THERMAL COMFORT

people using a building do not experience any cold or hot feelings. humidity, temperature and air movement
conditions are nice and adequate to the activity conducted.

● THERMAL BALANCE OF HUMAN BODY

● THERMAL COMFORT FACTORS
● THERMAL COMFORT INDICES
Our daily life involves periods of activity, fatigue, and recovery. It's crucial for our mental and physical
well-being that we recuperate through recreation, rest, and sleep to offset the fatigue from daily
activities. Unfavorable weather conditions can disrupt this cycle, leading to discomfort, decreased
efficiency, and potential health issues. Thus, climate's impact on individuals is of significant
importance.

Criteria of total comfort depend upon each of the human senses.

Human response to the thermal environment is not
only determined by air temperature. It's
well-established that air temperature, humidity,
radiation, and air movement collectively influence
thermal effects, and must be considered together
for predicting human responses.
HEAT PRODUCTION IN HUMAN BODY
 HEAT PRODUCTION IN HUMAN BODY

The body continuously generates heat primarily through biochemical processes associated with tissue
building, energy conversion, and muscular work, which are exothermic(heat-producing). All of the body's
energy and material needs are met through food consumption and digestion, collectively known as
metabolism.

Metabolic heat production can be categorized into two components:

● basal metabolism, which represents heat production from continuous vegetative processes.
● muscular metabolism, which pertains to heat production during consciously controlled muscle
activity.

Despite the body's energy production, only about 20% is used, while the remaining 80% constitutes
"surplus" heat that needs to be dissipated to the surroundings.
The amount of excess heat generated varies with the overall metabolic rate and is influenced by the
level of physical activity.
 HEAT LOSS IN HUMAN BODY

The deep body temperature must remain balanced and constant

around 37°C.

In order to maintain body temperature at this steady level, all

surplus heat must be dissipated to the environment .

If there is some form of simultaneous heat gain from the

environment that also must be dissipated.

The body can release heat to its environment by

conduction,convection, radiation and evaporation
HEAT LOSS IN HUMAN BODY

● Convection: heat transmission from the body

to the air in contact with the skin or clothing
which then rises and is replaced by cooler air.
● Radiant heat loss depends on the
temperature of the body surface and the
temperature of opposing surfaces.
● Evaporation heat loss is governed by the
rate of evaporation, which in turn depends on
the humidity of air and on the amount of
moisture available for evaporation.
● Conduction depends on the temperature
difference between the body surface and the
object the body is in direct contact with.
REGULATORY MECHANISM

Met – Evp ± Cnd ± Cnv ± Rad = 0

Basic climatic factors that would directly affect human comfort:

TEMPERATURE

HUMIDITY

AIR MOVEMENT

RADIATION
SUBJECTIVE VARIABLES
● Clothing can be varied at the discretion of the individual. A person wearing a normal business
suit and cotton dress require different temperature
● Acclimatisation
● Age and sex : the metabolism of older people is slower,they usually prefer higher temperatures.
Women also have slightly slower metabolicrates than men; their preference is on average 1 degC
higher than that of men.
● Body shape: surface to volume ratio.A thin person has a much greater body surface than a short,
corpulent person of the same weight.
● Subcutaneous fat:fat under the skin, is an excellent thermal insulator. A fat person will need a
cooler air to dissipate the same amount of heat.
● State of health also influences thermal requirements.
● Food and drink
● Skin colour may influence radiation heat gain.
The lightest reflects about three times as much as the darkest – the light skin, is more
vulnerable to sunburn, ulcers, cancer and other sun-caused damage.
Dark skin contains a more melanin pigment, which prevents the penetration of damaging ultra-
violet rays. Dark skin also increases the heat emission from the body in the same proportion as it
affects absorption.
THERMAL COMFORT INDICES
To assess the effect of climatic conditions on the body's heat dissipation processes, there was a
difficulty of having to handle four independent variables simultaneously. many attempts have been
made to devise a single scale which combines the effects of these four factors. Such scales are collectively
referred to as 'thermal indices' or 'comfort scales'.Thermal comfort indices or comfort scales are tools
which combines the effects of different variables into a single scale. Some import scales are:

• Effective Temperature ( ET)

• Corrected Effective Temperature (CET)
• Equivalent Warmth (EW)
• Operative Temperature (OT)
• Equatorial Comfort Index (ECI)
• Resultant Temperature (RT)
• Predicted Four Hour Sweat Rate (P$SR)
• Heat Stress Index (HIS)
• Bioclimatic Chart
• Index Of Thermal Stress (ITS)
DIRECT INDICES
• Dry bulb temperature

• Humidity ratio

• Air velocity

• Mean radiant temperature (Tmrt) – affects the radiative heat transfer.

DERIVED INDICES
• Effective temperature

• Operative temperature

• Heat stress index

•Predicted mean vote (PMV)

• Percent of people dissatisfied (PPD)

EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE
The first such scale was produced by Houghton and Yaglou in 1923, working at the American Society of Heating and Ventilating
Engineers. Their findings were plotted on a Psychrometric chart, producing 'equal comfort lines' . They named the new scale as
Effective temperature and it can be defined as the temperature of a still, saturated atmosphere, which would, in the absence
of radiation, produce the same effect as the atmosphere. In 1947 Yaglou slightly revised the scale, but other modifications also
became generally accepted.

It combines the effect of dry air temperature and humidity.

ET=DBT – 0.4 x (DBT -10) x (1-RH/100) in °C

• It is defined as the temperature of the environment at 50% RH which results in same total loss from the skin as in actual
environment.

• Since this value depends on other factors such as activity, clothing, air velocity and mean radiant temperature, a standard
effective temperature (SET) is defined for the following conditions:

a. Clothing = 0.6 clo

b. Activity = 1.0 met

c. Air velocity = 0.1 m/s

d. Tmrt =DBT in (K)

• The operative temperature (Top) is a weighted average of air DBT and Tmrt into a single factor.
PREDICTED MEAN VOTE(PMV) AND PERCENT OF PEOPLE
DISSATISFIED (PPD)
• ASHRAE has defined a thermal sensation scale which considers the air temperature, humidity, sex of the
occupants and length of the exposure.

• The scale is based empirical equations relating the above comfort factors.

• The scale varies from +3 (hot) to -3 (cold) with 0 being neutral condition.

• Then a predicted mean vote (PMV) that predicts the mean response of a large number of occupants is
defined based on the thermal sensation scale.

PMV = [0.303 exp (-0.036M) + 0.028]L ,Where M is the metabolic rate.

• L is the thermal load on the body that is the difference between the internal heat generation and heat
loss to the actual environment of a person experiencing thermal comfort.
• The thermal load has to be obtained by solving the heat balance equation for the human body.

PPD = 100 -95exp [-(0.03353 PMV₄ + 0.2179 PMV²)]

• Above equation indicates that even when the PMV is zero (ie, no thermal load on body) 5 % of the
people are dissatisfied.

• When PMV is within ±0.5, then PPD is less than 10%.

• ASHRAE has defined comfort chart based on the effective and operative temperature.

• The comfort chart is based on statistical sampling of a large number of occupants with activity less than
1.2met.

Inside design condition for winter:

• Top between 20.0 and 23.5°C at a RH of 60%.
• Top between 20.0 and 23.5°C at a DPT of 2°C.

Inside design condition for summer:

• Top between 22.5 and 26.0°C at a RH of 60%.
• Top between 23.5 and 27.0°C at a DPT of 2°C.
INTERRELATION OF THE ELEMENTS
Psychrometric Chart
A

H B

v
G C

F D

E
 INTERRELATION OF THE ELEMENTS
Psychrometric Chart
1. Active Heating
2. Passive Heating
3. Humidification
4. Evaporative Cooling
5. Dehumidification
6. Thermal Inertia
7. Ventilation
8. Active Cooling

Psychrometric charts are graphical representations of the

psychrometric properties of air.
• A psychrometric chart is an important tool for HVAC engineers can
graphically analyse and carry out heat load or cooling load
calculations and find solutions to various air condition related
problems without having to carry out long and tedious mathematical
calculations.
• It looks complicated with vast number of lines and curves in it abut
is very easy to understand if we know the basic properties of air
INTERRELATION OF THE ELEMENTS
Psychrometric Chart - JANUARY

Climate Consultant 6.0

INTERRELATION OF THE ELEMENTS
Psychrometric Chart - APRIL

Climate Consultant 6.0

INTERRELATION OF THE ELEMENTS
Psychrometric Chart - SEPTEMBER

Climate Consultant 6.0

 VARIOUS LINES AND CURVES IN PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
All the properties of air indicated in the psychrometric
chart are calculated at the standard atmospheric
pressure.
i. Dry Bulb(DB) Temperature lines:
• The dry bulb temperature scale is shown along the
base of the shoe shaped psychrometric chart forming the
sole.
• The DB increases from left to the right

• The vertical lines shown in the chart are the constant

DB temperature lines and all points located along a
particular vertical line have same DB temperature.
ii. Moisture content
• Moisture content is the water vapour present in the air
ad is measured in gram per kg of dry air (gm/kg of dry
air).
• The moisture present within the air is indicated by the
vertical scale located towards the extreme right.
• The horizontal lines starting from this vertical scale are
constant moisture lines.
iii. Wet Bulb (WB) Temperature Lines

• The outermost curve along the left side indicates the Wet
Bulb (WB) temperature scale, the constant WB temperature
lines are the diagonal lines extending from WB temperature
curved scale downwards towards the right hand side of the
chart.

• All the points located along the constant WB temperature

line have the same temperature

iv. Dew Point (DP)Temperature Lines:

• Since the dew point temperature of the air depends on the

moisture content of the air, constant moisture lines are also
constant DP temperature lines.

• The scale of the DP and WB temperature is the same,

however, while the constant WB temperature lines are
diagonal lines extending downwards, the constant DP
temperature lines are horizontal lines.

• Thus the constant DP and WB temperature lines are

different.
CORRECTED EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE(CET)
The earlier version known as Effective temperature was originally shown as equal comfort lines drawn on
the psychrometric chart. This method was found to be inaccurate as it underestimates the significance
of moderate air movements at high temperature.

• A nomogram was developed later, incorporating the appropriate modifications which can be calculate the
ET index directly from the DBT, WBT and air velocity.

• If the globe thermometer is used to measure the air temperature and used in these nomograms instead of
the DBT values, the effect of radiant heat exchange will also be included.

The values thus obtained are referred to as corrected effective temperature- CET
ET scale integrates the effects of three variables – originally of temperature and humidity but a later form included air movement .The
corrected effective temperature scale includes radiation effects. This scale is at present the most widely used one.
FINDING THE CET
i. Measure the globe thermometer temperature.

ii. Measure the WBT.

iii. Measure the air velocity with an anemometer

iv. Locate the GT on the left hand vertical scale of the nomogram.

v. Locate the WBT on the right hand vertical scale.

vi. Connect the two points with a straight line.

vii. Select the curve appropriate to the air velocity.

viii. Mark the intersection of the velocity curve and the straight line.

ix. Read off the value of the short – inclined line going through the
same point. This is the CET value.
 COMFORT ZONES
The range of conditions within which at least 80% of the people
would feel comfortable.

• There is considerable difference between the comfort zones for

different parts of the world.

• For tropical climates the comfort zone lies between 22°C and
27°C ET.

• The comfort zone must also be identified in terms of air velocity.

• Even if all other conditions are satisfactory, if the air velocity is

below 0.15m/s, the occupants will complain of stuffiness.

• Air movement faster than 1.5m/s can produce annoying

secondary effects such as papers blown about and dust stirred
up.

The shaded area in fig. Limited by CET lines 22°C and 27°C and by
the velocity lines 0.15m/s and 1.5 m/s indicates the comfort zone or
the range of conditions found comfortable in most tropical
BIOCLIMATIC CHART
• It is a thermal comfort index which present on
a psychrometric chart, the concurrent
combination of temperature and humidity at any
given time.

• The comfort zone is marked on the chart.

• Though the chart primarily shows only DBT

and RH, it shows the effect of air movement and
radiation as shift in the comfort zone.

The bioclimatic chart helps in identifying

potential passive solar heating and cooling
strategies appropriate to the building’s climate.

• The bioclimatic chart with design strategy

zones is subdivided into zones that define
passive solar heating and cooling strategies.
STEPS OF DESIGN
1. On the bioclimatic chart with design strategy
zones, plot 2 points:
2. first the average minimum temperature
for one month paired with the maximum
relative humidity.
3. Second, the maximum temperature paired
with the minimum relative humidity.
4. Connect these points with a straight line, and
then repeat the process for each month of
the year.
5. Each line represents the change in
temperature and relative humidity over an
average day.
6. So based on which area these lines fall on,
the appropriates strategies can be adopted
in the building design.
EQUIVALENT WARMTH(EW)
Mean Radiant Temperature: defined as the uniform temperature of an imaginary enclosure (or
environment) in which the radiant heat transfer from the human body is equal to the radiant heat transfer
in the actual nonuniform enclosure

Experiments were carried out by Bedford in England among over 2000 factory workers. The subjects
were engaged in light work, under varying indoor conditions. Air temperature, humidity and mean
radiant temperature were measured and recorded together with the subjective responses of the workers.
Surface temperatures of skin and clothing were also measured and recorded.

After correlating the findings, using statistical analysis methods, the equivalent warmth scale was
constructed and defined by a nomogram. It is now thought to be reliable within the comfort zone up to 35°
C with low RH and up to 30°C with high RH, but it underestimates the cooling effect of air movement with
high humidities.
OPERATIVE TEMPERATURE (OT)
Another scale was developed in the USA, by Winslow, Herrington and Gagge, in principle very
similar to the scale of equivalent warmth. It combined the effects of radiation and air temperature.

EQUATORIAL COMFORT INDEX (ECI)

This was developed by C G Webb in Singapore during 1960. Subjective responses of acclimatised
subjects were recorded together with measurements of air temperature, humidity and air movement –
the experimentally-found relationships were organised into a formula and shown on a graph, very similar to
the ET nomogram

RESULTANT TEMPERATURE (RT)

Developed by Missénard, in France, this scale is a slight improvement on the ET scale. The nomogram
defining it is almost identical with the ET nomogram. It is thought to be reliable for moderate climates
but not for tropical conditions as it does not allow sufficiently for the cooling effects of air movement
over 35°C and 80% RH.
PREDICTED FOUR HOUR SWEAT RATE(P4SR)
This scale, which attempts to correlate subjective sensations with climatic measurement, is primarily
concerned with the objective determination of physical stress, as indicated by the rate of sweat
secretion from the body, by the pulse and by internal- temperature.

The method of measuring the rate of sweating was developed during experiments carried out for the
British naval authorities in 1947, intended to consider the special heat stresses experienced by
seamen. Metabolic rates as well as clothing, air temperature, humidity, air movement and mean
radiant temperature of the surroundings were considered.

It seems to be the most reliable scale for high temperature conditions but not suitable for temperatures
below 28°C. The cooling effect of air movements at high humidities is underestimated.
HEAT STRESS INDEX
Several physiological assumptions were made and calculation methods evolved to find an indication of
heat stress on the basis of environmental measurements. Metabolic heat production of subjects doing
various kinds of work was measured and taken as an indication of heat stress

It is thought to be reliable for still air between 27 and 35°C, 30 and 80% RH, and for lower humidities
if temperatures are higher, but unsuitable for the comfort zone.

INDEX OF THERMAL STRESS (ITS)

● The index of thermal stress is the calculated cooling rate produced by sweating, which would
maintain thermal balance under the given conditions.
● The calculation is based on a refined biophysical model of the man-environment thermal system.
● The index takes into account all the subjective and objective thermal factors.
● Its usefulness extends from comfortable to overheated conditions as far as the physiological
adjustments are able to maintain thermal balance.
FANGER’S MODEL OF THERMAL COMFORT
Human thermal comfort was based on one’s skin temperature and sweat secretion and that one could only
be considered ‘comfortable’ if these two factors were balanced within a narrow range of acceptability.

Sweating in high temperatures or shivering in cold temperatures to keep us thermally balanced and to avoid
local discomfort. The human body can adapt to the external environment up to a certain range, but as soon
as the limits are reached, the body’s responses are perceived as uncomfortable.

Through climate chamber experiments, Fanger’s theory evolved to declare that thermal comfort could be
found by evaluating the metabolic rate, clothing insulation, and environmental conditions of an
individual.

Thermal comfort is defined as “that condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment” in the globally recognized ASHRAE 55 and ISO 7730 standards for evaluating indoor
environments. To assess this condition, engineers must first determine the thermal sensation or thermal
balance inhabitants of an indoor environment may feel in tangent with the thermal dissatisfaction
experienced by occupants. These comfort limits can be expressed by the PMV and the
PPD indices.
What Is PMV?
PMV is an index that aims to predict the mean value of votes of a group of occupants on a
seven-point thermal sensation scale. Thermal equilibrium is obtained when an occupant’s
internal heat production is the same as its heat loss. The heat balance of an individual can be
influenced by levels of physical activity, clothing insulation, as well as the parameters of the
thermal environment.

Within the PMV index, +3 translates as too hot, while -3 translates as too cold, as depicted below.

In order to compute PMV, the simulated temperature and airspeed velocity (i.e., the ASHRAE/ISO
standards recommend making an adaption for speeds above 0.2m/s) of a given environment are used
as inputs. These variables, along with given inputs for clothing insulation, relative humidity, and
mean radiative temperature provide the basis to calculate PMV.
What Is PPD?

Through PMV, we can predict the thermal sensation of a population, but this doesn’t paint the whole
picture. We also need to consider the level of satisfaction of the occupants in a space, to get a more
holistic idea of if and how thermal comfort can be achieved. For this, Fanger developed another
equation to relate the PMV to the predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD).

Once the PMV is calculated, the PPD, or index that establishes a quantitative prediction of the
percentage of thermally dissatisfied occupants (i.e., too warm or too cold), can be determined. PPD
essentially gives the percentage of people predicted to experience local discomfort. The main factors
causing local discomfort are unwanted cooling or heating of an occupant’s body. Common contributing
factors are drafts, abnormally high vertical temperature differences between the ankles and head, and/or
floor temperature.