Exercise in the heat I

Stephen Burns

Environmental Exercise Physiology

SS3111

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 Overview
• Heat production and loss during exercise
• Physiological effects of exercise in the heat
• Performance in the heat
• Summary
• Recommended reading

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US Open 2018
• “Conditions at the US Open were described as
“dangerous” as five men had to retire from their
first-round matches on Tuesday because of heat-
related issues. Temperatures close to 38C (100F)
in New York were made more stifling by
humidity levels of over 50%. French player Julien
Benneteau, who won on day two, said matches
in the middle of the day should not have been
played. “They were lucky they only had
retirements," said the world number 60.”

From: BBC Sport 29th August, 2018:

https://www.bbc.com/sport/tennis/45339175

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 Tokyo 2020 Olympics

From: BBC Sport 20th July, 2021: From: BBC Sport 24th July, 2021:
https://www.bbc.com/sport/olympics/57904094 https://www.bbc.com/sport/olympics/57952752

From: BBC Sport 23rd July, 2021:

https://www.bbc.com/sport/olympics/57940257
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Heat production and loss during exercise

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 Heat storage
• Body temperature during exercise is altered primarily by heat
storage:
S = (M-W) ± K ± C ± R – E

• S = Heat stored; M = Metabolic energy expenditure; W = External

work performed; K = Conduction; C = Convection; R = Radiation;
E = Evaporation

• The change in body heat storage during exercise is determined

by the cumulative difference in metabolic heat production (M –
W) and net heat dissipation from skin to the surrounding
environment (M-W) ± K ± C ± R – E.

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 Heat loss in steady state exercise

• During submaximal steady

state exercise heat
production increases early
and then remains constant.

• Most heat loss is from

evaporation.

• There are small radiative and

convective heat losses which
will remain constant in a
controlled environment.
From: Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to Fitness and
Performance. Powers SK, Howley WT. 8th Edition, 2012. McGraw-Hill.

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 Oxygen uptake and temperature
• Core temperature during
exercise is directly related to
exercise intensity and is
independent of ambient
temperature at low humidity.

From: Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to Fitness and

Performance. Powers SK, Howley WT. 8th Edition, 2012. McGraw-Hill.
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 Steady state exercise under different
environmental temperatures
• The method of heat loss during
steady state exercise is modified
sweating
increases
according to the ambient
temperature conditions.

• With increasing ambient

temperature convective and
radiative heat loss decrease whilst
evaporative heat loss increases.

• Note that energy output and heat

production are constant.

From: Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to Fitness and

Performance. Powers SK, Howley WT. 8th Edition, 2012. McGraw-Hill.

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 Exercise intensity and heat production
• Under controlled ambient
conditions, convective and
radiative heat loss do not
increase with exercise
intensity.

• However, there is a
consistent rise in
evaporative heat loss with
increasing exercise intensity.

From: Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to Fitness and

Performance. Powers SK, Howley WT. 8th Edition, 2012. McGraw-Hill.

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Physiological effects of exercise in the heat

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 Sweat rate and core temperature
• Sweat rate is higher and core
temperature increases faster during
exercise in a hot and humid
environment compared with a cool
environment.

From: Exercise Physiology: Theory and

Application to Fitness and Performance. Powers
SK, Howley WT. 5th Edition, 2004. McGraw-Hill.

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 Sweat rate and ambient conditions
• Low convection and increased humidity
increase the whole body sweat rate at
different ambient air temperatures.

(Jay & Morris, Sports Medicine, 48:S17-S29, 2018)

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 Sweat electrolyte loss
Table. Concentration (mmol/L) of the major electrolytes in sweat, plasma and • Sweat contains a wide
intracellular water. variety of organic and
Electrolyte Sweat Plasma Intracellular water inorganic solutes.
Sodium 20-80 130-155 10
• Significant losses from the
Potassium 4-8 3.2-5.5 150 body of some of these
Calcium 0-1 2.1-2.9 0 components will occur
Magnesium < 0.2 0.7-1.5 15 where large sweat
Chloride 20-60 96-110 8
volumes are produced.
Bicarbonate 0-35 23-28 10
• Sweat composition varies
Phosphate 0.1-0.2 0.7-1.6 65 between individuals but
Sulphate 0.2-2.0 0.3-0.9 10 can also vary within an
(Maughan & Shirreffs In: Physiological Bases of Sports Performance. Editors: Hargreaves M, Hawley individual depending on
J. 2003. McGraw-Hill. Chapter 4: Thermoregulation and fluid balance. Pgs.59-78.) sweat rate, fitness and
heat acclimatisation.

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 Increased oxygen consumption

• Prolonged submaximal exercise in a

hot and humid environment leads
to an upward drift in oxygen
uptake.

From: Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to

Fitness and Performance. Powers SK, Howley WT. 8th
Edition, 2012. McGraw-Hill.

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 Cardiovascular drift
• During prolonged exercise in a hot and
humid environment there is an increase in
heart rate and a decrease in stroke
volume.

• The decrease in stroke volume may partly

result from a decreased plasma volume
and increased cutaneous (skin) blood flow.

• Heart rate increases to maintain cardiac

output.

From: Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to

Fitness and Performance. Powers SK, Howley WT. 8th
Edition, 2012. McGraw-Hill.
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 Slower recovery
• In recovery from exercise in the heat,
the post-exercise fall in heart rate back
to resting level is prolonged.

• This may result from the decrease in

plasma volume and/or from the
increased catecholamine response
experienced during exercise in the heat.

From: Exercise Physiology: Theory and

Application to Fitness and Performance. Powers
SK, Howley WT. 8th Edition, 2012. McGraw-Hill.
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 Central fatigue – reduced motor drive

• Hyperthermia-induced central fatigue

may reduce motor drive to skeletal
muscles.

• Experiments showing that hyperthermia

(core temperature 40°C) after exercising
in the heat affects maximal voluntary
contraction (MVC) of either exercised or
non-exercised muscle compared with
exercise in cooler conditions when core
temperature was not substantially
elevated (38°C).

• However, electrically stimulated (EL) (Nybo & Nielsen, Journal of Applied Physiology,
91:1055-1060, 2001)
MVC were unaffected by hyperthermia.

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 Ventilation in the heat
• Ventilation increases during
exercise in the heat without
any change in the partial
pressure of arterial carbon
dioxide.

• Ventilation is increased
because of increases in
breathing frequency.

From: Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to Fitness and Performance. Powers SK, Howley WT.
8th Edition, 2012. McGraw-Hill.
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 Increased carbohydrate metabolism

• Carbohydrate oxidation is
greater during exercise in the
heat or when individuals are
dehydrated before beginning
an exercise bout.

(Febbraio MA In: Physiological Bases of Sports Performance. Editors: Hargreaves M, Hawley J. 2003. McGraw-Hill.
Chapter 10: Exercise in the heat. Pg.254-276.)

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 Other effects
1. Vascular constriction and dilation - constriction of splanchnic and renal blood flows. May
increase liver and renal complications during heat stress.

2. Maintenance of blood pressure – vasoconstriction in the viscera and vasodilation to the

skin maintains blood pressure. As exercise intensity increases less blood flow to skin and
more to muscle preventing heat dissipation.

3. Blood lactate accumulation – earlier accumulation of lactate, encroachment on glycogen

reserves, premature fatigue. Decreased lactate uptake by liver from reduced blood flow.

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Performance in the heat

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 Exercise capacity

• In laboratory conditions, ambient

temperature (constant relative humidity
of 70%; air velocity of 0.7 m/s) appears
to have a clear effect on exercise capacity
(cycling at 70% of maximum oxygen
uptake) which follows an inverted U
relationship.

(Galloway and Maughan, Medicine and Science in

Sports and Exercise, 29:1240-1249, 1997)
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 Marathon running

(Ely et al, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39:487-493, 2007)

• There is a progressive slowing of marathon performance with increases in wet bulb-globe temperature.

• The reduction appears in both men and women of wide ranging abilities.

• However, the effect on performance is greater on slower runners.

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 Soccer performance

• Indices of soccer performance are

reduced in experimental conditions with
exercise in the heat (43°C) compared
with cooler (21°C) conditions.

(Mohr et al, PLoS One, 7(6):e39202, 2012)

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 Tennis play

• Adjustments in match
play tennis characteristics
occur with heat stress
which appear to
represent a behavioural
strategy to the
environmental
conditions.

(Périard et al, British Journal of Sports Medicine, 48:i32-i38, 2014)

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 Summary
• Core temperature during exercise is linearly related to exercise intensity.

• The method of heat loss during exercise is modified according to ambient conditions.

• Evaporation is the primary method of losing heat during exercise.

• Exercise in the heat increases submaximal oxygen consumption, heart rate and ventilation and
decreases stroke volume and plasma volume.

• Exercise in the heat increases carbohydrate metabolism and lactate formation.

• Central fatigue during exercise in the heat may lead to decreased motor drive.

• Indices of endurance capacity and performance are affected with exercise in the heat in a range
of sports and players may modify playing strategies based on the environmental conditions.

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 Recommended reading
• Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition and Human Performance. McArdle WD, Katch FI,
Katch VL 8th Edition, 2015. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. Chapter 2: Vitamins, Minerals
and Water. Pgs.41-78. Chapter 25: Exercise and Thermal Stress. Pgs. 615-642.

• Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to Fitness and Performance. Powers SK, Howley
WT. 8th Edition, 2012. McGraw-Hill. Chapter 12: Temperature Regulation. Pgs.261-280.

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