Pg.60.)
 Heat loss via evaporation
• Example:
– Exercise intensity: VO2 = 2 L min-1
– Exercise duration = 20 minutes
– Efficiency = 20%
– Evaporation of 1 L of sweat = 580 kcal (2.43 MJ) of heat loss

1) Total energy expenditure = 20 min × 10 kcal min-1 = 200 kcal

2) Total heat produced = 200 kcal × 0.80 = 160 kcal
3) Total evaporation to prevent heat gain = 160 kcal/580 kcal L-1 = 0.276 L

From: Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to Fitness and Performance.

Powers SK, Howley WT. 5th Edition, 2004. McGraw-Hill.
Heat storage
 Heat storage
• The extent to which an athlete’s body temperature change during exercise is
determined by:
i. The net difference between internal heat generation and skin surface heat
dissipation (body heat storage)
ii. Body mass
iii. Specific heat capacity of the body’s tissues.

• As (ii) and (iii) do not change during typical sporting events body temperature is
altered primarily by heat storage:
S = (M-W) ± K ± C ± R – E

• S = Heat stored; M = Metabolic energy expenditure; W = External work performed;

K = Conduction; C = Convection; R = Radiation; E = Evaporation

• The change in body heat storage during exercise is determined by the cumulative
difference in metabolic heat production (M – W) and net heat dissipation from skin
to the surrounding environment (M-W) ± K ± C ± R – E).
The environment
 Absolute humidity
50% Relative Humidity Vapour Pressure 100% Relative Humidity Vapour Pressure • Absolute and not relative
Temperature °C (mm Hg) Temperature °C (mm Hg) humidity (RH) is the critical
0 2.3 0 4.6 environmental factor
influencing evaporation.
10 4.6 10 9.2
20 8.8 20 17.6 • Absolute humidity at a fixed
30 15.9 30 31.9 RH increases exponentially
75% Relative Humidity Vapour Pressure Example: Hot Day – 100% RH, 30°C: with ambient temperature.
Temperature °C (mm Hg) Skin temperature = 34°C
Skin vapour pressure = ~35 mm Hg • Twice the moisture is
0 3.4
Air vapour pressure = 32 mm Hg present at 30%RH/38°C
10 6.9 Vapour pressure gradient = 3 mm Hg than at 30%RH/26°C.
20 13.2
Example: Cool Day – 50% RH, 10°C • Similarly, absolute humidity
30 23.9
Skin temperature = 30°C
is higher at 30%RH/40°C
From: Exercise Physiology: Theory and Skin vapour pressure = ~32 mm Hg
Application to Fitness and Performance. Powers Air vapour pressure = 5 mm Hg
than 50%RH/30°C.
SK, Howley WT. 5th Edition, 2004. McGraw-Hill. Vapour pressure gradient = 27 mm Hg
 Wet bulb-globe temperature (WBGT) index
• WB-GT = 0.1 × DBT + 0.7 × WBT + 0.2 × GT

• where:
– DBT = Dry bulb temperature
– WBT = Wet bulb temperature
– GT = Globe temperature
• The environment can be evaluated for its potential thermal challenge using the WBGT index.
• The WBGT index depends on ambient temperature, relative humidity and radiant heat.
• Dry bulb temperature recorded by ordinary mercury thermometer.
• Wet bulb temperature recorded by similar thermometer with a wet wick surrounding the
bulb.
• Globe temperature recorded by a thermometer with a black metal sphere surrounding bulb.

From: Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition and Human Performance. McArdle WD, Katch FI, Katch
VL 7th Edition, 2010. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
 WBGT recommendations

From: Racinais et al, Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 25(S1):6-19, 2015

• Several sporting bodies have recommendations based on the WBGT.

 WBGT modified recommendations
• The WBGT may
underestimate heat stress
when sweat evaporation is
restricted (high humidity
and/or low air movement).

• The some adapted

recommendations have
been proposed.

• The WBGT is a climatic index

and does not account for
metabolic heat production
or clothing and therefore
cannot predict heat
dissipation.
From: Racinais et al, Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports,
25(S1):6-19, 2015
 Environment and sweating

From: Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition and Human Performance. McArdle From: Jay & Morris, Sports Medicine, 48:S17-S29, 2018
WD, Katch FI, Katch VL 7th Edition, 2010. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.

• Increases in sweat rate (and core temperature) will occur in a hot and humid environment increasing risk of hyperthermia
and leading to decreases in performance.

• The rate of whole-body sweating required to achieve the required rate of evaporation is altered by sweating efficiency,
which itself is determined at a fixed exercise intensity by a combination of ambient humidity and air flow across the skin.
 North Face 100km trail running race 2009

From: Dr. Lee Kai Wei Jason. DSO National Laboratories, Singapore. Personal communication.
 Standard Chartered Singapore Marathon 2009

From: Dr. Lee Kai Wei Jason. DSO National Laboratories, Singapore. Personal communication.
 Summary I
• Water makes up 40-70% of body mass.

• Active person in a warm environment may require 5-10 L of fluid per day.

• Maintaining core temperature is a critical function of the body.

• Heat production can be classified as voluntary or involuntary.

• Heat loss may occur by radiation, conduction, convection, or evaporation.

 Summary II
• Evaporation is the most important method of heat loss during exercise and occurs because of the
vapour pressure gradient between the skin and air.

• The extent to which an athlete’s body temperature change during exercise is determined mostly by
body heat storage.

• At high environmental temperatures absolute humidity is the most important factor determining
evaporative heat loss.

• The environment can be evaluated for its potential thermal challenge using the wet bulb-globe
temperature index.
 Recommended reading

• Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition and Human Performance. McArdle WD, Katch FI, Katch VL 8th
Edition, 2015. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. Chapter 2: Vitamins, Minerals and Water. Pgs.41-78.
Chapter 25: Exercise and Thermal Stress. Pgs. 615-642.

• Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to Fitness and Performance. Powers SK, Howley WT. 8th
Edition, 2012. McGraw-Hill. Chapter 12: Temperature Regulation. Pgs.261-280.