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Light : Readings in Theatre Practice

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Contents

List of Illustrations viii

Acknowledgements ix
Series Preface xi
Introduction: Light and Performance xiii

1 The Evolution of Lighting Design 1

2 Light as Spectacle 20
3 Light, the Playhouse and the Scene 44
4 Light and the Audience 66
5 Light and Space 77
6 The Dramaturgy of Light 118
7 Light and the Body 142
8 Light as Material 162
9 Gas and Electricity – New Tools and Techniques 173
10 Techniques and Tools 200
11 The Lighting Operator 225
12 The Lighting Designer 248

Appendix: Mima (1928): Excerpts from Operator Cue Sheets 271

References 274
Index 286

vii

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Chapter
The Evolution of Lighting
1 Design

This chapter looks at the innovations in the use of light in performance dur-
ing the Renaissance period. What is significant about this period is that it
is possible to identify it as the first time when light was used coherently as
an integral aspect of the staging of performance events and that the creative
potential of light to performance was acknowledged for the first time.
Significant evidence is provided through contemporary accounts from
audience members who witnessed performances and detailed written doc-
umentation that describe the first systematic approaches to lighting the
stage.
Many of these accounts are by architects who were responsible for design-
ing and coordinating these events. The complexities inherent in staging
lavish performance spectacles, and the way in which light was used as an
integral aspect of Renaissance scenography in Italy, are fundamental to the
development of all future performance lighting design principles and prac-
tice. For this reason it is important to understand both the way in which light
was used in performance by a number of early lighting designers and the
way in which this use of light contributed directly to the evolution of the art
form itself.
This chapter describes the work of these key figures and give examples
of some of the staged events in which lighting played an essential part.
These first-hand accounts explain the techniques and principles of early light-
ing practice and record the discoveries made in using light in performance.
These treatises, by artists who were seeking to solve the staging issues aris-
ing from a new style of performance, form the first known documents that
focus on lighting design for performance. They provide substantial evidence
to suggest that Italy is the birthplace of creative lighting for the stage.

LIGHT IN THE ITALIAN COURT THEATRE

This section concentrates on the developments of the Italian playhouse, its

perspective settings and the methods suggested for lighting these scenes.
It focuses on the work of key architects who designed both the new theatre
spaces and the performances staged within them. Their writings reveal how
key lighting principles for performance were established and detail the first

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2 LIGHT: READINGS IN THEATRE PRACTICE

instruments developed specifically for lighting the stage. Methods of lighting

are proposed for both the newly developed scenic stage and for illuminating
performers. Lighting positions within the theatre are discussed, and the first
accounts of the darkening of the auditorium and the dimming of stage lights
during the performance are revealed.

THE PERSPECTIVE SCENE

In order to understand the way in which light was used on the Renaissance
stage, it is important to understand the scenic conventions that were estab-
lished during this period. Theatrical presentation and performance design
underwent radical change in the period following the discovery of linear per-
spective and the rediscovery of the classic text De architectura, written by the
Roman architect Vitruvius. The link between fine art and architecture was
to have a profound influence on the development of the scenic stage. In the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, artists were employed by Italian courts to
produce paintings and sculpture. Following in the footsteps of Brunelleschi,
(see Chapter 2) many of these master painters were also commissioned as
architects as they had acquired a sophisticated range of skills encompassing
engineering and geometry. Their achievements in the design and construc-
tion of buildings, often with overtly theatrical facades, led logically to these
architects and artists also being employed as theatrical designers. They were
commissioned not only to create a theatrical space and auditorium, often
within an existing room at court, but also to design the stage environment
and the conditions for viewing it. Architects understood that light was not
only important to the way a building was perceived but also an essential
component in the way that performance was experienced.
During the early sixteenth century the link between perspective paint-
ing and the theatrical backdrop was firmly established and was exemplified
in the work of designers such as Pellegrino, Genga and Peruzzi, who pro-
vided the catalyst for the evolution of a new theatrical form that employed
semi-permanent, three-dimensional perspective scenes. These scenic stages,
constructed in relief, required new approaches to lighting in order to com-
plete the visual illusion. A number of these architects therefore sought to
quantify the theories and practices of this new staging by publishing rules
for the design, construction and lighting of these new perspective scenes.
Pellegrino da San Daniele1 (1467–1547), a master painter and architect,
was employed by the court at Ferrara in the role of theatre designer. He is
credited with the first perspectival backdrop for a performance of Ariosto’s
La Cassaria in 1508 and although there appears to be no evidence for how this
may have been lit, this new approach to scenic design seems to have inspired

1
Also known as Martino of Udine.

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THE EVOLUTION OF LIGHTING DESIGN 3

Girolamo Genga’s (1476–1551) production of Bibbiena’s La Calandria in

Urbino2 . The city setting is described in a letter by Baldassarre Castiglione
as being lit by chandeliers and including a richly coloured eight-sided tem-
ple adorned with precious glass jewels. This effect would seem to indicate
the backlighting of a built set piece rather than a painted representation and
would probably have used coloured glass and bozze to create the jewelled
lighting effect.3 There are no surviving drawings of Genga’s work, and he is
therefore rarely referred to in the evolution of theatrical practice, but his con-
tribution may have been significant because both the opulence of his settings
and his great skill as a theatrical designer were praised prominently by both
Serlio and Vasari in their writings.
Giorgio Vasari’s Lives of the Artists is the most important source in describ-
ing sixteenth-century theatrical activity in Florence and provides a historical
overview and account of earlier spectacles and celebrations. It is from these
descriptions that the significance of both Genga and Peruzzi to the evolution
of stage and lighting design practices can be ascertained, as lighting effects
were clearly integral to the visual impact of their stagecraft. Baldassare
Peruzzi’s (1481–1536) stage design for La Calandria introduced the built per-
spective scene to Rome when it was staged in the Vatican in 1514. Vasari
records the importance of the inner light within the scene itself (rather than
external illumination) to enhancing the illusion of perspective:

Nor is it possible to imagine how he found room, in a space so limited, for so

many streets, so many palaces, and so many bizarre temples [. . .] all so well exe-
cuted that it seemed that they were not counterfeited, but absolutely real, and that
the piazza was not a little thing, and merely painted, but real and very large. He
designed also, the chandeliers and the lights within that illuminated scene, and
all the other things that were necessary, with much judgment [. . .] This kind of
spectacle, in my belief, when it has all its accessories, surpasses any other kind,
however sumptuous and magnificent.
(Vasari, Vol. 1. 1912: 814)

Bastiano da Sangallo (1481–1551) trained as a painter of frescoes but spe-

cialised as a theatre designer for the Medici dukes in Florence. For Landi’s
play Commodo in 1539 he drew inspiration from Peruzzi’s stage design work
in Rome by also creating a ‘solar light’ that travelled against a blue ‘sky’. This
representation of the sun was created by filling a large crystal sphere with
water, and lighting it from behind with candles. The moving light source
travelled above the rear of the perspective scene, appearing to rise at the
beginning of the play, move across the sky and then set at the ending of the
drama.4

2
Performed on 6 February 1513.
3
This technique is described later by both Serlio and Vasari.
4
See Zorzi and Sperenzi (2001: 145).

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4 LIGHT: READINGS IN THEATRE PRACTICE

The most important contribution to Renaissance staging practice and the

first discussion of lighting techniques for the theatre was published in 1545
by a pupil of Peruzzi, Sebastiano Serlio (1475–1554). His Libri d’architettura
established a personal discourse on architectural practice and in the sec-
ond book he discusses the requirements for the staging of performances in
terms of the theatre building, the scenic stage and the necessary lighting
techniques, to which he devotes an entire chapter. Serlio developed Peruzzi’s
ideas in relation to his own practical experience of building theatres and stag-
ing drama in Vicenza during the 1530s. Book II of De Architettura marks the
first extensive account of theatrical techniques since Vitruvius, whose theo-
ries Serlio marries with his own staging practice to create a clear manifesto
of design for the stage. The publication in Paris in both Italian and French
was followed by many translations into other European languages, which
ensured a widespread dissemination of the lighting design techniques that
had been forged in Italian city-states at this time.5
Although Serlio’s text borrows heavily on the theories and practices of
earlier architects and designers, this publication cannot be underestimated
in terms of the impact that it had on the evolution of staging practices and
the development of lighting design. The perspective scene was to domi-
nate theatre practice until the twentieth century, and this text marks the first
attempt to produce a detailed methodology for the lighting of the stage.
Following Vitruvius’ ideals, Serlio advocates three settings for perfor-
mance, one each for comedy, tragedy and satirical plays. However, these
were designed as separate generic perspective scenes – a single constructed
pictorial backdrop for the whole action of the play. These scenic views were
built on a raked picture stage and situated behind a wide, flat forestage.
The performers used only the narrow, wide forestage and did not enter this
rear scenic stage. To enhance the illusion of perspective, these settings were
designed and painted with shadows to look as if they were lit from one direc-
tion only. Serlio was aware of the contradiction between this effect and the
general frontal illumination that he describes in detail.
Serlio suggests that general light in the form of a central chandelier is pro-
vided for the illumination of the entire stage picture, whilst to supplement
this ‘a large number of candles are placed at the front of the scene’. This sug-
gestion of an overhead fill light coupled with early footlights indicates that a
technique has already been established that was to dominate theatre lighting
for the next 400 years.
In addition to the general light from the front and above, Serlio suggests
that visual interest in the scenic stage itself should be achieved through
decorative lighting from behind the scenic pieces:

5
There were nearly 60 editions in seven languages by 1619. First published in both Italian and
French in Paris (1545), translated into Flemish (1553), Dutch (1606), German (1608) and English
from an inaccurate Dutch translation in 1611.The English edition cited below was published
in 1657 and was also translated from a Dutch version.

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THE EVOLUTION OF LIGHTING DESIGN 5

Among all the things that may be made by mens hands, thereby to yield admi-
ration, pleasure to sight, and to content the fantasies of man; I think is placing
of a Scene, as it is shewed to your sight, where a man in a small place may see
[. . .] a thousand faire things and Buildings, adorned with innumerable lights great,
middle sort, and small, [. . .] which are so cunningly set out, that they shew forth
and represent a number of the brightest stones, as Diamonds, Rubies, Saphirs,
Smaragdes, Jacinths, and such like. There you may see the bright shining Moon
ascending onely with her hornes, and already risen up, before the Spectators are
aware of, or once saw it ascend. In some other Scenes you may see the rising of
the Sun with his course about the world, and at the ending of the Comedy, you
may see it goe down most artificially, whereat many beholders have been abasht.6
(Serlio [1545] 1657: 23)

This is the first reference we have to back and side-lighting, although these
angles of light are suggested for the lighting of the setting rather than for the
performers.
Serlio identifies a third category of lighting which he terms ‘mobile light’
and represents the visible point source on stage – the physical simulation
of celestial objects moving across the sky, in the way that Brunelleschi and
Peruzzi had employed earlier. The passing of the sun or moon was important
for delineating the passage of time within the drama, and the creation of
an ‘artificial day’ was often essential to preserve the dramatic and temporal
unity.
We understand the way in which lighting techniques had evolved dur-
ing the Renaissance period because Serlio describes where to place lighting
instruments and how to create specific effects such as lightning. The bozze
that Serlio identifies were glass vessels in both concave and convex forms that
could be used to hold oil and a wick to provide a lighting source, or alterna-
tively were filled with coloured liquid and used in front of light sources fixed
on boards behind the perspective scene to create coloured light. In this pas-
sage, Serlio notes the practical concerns about fixing these properly so that
they are not dislodged by the dancers.
Serlio also describes the placing of a polished barber’s basin to act as
a reflector behind the glass sphere which, in turn, becomes a crude lens.
Together these materials created an early prototype of the spotlight and
particularly interesting is that this instrument was used to create a type of
keylight – ‘a great light to shew more than the rest’ – and this is the first indi-
cation of the artistic need for a differentiation of intensity between lighting
sources.
The bozze were the first dedicated theatre lighting instruments and Serlio
provides recipes for tinting liquids to achieve specific colours, although it

6
A modern translation of the last section of this text might read: The horned moon rises slowly –
so slowly that the spectators have not been aware of any movement. In other scenes the sun
rises, moves on its course, and at the end of the play is made to set with such skill that many
spectators remain lost in wonder.

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6 LIGHT: READINGS IN THEATRE PRACTICE

was discovered that this technique reduced the intensity of the light and
therefore tended to be reserved for special scenic effects, such as creating the
jewelled windows of street scenes. For pastoral scenes (where there were no
windows on stage), coloured silks were backlit instead to create variations in
coloured light. Bergman (1977: 59–60) argues that these decorative lighting
techniques that created a gleaming, jewelled stage were a natural develop-
ment of mediaeval traditions of using precious stones, and the effect was a
theatrical equivalent of the stained glass window.

Serlio – Of the Artificiall Lighting of the Scene (1545)

I Promised in the Treatise of Scenes to set down the manner of how to make these
lights shining through, of divers colours [. . .]
The manner to set these shining colours in their places is thus, Behind the painted
house wherein these painted colours shall stand, you must set a thin board cut
out in the same manner that these lights shall be placed, whether it be round or
square, cornered or ovale, like an Egge; and behinde the same board there shall
be another stronger board lay flat behind them, for the bottles and other manner
of glasses with these waters to stand in, must be placed against the holes, as it
shall necessarily fall out, but they must be set fast, lest they fall with leaping and
dancing of the Moriscoes. And behind the glasses you must set great Lamps, that
the light may also be stedfast; and if the bottels or other vessels of glasse on the
side where the light stands were flat or rather hollow, it would rather shew the
clearer, and the colours most excellent and faire; the like must be done with the
holes on the shortning side: But if you need a great light to shew more then the
rest, then set a torch behind, and behind the torch a bright Bason, the brightnesse
whereof will shew like the beams of the Sun. You may also make glasse of all
colours and formes, some fouresquare, some with crosses, and any other forme
with their light behind them. Now all the lights serving for the colours, shall not be
the same which must light the Scene, for you must have a great number of torches
before the Scene. You may also place certaine candlesticks above the Scene with
great Candles therein, and above the Candlesticks you may place some vessells
with water, wherein you may put a piece of Camphir, which burning will shew
a very good light and smell well. Sometime it may chance that you must make
something or other which should seem to burn, which you must wet thoroughly
with excellent good Aquavite and setting it on fire with a Candle it will burn all
over: and although I could speak more of these fires, yet this shall suffice for this
time.
(Serlio [1545] 1657: 28–29)

ARCHITECTS OF LIGHT

As the perspective scene began to become a part of the acting space rather
than simply an architectural backdrop to the performance, a number of
architect-designers began to develop lighting techniques for different styles
of performance.

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THE EVOLUTION OF LIGHTING DESIGN 7

Leone di Somi (1527–1592) is important to the development of stage

lighting because he was the first to identify the shifts of perception cre-
ated through changing levels of illumination. He considered light as both
an expressive and a symbolic element, and he articulated these thoughts in
his 15567 treatise on the art of theatre. This writing, which ranges from act-
ing techniques and costume design to stage setting, is presented as a series
of dialogues between three noblemen who discuss key dramaturgical issues
relating to the staging of drama. The fourth dialogue deals with stage lighting
and, like Serlio’s publication of 20 years earlier, reflects both historic practice
and his own innovations. It provides us with a valuable insight into stage
lighting techniques of the Italian court theatre and reveals that di Somi is
using light as both an expressive and a symbolic element of the drama. Lights
are placed within the scene purely to induce gaiety, and changing levels of
illumination are used both to create atmosphere and to induce a reaction in
the audience. Modern lighting designers learn the age-old mantra of ‘bright
lights for comedy, darker lighting for tragedy’, and this relationship seems
first to have been defined by di Somi. The darkening and extinguishing of
lights for tragic effect is the first record of the dimming of light during a
performance. It is probable that this technique was borrowed from Tenebrae
religious services where candles are extinguished one by one to create a
solemn, sombre mood as the church gradually darkens.
Di Somi also provides explanations of ways in which indirect illumina-
tion can be created, and his experiments with offstage mirrors and colour
side-lighting demonstrate both a development of earlier traditions and a new
codification of techniques that use light sources that need to remain invisible
to an audience. Importantly, di Somi is the first to identify the shift in per-
ception generated when a spectator is placed in shadow, and this concern
with controlling levels of illumination throughout the performance estab-
lishes conventions that are still in use today. His innovation in darkening
the auditorium in relation to the scene was critical in emphasising changes in
the levels of light throughout the dramatic action, and eventually became
accepted as the standard convention for indoor theatrical (and cinematic)
presentations.

THE DIALOGUES OF LEONE DI SOMI (C. 1561)

I believe that these four Dialogues – which truly were composed more for my own
personal convenience than from any desire of securing fame – may be of use to
others and myself as a set of rules, or at least as a record of what must be done
in writing or in producing any dramatic poem; otherwise, I have no doubt, they
would prove but useless and ill-pleasing. [. . .]

7
Nicholl (1948: 237–238) observes that this was probably written in 1561 and that the first
publication was mistakenly dated by the copyist and should actually read 1565.

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8 LIGHT: READINGS IN THEATRE PRACTICE

Fourth Dialogue
Interlocutors; Verdico, Santino, and Massimiano
Santino. [. . .] I want you to tell me one thing, Veridico. Here on your stage are many
lighted lamps, giving ample illumination and· making a most lovely show; what,
then, is the use of and how originated those many lamps burning on the roofs of
the stage-houses? They do not seem to me to aid the perspective, and for ordinary
purposes of illumination there are torches enough.
Veridico. I think I have said more than once that plays are produced for the purpose
of providing pleasant instruction and of alleviating noyance of mind. Whence
I declared, and again I repeat it, the actor should above all other things endeav-
our to enunciate his lines in a bright and joyous manner. Such, granted that the
author provides us with a pleasant, charming plot and that the actor gives to this
a vivid interpretation, surely it is equally essential that the architect should rep-
resent gladness and joy on the stage. Now it has been a custom, both in ancient
and modern times, to light bonfires and torches in the streets, on the housetops,
and on towers, as a sign of joy; and hence arises this theatrical convention-the
imitating of such festive occasions. The lights are put there for no other purpose
but to imitate, in the very first scene, this mood of gaiety.
Santino. I suppose, then, that these lights would not appear in a tragedy.
Veridico. Perhaps they would not be so wholly out of place even in such a play.
Quite apart from the fact that there are tragedies with happy endings, we note
that nearly all tragedies open in a happy strain; and consequently it will not be
unfitting to arouse the mind, so far as we may, to this happiness, although disas-
ters and deaths are to ensue later. I remember once I had to produce a tragedy of
this kind. During all the time when the episodes were happy in mood I had the
stage brightly illuminated, but so soon as the first unhappy incident, occurred-
the unexpected death of a queen-while the chorus was engaged in lamenting that
the sun could bear to look down on such evil, I contrived (by prearrangement,
of course) that at that very instant most of the stage lights not used for the per-
spective were darkened or extinguished. This created a profound impression of
horror among the spectators and won universal praise.
Santino. It could not have called forth anything but praise.
Massimiano. Will you now please tell us why most of your lights have in front of
them transparent or coloured glasses?
Veridico. This was invented by some men who realized a little-appreciated fact-that
a brilliant light striking directly upon the eye for any length of time becomes
exceedingly irritating. Since, then, the spectator must keep his eyes fixed on the
stage, watching the actions proceeding now on this side, now on that, the shading
of the lights was devised to minimize the annoyance.
Massimiano. I should be willing to bet that not ten persons out of a hundred who
make use of these shades appreciate their object.
Veridico. They would at any rate say that the shades were used to produce a more
beautiful effect, and in so doing they would be enunciating part of the whole.
Not by my own theorizing, certainly, but from long practice and experience
I have made observation of these things and have tried to get at their origins.
I have found that it was the ancients who, as the saying goes, snatched them
from obscurity. While we are dealing with this subject I should like to point out
also that the small mirrors which some managers set at appropriate places in the

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THE EVOLUTION OF LIGHTING DESIGN 9

perspective settings and the far sides of the wings are very effective. They reflect
those concealed lights which the architects cleverly place behind columns and
in the openings between the wings, thus serving to make the set more gay and
bright. Not only can these reflections give no annoyance to the eyes; they have
the further advantage that here we obtain light without smoke-a great considera-
tion. I may take this occasion to remark that the producer who does not take care
to have a number of holes made behind the scenes so that the smoke from the
lamps may have a means of escape will land himself in serious difficulties, for
otherwise this smoke, gradually increasing and becoming thicker, will produce
so effective a screen that before the second act be done the actors will seem to be
not men but shadows, while the spectators, as if blinded, will, without realizing
the cause, get the impression that they are losing their sight. Great care ought
to be taken of this, though it is a matter to which few pay sufficient attention.
So far as my experience goes, there is no real difficulty provided adequate pains
are taken beforehand.
Massimiano. Now that you bring these things to my attention I do recall that at the
close of plays we have often found our eyes smarting uncomfortably and that we
have not been able to see nearly so much as we did at the beginning. I realize that
this must have been due to the cause you have referred to.
Veridico. To avoid the smoke screen I have found that the best remedy is to open
as many windows as possible under the proscenium, so that the air, entering
from below, drives all the smoke through the holes bored in the roof behind the
scenery.
Massimiano. That, I believe, would be an excellent device.
Veridico. It is, I assure you.
Santino. I see, Veridico, that on your stage there are many lamps both behind the
scenes and in front of them; yet in the auditorium here you have made arrange-
ments for but twelve standing candelabra. The reason I can’t imagine; for I have
often counted as many as 250 torches in this large hall.
Veridico. It is a natural fact-as no doubt you are aware-that a man who stands in
the shade sees much more distinctly an object illuminated from afar; the rea-
son being that the sight proceeds more directly and without any distraction
toward this object, or, according to the peripatetic theory, the object impinges
itself more directly upon the eye. Wherefore I place only a few lamps in the
auditorium, while at the same time I render the stage as bright as I possibly
can. Still further, these few auditorium lights I place at the rear of the specta-
tors, because the interposition of such lights would but be dazzling to the eyes.
Over them, as you see, I have made small openings so that their smoke can cause
no damage.
Santino. By thus introducing only a few lights in the auditorium, then, you obviate
the trouble of smoke-fumes and to a certain extent you render the seeing clearer.
Massimiano. There is yet another advantage: he saves the Duke fifty ducats in
respect of the torches usually set in the hall.
Veridico. That, I confess, had not come into my mind, nor does his Excellency need
to think of such economies, but, as the proverb says, in the end every good
proves good.
Santino. Concerning the illumination of the scene you have said, in my opinion, all
that can be said.
(trans. Nicholl 1948: 257–262)

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10 LIGHT: READINGS IN THEATRE PRACTICE

Ingegneri – Dramatic Poetry and How to Produce Plays (1598)

The lighting practices described by di Somi were further developed by
Angelo Ingegneri (1550–1613) who considered lighting to be ‘of supreme
theatrical importance’. Ingegneri was the first to advocate a fully darkened
auditorium with all house lights extinguished once the audience were in
their seats, recognising that darkness accentuated the effect of light on the
stage. Ingegneri stipulated that lighting instruments should be concealed
from the audience’s view like other scenic machinery, and this need to mask
the sources of the light from the audience was to become a dominant and
established convention until the mid-twentieth century.
In addition to the darkened auditorium, Ingegneri also notes the impor-
tance of being able to see actors’ faces clearly and suggests ways of achieving
this through a new lighting position that would be flown out above the front
of the stage and masked from the audience’s view by a border. This pro-
vides the first evidence of directional light for the performers, lighting their
faces from above and creating the equivalent of the proscenium arch spotlight
bar. Furthermore, this writing provides a clear indication of the challenges of
using candles and oil-based equipment at this time and the direct impact
of these materials upon the experience of the audience. Ingegneri pro-
vides us with a clear methodology for lighting the proscenium stage and
its performers, and the conventions that he proposes in 1598 continue to
underpin lighting design techniques and performance practices over 400
years later.

There remains [. . .] one matter of supreme importance – the lighting. Lighting in a

theatre ought to be pleasing and clear, and the instruments should be so placed
that the spectator’s view of the stage is not interrupted by hanging chandeliers or
lamps; nor should the spectators go in any fear of wax or oil dropping upon them.
Moreover, care should be taken to see that there is no bad smell coming from the
lamps, and no danger of their causing a fire or of creating disturbance and con-
fusion among the actors behind the scenes. The man that is able to arrange this
illumination so that only its splendour is seen, and its effect created without any
member of the audience being in a position to say whence or how it is obtained,
unquestionably does much to add to the magnificence of a show. Especially is this
true if the lights are placed so as to illuminate the faces of the actors. To those
who may have charge of theatrical illumination, it may be pointed out that the
method of securing this result is by no means difficult, nor does it call for any very
great expense. The method, for which I now wish to demonstrate so that it may
be of general service in all future productions, consists of hanging up a valance
between the stage heavens and the roof of the auditorium, without, of course,
bringing it so low as to cut off too much of the set. On the inner side facing the
stage it is to be fitted with many lighted lamps, having tinsel reflectors to direct
the beams upon the actors. These lamps ought to be firmly fixed at the top and
lit before being drawn up to the positions they are to occupy. Naturally, the whole
business must be carried out back-stage before the curtain is drawn [. . .] The set
will thus glow with light, and yet no one will see the source of that light or at
least discern how it has been made so resplendent. Lastly, take care – especially

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Index
Abbey Theatre, Dublin 101
acting area lighting 202–6, 208, 211,
213, 221–2 see also actor:
illumination of
‘active’ light 81–93, 95, 110, 147, 148–9,
269–270
actor
adorned with light 27–9, 149–56,
157–61
connection with audience 50, 51fn,
55, 70, 136, 178–9, 207
danger to 10, 46, 158–60, 176, 179,
190, 197
illumination of 8–9, 10, 44–6, 49–56,
61, 64–5, 67, 72, 74, 91–2, 103,
105–6, 111, 116–17, 119, 124–5,
127, 129–31, 136, 138, 142–61,
176–9, 186, 197, 201–5, 209, 211,
214, 222, 243, 250–1, 259–60, 262–5
impact of light on 39, 45, 46, 53–6, 61,
64–5, 70, 72, 73, 111, 119–20,
121–4, 127, 138, 142–61, 165, 197,
209, 212, 214, 221, 222 see also
light: physiological effect,
psychological effect,
phenomenological effect
see also dancer, light: as actor
Aeschylus 22
Agamemnon (Aeschylus, 458 BC) 22–3
Aldred, F.S. see Ridge
Alexandre, Arsène 156
Algarotti, Count Francesco (1712–1764)
58–9
Saggio sopra l’opera in musica (1755)
58
Allbright, Ann Cooper 157
Alma-Tadema, Lawrence 189
Andreyev, Leonid 168
Annunciation, The (1439) 26
Antoine, André (1858–1943) 118
286
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Appia, Adolphe (1862–1928) 72, 74,
77–93, 85, 94, 95, 96, 101–3, 106,
108–9, 115, 118, 139, 144–9, 162, 189,
197, 198, 199, 206, 207, 246, 269–70
Actor, Space, Light, Painting (1919)
148–9
Comments on the Staging of The Ring of
the Nibelungs (1891–2) 89–92
Comments on the Theatre (1908) 80
Ideas on a Reform of our Mise en scène
(1904) 145–8
Musik und die Inscenierung, Die (1899)
78
Musique et la mise en scène, La (1897) 78
on ‘active light’ 81–93
on ‘passive light’ 81–2, 86–8
Staging of Wagnerian Drama, The (1895)
79
architect 1, 2, 4, 6–16, 25, 44, 49, 53,
55–6, 59, 97, 102, 108, 202, 242fn
architectura, De (Vitruvius, c.15 BC) 2
architecture 2, 4, 11–13, 24, 36–7, 43, 78,
97, 165–6, 170, 171, 201
animated through light 37, 41–3,
96–100, 165, 171, 201
architectural illumination 41–2, 42
see also city
of the theatre space 6, 44, 68, 94–100,
116, 165–6 see also scenography
Architettura, De (Serlio, 1545) 4–6
arc-lamps see electric carbon arc
Argand, Francois Pierre Ami (Aimé)
(1750–1803) 57, 63–4
Argand lamp 33, 63–5, 162, 176, 181
Ariosto, Ludovico 2
Aristotle (384–322 BC) 21, 30
Artaud, Antonin (1896–1948) 38, 39–40,
75, 109, 164
End to Masterpieces, An (1933), 39
Theatre of Cruelty: First Manifesto, The
(1932) 38, 39–40, 164
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Art of Stage Lighting, The (Bentham, 1968)
211, 214
Art of Stage Lighting, The (Pilbrow, 1997)
222
Association of British Theatre
Technicians (ABTT) 212
Association of Lighting Designers (ALD)
242, 247, 255
Astley’s Theatre, London 34
atmosphere see mood
audience
active participation of 110, 132–7,
166
assurance of 106
attention of 20, 37, 39, 67, 90, 103,
115, 132–6, 177, 184, 192, 195, 226,
218, 243, 268 see also audience:
imagination
awareness of lighting design 69–74,
132–7, 264–5, 268
cue invisible to 245
deception of 62–3, 193
hearing actors 55, 125, 142–3, 218
imagination of 30–1, 46–7, 77–86,
103–8, 118–20, 121–2, 192, 252–3
see also audience: attention
impact of light on experience of,
xiii–xv, 1, 7, 13, 30–1, 35, 37, 38,
39–40, 46, 52–3, 55, 56, 59, 61–3,
66–76, 78, 79, 90, 95, 103–8, 109,
113, 116–7, 118–20, 124fn, 131–5,
136–7, 141, 142–3, 150, 164–6, 172,
184, 189, 193, 195, 209, 213, 218,
225–6, 232–3, 251–3, 264–5, 268
see also spectacle, light:
phenomenological effect,
physiological effect,
psychological effect
lighting hidden from view of 7, 10,
13, 16, 18, 31, 33–4, 45, 51, 67,
206fn, 191, 192, 242
lighting obscuring view of 10, 50,
52–3, 56, 61, 122, 178–9
lighting of 1, 7–11, 44–65, 220, 256
see also auditorium
relationship to performer 51fn, 55,
63, 70, 136, 143, 161, 168, 178–9,
207, 220, 241, 263–4, see also
audience: hearing actors
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safety of 13, 46, 176fn, 190–1, 197
see also auditorium: sightlines,
lighting: made visible to
audience
auditorium 44–65, 198fn
darkening of 2, 7, 10–11, 16, 19, 31, 33,
45, 47–9, 51–3, 56, 79, 119–20, 135,
143, 167, 168–9, 176, 177–9, 189,
193, 219, 228, 271
illumination of xiv, 9–11, 13–14, 28, 29,
44–5, 46, 48, 50, 51–4, 54, 56–7, 64,
167, 168–9, 174, 175–6, 177–9,
189–90, 193, 225–6, 227, 228
natural light within 46, 47–9, 48,
positioning of lighting controls within
231, 236, 241, 242, 245–6
sightlines 50, 54, 56, 119
automated (moving) light 41, 88, 222,
245, 248, 262, 269 see also Vari∗ lite
Bablet, Denis 77, 109
Bablet-Hahn, Marie 87fn
back-light 3, 5, 6, 30, 31, 129, 170, 211,
217 see also contralight
Bähr, Hugo (1841–1929) 87–8, 94
Balla, Giacomo (1871–1958) 166–7
Ballet d’action (Noverre, 1760) 60
Ballet comique de la Reine (1581) 29
Ballet Russe 166
Bargagli, (La Pellegrina, 1589) 28–9
Baroni, Guido 69–70
battens 49, 51, 61, 67, 87, 110, 174, 176,
179, 180, 187, 190–2, 194, 209, 212,
213
Baugh, Christopher 33, 65, 133fn
Bauhaus 145, 162, 169–71
Bay, Howard (1912–1986) 204–5, 222
Bayreuth Festspielhaus 79
beacon 22–3
Beaumarchais 64
Beckett, Samuel (1906–1989) 67, 68,
140–1, 162
Not I 140
Play 8, 140
Waiting for Godot 67
Beerbohm Tree, Herbert (1852–1917)
35, 207, 228
Beggar, The (Sorge, 1917) 127, 128
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288 INDEX
Belasco, David (1853–1931) 118, 198,
200, 205, 230–1, 271–3
Belasco Theatre, New York 271–3
Bellman, Willard 223
Bennett, Susan 68
Bentham, Frederick (1911–2001) 167,
210, 211–214, 220, 232–40, 244–5,
247
Bergman, Gösta (1905–1975) xiii, xiv, 6,
24, 30fn, 32, 45, 49, 52, 55fn, 57
Berliner Ensemble 132–7, 135fn
Beverley, William 186
Bibbiena (1470–1520) 3
bijoux électriques see electric jewellery
Billy Elliot 264
Birmingham Repertory Theatre
268
Bishop, Bainbridge 162–3
Blacklight Theatre, Prague 74
blackout xv, 68, 111, 132, 150, 157, 174,
179, 180–1, 219, 228, 265
Blackpool illuminations 41
Blade 153
Bolt, Barbara 74–5
bonfire 8, 20
booms 49, 51, 180, 191, 259 see also
side-light
Boston Theatre, The 194
Boulton & Watt’s factory illumination,
Birmingham 175
bozze, 3, 5, 17, 30 see also oil lamp
Brahm, Otto (1856–1912) 102, 125
Brecht, Bertolt (1898–1956) 69–70, 74,
126, 132–7, 138, 141, 243
‘Alienation Effect’ 134, 135–6
Good Person of Setzuan, The 137
Mother Courage 137
Mr Puntila and his Servant Matti
133fn, 134
St Joan 137
Britton, John 33
Brockett, Oscar 59
Brunelleschi, Filippo (1377–1446) 2, 5,
25–6
Büchner, Georg (1813–1837) 130–1
Danton’s Death 130–1
bunch-light 87, 176, 226, 242
Buontalenti, Bernardo (c.1531–1608)
28–9
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Burning Thornbush, The (Kokoschka,
1911) 129
Butterworth, Philip 23, 75
Calandria, La (Bibbiena, 1513) 3
Cambacérès 63
Cambridge Festival Theatre 207–9, 210
candles 3, 4, 6, 7–9, 10, 13, 18, 23, 25fn,
25–6, 27, 32, 44–63, 48, 54, 64, 67, 69,
71, 74, 107, 124, 139, 175, 176fn, 177,
191, 194, 225–6, 250 see also
chandelier
trimming of 29, 47, 56 see also
candlesnuffer
candlesnuffers 61, 63, 225–6
Cangiullo, Francesco (1884–1977)
168–9
carbon arc see electric carbon arc,
limelight
Carceri d’Invenzione (Piranesi) 59
Cassaria, La (Ariosto, 1508) 2
Castel, Louis Bertrand (1688–1757) 162
Castiglione, Baldassarre (1478–1529) 3
Catel, Ludwig Friedrich (Louis)
(1776–1819) 55–6
Cathedral of Light, The (Speer, 1936) 38–9
Cezanne, Paul (1839–1906) 116
Chalayan, Hussein 161
chandelier 3, 4, 9, 10, 29, 31, 47, 48, 50–3,
54, 56, 61, 67, 107, 129, 176, 177, 226
Chekhov, Anton (1860–1904) 113, 120–4
Cherry Orchard, The (1904) 124fn
Seagull, The (1898) 120–4
Three Sisters, The (1901) 124
Chéreau, Patrice 69, 70
chiaroscuro 11, 57–60, 69, 83, 117,
125–32, 174, 177
Chichester Festival Theatre 198fn, 222
chief electrician 111
Childs, Lucinda 117
choreographer 60, 250, 253–4
choreography (of light) 88–9, 124, 151,
153, 245
Christmas Tale, A (1773) 32
Cirque de Soleil (Varekai, 2002) 67
city, illumination of 25, 41–3, 53, 57,
63–4, 96–100
clavecin oculaire 162
clouds 18, 26, 29, 32, 129, 134, 155, 183
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Cochrane, Archibald (1749–1831) 175
Coliseum, London 214
Colori (Depero, 1916) 168
Colour-light-music 169–70
colour mixing 207–8, 209–13
colour music 37, 156, 162–4, 169, 212,
234–5
Colour Music: The Art of Mobile Colour
(Rimington, 1911) 163–4
Comédie Française 51–3, 55, 57, 64
concert lighting 40–1, 153, 240, 246, 252
Constable, John 217
Constable, Paule 243fn, 266, 268
contralight 40, 109–10, 113, 223, 224
control board (switchboard) 147, 200,
205–6, 208, 213–14, 215, 222, 225–47,
229, 250, 271–3
control room 231, 232, 245–6
Cooper, Waltraut 171
Copeau, Jacques (1879–1949) 102, 207
Coriolanus (1901 production) 189
Corry, Percy 214
Corsican Brothers, The (Irving, 1880) 94
costume 7, 27, 28, 29, 30, 39, 45, 62, 65,
72, 84, 90, 125, 136, 149–57, 158–61,
160, 164, 179, 189, 204, 210, 237, 239,
249, 254
Covent Garden Theatre 50, 175, 182
Craig, Edward Anthony (Edward
Carrick 1905–1998) 94–5, 230fn
Craig, Edward Gordon (1872–1966)
77–8, 94–103, 98–9,106, 108, 109, 115,
125, 156, 164, 189, 197, 198, 200, 207,
230fn, 260
Dido and Aeneas (1900) 94–5
Mask, The 102
On the Art of the Theatre (1912) 102
Rosmersholm (1906) 156fn
screens (1910) 100–2
Steps, The (c.1905) 96–100, 98–9
cresset 23–4, 47
Cristafulli, Fabrizzio 269–70
curtain (stage) 10–11, 28, 30, 35, 49, 54,
84, 121–3, 136, 153, 155, 168–9, 173,
177–8, 193, 227, 271
of light 38, 110, 113, 224 see also
contralight, gauze, haze
cyclorama 115, 126, 131, 207, 208, 210,
213 see also skydome
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Daguerre, Louis (1787–1851) 32
Daily Telegraph 35, 173
Dalcroze, Emile, Jacques- (1865–1950)
93, 145
Daldry, Stephen 255–6, 264fn
dance, dancers 5–6, 28, 45, 60, 68, 101,
142, 144, 149–61, 152, 160, 177, 215,
241, 242–5, 248–54, 255, 262
dance lighting 45, 60, 68, 142, 144,
149–61, 177, 215, 241, 242–4,
248–54, 262
Dancing in the Streets (KMA, 2005)
43fn
Danton’s Death (Büchner) 126, 130–1
Dardanus (Rameau, 1760 revival) 59
darkness 10, 23, 24–5, 31, 35, 36, 37, 41,
47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 59, 67, 73, 77,
82, 83, 84, 85, 106–8, 121, 123,
127–31, 132, 134–5, 140, 143, 150–6,
168–9, 174, 179, 190, 193, 228, 252 see
also chiaroscuro
theatrical control of 35, 36, 37, 59–60,
77, 79, 119, 124, 125–31, 139, 140,
150–6, 173, 174, 189, 193, 227, 228
see also auditorium, darkening of
Darwin, Erasmus 162
Davies, Siobhan 248
daylight 11–13, 20–2, 46–8, 69, 70–4, 78,
96, 109, 120 see also sun, window
Dean, Basil 230
Death of a Salesman (Miller) 140, 213
Dekker, Thomas (1572–1632) 25, 47
Delaporte of Paris 183
Depero, Fortunato (1892–1960) 168
designer see lighting: designer,
scenographer, costume
Deutsches Theatre, Berlin 137
Devine, George (1910–66) 236
Diaghilev, Sergei (1872–1929) 166
Dialogues of Leone di Somi, The (di Somi,
c.1561) 7–9
Di Benedetto, Stephen 75
Diderot, Denis (1713–84) 55
Dido and Aeneas (Hampstead, 1900)
94–5
Digital Light Curtain 110fn see also
curtain of light
dimmer 14, 15, 104, 198, 202, 205, 206,
207, 231, 233–8, 246, 271–3
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290 INDEX
dimming of lighting 2, 7, 13, 14–17 19,
61, 134, 198, 225, 231, 233–8, 246
see also blackout, dimmer, lighting:
conventions, lighting: cues
dioramas 34
director xiv, 45, 61–2, 70, 78, 95, 103,
115–17, 118, 125, 127, 139, 145, 147,
173, 209, 216–20, 222, 230, 232,
233–4, 236–7, 247, 256, 259–60,
263–6, 267–8
D’Oyly Carte, Richard (1844–1901) 159
Dramatic Imagination, The (Jones, 1941)
103–8
Dramatic Poetry and How to Produce Plays
(Ingegneri, 1598) 10
dramaturgy 30, 36, 49, 63, 68, 69, 70,
118–41, 229, 243
Drummond, Thomas (1797–1840) 181
Drury Lane Theatre, London 32, 52–3,
60–3, 65, 174, 181
Duboscq, Louis Jules (1817–1886) 87,
152, 153fn, 183–5
East London Theatre 175
Eco, Umberto 21–2
economic factors of lighting 10–11, 17,
31, 41, 48, 51–2, 57, 58, 61–2, 152fn,
182, 192, 194, 202, 214, 234–5, 262,
269
Edison, Thomas (1847–1931) 159–60,
191, 193
education 104, 204–6, 212, 214, 222–3
Eidophusikon, The 32–4, 65
Einstein on the Beach (Glass/Wilson,
1976) 115
Eisenhauer, Peggy 245
electric carbon arc 35, 87–8, 129, 152–3,
162–3, 173, 176, 180, 182–6, 209, 226
see also limelight
electric fairy 158–61, 160
electric jewellery 158–61, 160
electric light see electricity
Electric Light and Colour Company, The
183
electrician 91, 108, 111, 132–3, 151–3,
152, 155, 179, 196, 210, 216, 218–9,
232, 237 see also technician, lighting
operator
Electricien, L’ 159
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electricity 21, 35, 36, 78, 88, 89, 91, 94,
95, 102, 104, 120, 137, 152fn, 153,
157–61, 164, 165–6, 167, 168, 170–1,
173, 174, 177, 182–3, 186, 189, 193–7,
197–9, 200, 201, 206, 208, 229–32,
234, 251, 269, 272
creative possibilities of 35, 92, 94,
157–61, 164–8, 193–9, 206, 229–30
Eliasson, Olafur 172
Elizabethan playhouses 46–7
Elliston, Robert William (1774–1831) 65
Elsinore (Lepage, 1995–98) 242
Emerson, Ralph Waldorf 105
End to Masterpieces, An
(Artaud, 1933) 39
Engel, Alfred von 200fn
Engel, André 69
Engrenage, L’ (Sartre) 138
Entertainment at Theobalds
(Jonson, 1607) 30
Equity 239
Essig, Linda 223
Esslin, Martin 68–9
Esthetics of Dramatic Art (Zich, 1931) 66
Eumenides, The 208
event industries 40, 245, see also concert
lighting
Evreinov, Nikolai (1879–1953) 37–9
expressionism 125–32, 137, 139, 140,
198, 207–8, 256
fairy scenes 32, 62, 130, 157–61, 160,
183, 186, 187
Farblichtmusiken 169
Faust (Irving’s productions 1885–88,
1894) 35, 157, 193
festival 15, 16, 20–1, 23–4, 24–8, 41–3,
47, 91, 93
feux d’artifice see fireworks
Feux d’Artifice (Fuochi d’artificio, 1917)
166–7
fire 20–3, 28, 31, 83, 85
fire (stage lighting causing) 10, 176fn
fireworks 20, 23–4, 25–6, 27, 31, 38, 83,
166–7
Fischer-Lichte, Erika 70–4
Fisher, Jules 245
Fisher, Rick 143, 215, 255, 255–65, 266
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Fitzgerald, Percy, Hetherington
(1834–1925) 176–9, 182, 186, 200,
226
Flavin, Dan 171
Flecknoe, Richard 50
float 51, 61, 178, 190, 227 see also
candles, footlights, oil lamps
floodlight 19, 38, 143, 87, 183, 21,
235, 237
focusable lantern (first) 56–7
focusing 215, 219
Folies Bergère, Paris 151–2
follow-spot 67, 127, 129, 143, 161,
185–6, 226, 231, 271–3 see also
limelight, electric carbon arc
footlights 4 , 18, 28, 33, 45, 49, 51–3, 54,
55–6, 57, 61, 65, 86–7, 94, 119, 122,
124, 147, 150, 159, 174, 176, 177–8,
187, 190–1, 193–4, 195, 197, 209–10,
211, 212
For a New Theatre –
‘Electric-Vibrating-Luminous’
(Montalti, 1920) 167–8
Fortuny, Mariano (1871–1949) 102, 126,
209–10
Foundation and Manifesto of Futurism
(Marinetti, 1909) 164
Foundation and Manifesto for Futurist
Scenography (Prampolini, 1915)
164–6
fountains 100, 153–4, 158 see also water
fresnel spotlight 202, 218
Freyer, Archim 162
front-light 49, 54, 61, 95, 143, 185,
198fn, 202–4, 211, 263–4 see also
footlights
Fuchs, Theodore (1904–1995) 201
Fuller, Loïe (1862–1928) 142, 149–57,
152
Ballets of Light 156
Danse Blanche, La 155
Fire Dance (La Feu) 153, 154
Firmamen, 155
Lys de Nie, Le 155
Nuit, La 155
Serpentine Dance 150, 155, 156fn
From Morning till Midnight (Kaiser, 1912)
129
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Furttenbach, Joseph (1591–1667) 13,
15–19, 47–9, 54, 56
futurism 39, 149, 156, 162, 164–9
‘G’ clamp 199
Gainsborough, Thomas 33
Galli-Bibiena, Allessandro 54
Ganzfeld: Tight End (Turrell, 2005)
171–2
Garrick, David (1717–1779) 32, 53,
60–3, 178 see also Drury Lane
Theatre
A Christmas Tale (1773) 32
gas lighting 34–5, 41–2, 42, 55, 65, 87–8,
94, 104, 118, 159, 162, 173–97, 180,
200, 225–8 see also operator,
technician
gas table 178, 194, 226–9
Gate Theatre, Dublin 263
Geest, Henk van der 242
gelatine colours 95, 104, 153, 210, 226
General Electric Company 206, 230
Genga, Girolamo 2–3
Geppert, I.I. 123
Ghosts (Ibsen) 120
Gibson, James 75
Gillette, Michael 223
Glass Menagerie, The (Williams, 1944)
139–40
Gluck, Christoph Willibald 106
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 162fn
Goethem, Chris van 242, 243
Good Person of Setzuan, The (Brecht) 137
Gooday, Graeme 158–60
Gouraud, George Edward ‘Colonel’
(1842–1912) 193
Graham, Martha 215
Grand Master 231, 233–5
Gray, Terence (1895–1986) 207
Greek Theatre 22–3
Groseth, Jen 157
Grosseteste, Robert (c.1175–1253) 22
groundrow 16–19, 87, 190, 192
Gründgens, Gustaf 72
Gualterotti, Raffaello (1543–1639) 27–8
Guarini, Giovanni 11
Gurney, Goldsworthy (1793–1875)
181
Gye, Frederick (1810–78) 181–2
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Hamlet 101–2, 107, 109, 110–13, 112, 242
Hampstead Conservatoire 94–5
Handke, Peter 66–7, 70
Harlequin and Peeping Tom of Coventry
(1837) 182
Harmony of the Spheres (1589) 29
Hartmann, Louis 200, 230fn, 230–1,
271–3
Hasenclever, Walter (1890–1894) 126,
129
Sohn, Der 126, 129
Haymarket Theatre, London 108fn
haze 40, 108–14, 123, 161, 172
Heidegger, Martin 75
Helios (Rosalie, 2007) 171
Hellerau Festpielhaus, Dresden 93, 145
Helson-Judd effect 210
Henderson, Mark 266–7
Henry VIII 35, 173, 184
Herkomer, Hubert von, (1849–1914)
94–5
Hippodrome, London 210
Hiroshige, Utagawa 105
Hirschfeld-Mack, Ludwig (1893–1965)
169–70
Hofman, Vslastislav 110
Hoftheater, Dresden 87
Hölle Weg Erde (Kaiser) 125
Holmberg, Arthur 115–17
holographic projection 115
Holophane 210
Hoppla, wir Leben! (1927) 137–8
Hour Glass, The (Yeats, 1911) 101
houselights 220 see also audience:
lighting of, auditorium, chandelier
Hunt, Nick 232fn, 232–40, 256, 256–65,
266fn
Hyperion (Rosalie, 2006) 171
Ibsen, Henrik (1828–1906) 120, 139
Ghosts 120
Rosmersholm 156fn
Wild Duck, The 120
Idea dell’architettura universale
(Scamozzi, 1615) 11–13
Iolanthe (Gilbert & Sullivan, 1882)
158–9
Illustrated London News 184, 186–7
Illustration, L’ 158–9, 160, 229
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image (in competition with language)
21, 30–1, 34
Independent Theatre Council (ITC) 239
Ingegneri, Angelo (1550–1613), 10–11,
31, 45, 56
Inspector Calls, An (National Theatre
production 1992–2012) 255, 255–6,
257–9
‘intelligent’ moving light see automated
light
intermezzi 14, 16, 28–31, 32, 45–6
inverse square law 53fn
Irigaray, Luce 75
Irving, Henry (1838–1905) 35, 173–4,
185, 188–97, 200, 227, 228, 230
Coriolanus (1901) 189
Corsican Brothers, The (1880) 93
Faust (1885–1888, 1894) 35, 157, 193
Henry VIII, (1892) 35, 173
Jarre, Jean Michel 37
Jarry, Alfred (1873–1907) 39
Jessner, Leopold (1878–1945) 102, 207
jeu d’orgue see gas table
‘jewel lighting’ 222
jewelled lighting 3–6, 45
Joan of Arc (Balfe, 1837) 181
Johnson over Jordan (Priestley, 1939) 230
Jones, Inigo (1573–1652) 13, 15, 30–1
Jones, Robert Edmond (1887–1954)
103–8, 126, 139
Dramatic Imagination, The (1941)
103–8
Jonson, Ben (1572–1637)
Entertainment at Theobalds (1607) 30
Joseph, Stephen (1921–67) 222
Jouvet, Louis (1887–1951) 102, 207
junge Deutschland, Das 126
kabuki 74
Kaiser, Georg (1878–1945) 125, 129
Kammerspiele Theatre, Berlin 126
Kandinsky, Wassisily (1866–1944) 164
Kastner, Frederick (1852–1882) 162
Kazan, Elia (1909–2003) 139–40
Kean, Charles (1811–1868) 184–5, 186–8
Macbeth (1853) 186–7
Henry VIII (1855) 184
Keller, Max 223
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INDEX 293

King Lear 65 149–57, 164–6, 176, 177, 180–6,

Kircher, Athanasius (1601–1680) 162 189, 193–7, 201, 203, 207–8, 211,
Klein, César (1876–1954) 125 229–30, 251–2, 271–3 see also
Kliegl 228 colour mixing, colour music,
KMA 43fn, 243fn gelatines, Samoiloff effect, silks
Kneehigh Theatre 242 denoting location 46, 72
Knipper, Olga 124 diffused light 12, 81–3, 93, 110, 138
Kokoschka, Oskar 129 directional light 10, 12, 13, 14, 45,
Koster and Bial’s Music Hall, New York 58–60, 81, 126–32 see also ‘active
155–6 light’, lighting angles
Krejča, Otomar (1921–2009) 113 ‘formative’ see ‘active’ light
indirect see diffused
laser 37, 40, 161, 252 intensity of 5–6, 40, 49, 53, 60, 65, 71,
Laterna Magika, Prague 224 87, 109, 143, 198, 213 see also
Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent de dimmer
(1743–1794) 52, 56–7 key light 5, 13–14, 65, 67, 221, 243
Leaning Light 18 see also lighting angles
LED (light emitting diodes) 161, 268
‘living light’ see ‘active’ light
Leeds Grand Theatre and Opera House
‘lucid light’ 103, 105–6, 222
183–4
‘lyric light’ 106
Leeds, University of 161fn, 243–5
motivating light (dramaturgically)
Léger 63
67, 70, 204, 208
Lehmann, Hans-Thies 68
Lekolite 218 motivated light (offstage) 67, 70, 204,
lengths see battens 221
lenses 5, 34, 44, 63, 87, 92, 150, 181, motivating light (visible on-stage)
184–5, 192, 197, 219, 271–2 31, 67, 204, 221
Lepage, Robert 20–1, 242 movement of (over time) 5, 20, 28,
Levinas, Emmanuel 75 71, 72, 77, 80–93, 94, 96–100, 109,
Libri d’architettura (Serlio, 1545) 138, 149–56, 168, 170–1, 204, 206,
4–6 213, 216, 218–9 see also plasticity
Lichtbühne (Piscator, 1953) 138 moving light 3, 5, 27–8, 40, 68, 87–8,
Lichtdom (1936) 38–9 110, 127, 140, 143, 146, 157, 185,
Life of Man, The (Andreyev) 168 199, 242–3, 245, 262, 269 see also
light automated light, follow-spot,
‘active’ light 81–93, 95, 110, 147, projection
148–9, 269–70 moving (portable) light source 25–8,
aesthetics of 21–2, 56, 60, 65, 67, 47, 49, 65, 87–8, 95, 101, 198, 226,
77, 89 242–3
architectural quality of 11–13, 36–7, natural light see daylight, sun,
96–100, 116 windows
as actor 37, 73, 82, 87, 92–3, 94–5, ‘passive’ light 81, 82, 86–8
96–100, 117, 144, 157–160, 160, phenomenological effect of xv, 39,
166–9, 212, 216 66–7, 75–6, 124, 141, 143–4, 149,
as art 170–2 155–6, 171–2
as symbol 7, 22–3, 25, 47, 107, 126–8, physiological effect of 8–9, 53 75,
139–41, 201 113, 142–4, 171–2, 200, 211
coloured 3–5, 7, 8, 20, 21–2, 23, 30, ‘plastic light’ see plasticity of stage
32, 34, 36, 40, 65, 94–5, 137, space

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light – continued
psychological effect of 20, 22, 39, 41,
75, 92–3, 106–8, 109, 117, 124,
143–4, 172, 197, 208, 223, 251
religious light 7, 21–2, 25–6, 27
semiotics of 66–76
shape of 218, 250, 252–4
statuary light 12
theatrical light (consciously) 67–8
‘uncommon’ 103, 105
‘unemotional’ 138 see also Brecht
unnatural 54, 55, 131, 138
light console 210, 214, 232, 233–40,
245, 247
lightboard 247
light-drum 132
light organ 93, 138, 162–4
light stage 138
lighting
angles 86–8, 151–3, 200–24, 263–4 see
also backlight, frontlight, keylight,
light: directional, sidelight,
toplight, unnatural
conventions 6–11, 47, 50, 52, 67,
70–4, 179, 181 see also blackout
cues xiv, 49–50, 116, 140, 151–6, 167,
174, 179, 205, 219, 227–33, 236–8,
244, 245, 246, 247, 253, 258, 261,
263–4, 265–7, 271–3 see also
lighting: conventions, lighting:
plot, lighting: state
dangers of 10, 29, 176, 179, 182–3,
190, 194, 197
design 4, 25, 77, 200–24, 240, 248–71
designer xiv, xv, 1, 7, 16, 20, 21, 23,
40, 42, 43, 46, 67, 69, 70, 102, 115,
116, 122, 143, 200–24, 225, 232–3,
234fn, 235–40, 242, 246–7, 248–71
economic factors of 10–11, 17, 31, 41,
48, 51–2, 57, 58, 61–2, 152fn, 182,
192, 194, 202, 214, 234–5, 262, 269
heat from 48, 64, 175–6, 179, 193–4
made visible to audience 119, 122,
132, 136–7, 243, 264, 268
masking of (concealing) 9–10, 13,
16–19, 26, 29–30, 32, 45, 47–9, 54,
56, 61, 136, 191–2 see also
footlights, wings
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plot, plotting session 41, 69, 136, 167,
179, 195, 205, 215, 218–20, 228,
230, 235–6 , 246, 257, 260, 262–5,
266–7, 271–3
positioning of equipment 7–14, 16,
17, 50, 81, 101, 104, 175–181, 180,
183–199, 198fn, 201, 256, 258–9 see
also audience’s viewpoint,
proscenium
rehearsal 104, 108, 151–2, 179, 193,
196, 205, 243, 260–1, 263, 266 see
also lighting: plot
safety of 46, 159, 176, 179, 182–3,
190
score 80, 81, 83–6, 96–100, 121–4,
125–6, 166, 206
session see lighting: plot, lighting:
rehearsal
smell from 9–10, 17, 45, 48, 176
smoke from 9, 55, 63–4
software (visualisation) 222, 245, 262
state xiv, 50, 96, 203, 206, 228, 236, 238,
246–7, 253, 261, 264, 267, 269 see
also lighting: cue
storyboard 96, 262 see also lighting:
score
textbooks 200–224
Lighting, The (Brecht, 1948) 132–3
Lighting Art, The (Palmer, 1985) 223
Lighting Design Working Group 242
Lighting the Stage (Corry, 1954) 214
lighting table 191, 194, 195 see also
lighting: plot, plotting session,
rehearsal
Light Play (Schlemmer, 1927) 170
Light Play: Black-White-Grey
(Moholy-Nagy, 1930) 171
Light Prop for an Electric Stage
(Moholy-Nagy, 1930) 170–1
Light Stage (Lichtbühne, Piscator, 1953)
138
lightning 5, 17, 31, 35, 83–5, 88, 121,
130, 140
Lights! (Canguillo, 1919) 168–9
limelight 35, 94, 95, 143, 151, 152fn,
173, 176–87, 190, 192, 194–6, 214,
226–7, 269 see also electric carbon arc
Lives of the Artists (Vasari, 1550) 3
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INDEX
Lloyds, Frederick (1818–1894) 184,
187–8
Locke, John 162fn
Long Day’s Journey Into Night (O’Neill,
1956) 139
Lotz, Wilhelm 200fn
Loutherbourg, Phillippe-Jacques de
(1740–1812) 31–4, 61–3, 65, 94, 163
Christmas Tale, A (1773) 32
Eidophusikon, The (1781–2) 32–4, 65
Lucar, Cyprian 23
Luce! (Lights!) (Cangiullo, 1919) 168–9
Luce Attiva 269–70
LUCI Association 42
Lugné-Poë, Aurélien-François
(1869–1940) 36, 207
Lyceum Theatre, London 93, 95, 174,
175, 179, 188–97, 228
Lyonnet, Henri 154
Macbeth 107, 186–7
MacGowan, Kenneth 36, 77–8, 126
Machy, Pierre Antoine de (1723–1807)
59
MacNeil, Ian 255–6, 264fn
Macready, William (1793–1873) 182
magic lantern 34, 65, 92, 151, 154, 162,
181, 183
Magic of Light, The (Rosenthal, 1972)
215–20
Majzel, Professor 37
Mannheim Court Theatre 53–5
Mansell, Moss 234
Manual for Constructing Theatrical Scenes
and Machines (Sabbattini, 1637–1638)
13–16, 44–6
Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso (1876–1944)
164
Marriage of Figaro, The (Beaumarchais)
64
Martin, Karlheinz (1886–1948) 131–2
Martino of Udine see Pellegrino
Mask, The (Craig) 102
masking see audience: lighting hidden
from view of
masque 30
Mauclair, Camille 156–7
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McCandless, Stanley (1897–1967)
201–6, 203, 207, 209, 211, 213, 220,
221, 258
McKinney, Joslin 75, 161fn
Medici festivals (Florence, 1608) 3, 15,
27–8
Meiningen Players 121, 125
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 75
Method of Lighting the Stage, A
(McCandless, 1932) 201–6
Metropolitan Opera House, New York
206fn, 228
Meyerhold, Vsevelod, (1874–1940) 102
Midsummer Night’s Dream, A 47, 244
Mielziner, Jo (1901–1976) 139–40, 213
Miller, Arthur 139–40
Death of a Salesman (1948) 140, 213
Mima (1928) 231, 271–3
Miracle, The (Reinhardt, 1911–1927) 36,
206fn
mirrors 7, 8, 56, 63, 109, 111, 171, 172,
see also water, lighting equipment:
reflector, see also Pepper’s Ghost
mise en scène 68, 69, 80, 89, 121, 144,
145–8, 164 see also scenography
Miss Julie (Strindberg, 1888) 118–20
Mitchell, Katie 143–4, 243, 267–8
model theatre (miniature modelbox for
experiment) 16, 32–4, 62, 65, 94,
100, 101–2 102fn, 114, 210, 213, 234,
254, 261, 266
Moholy-Nagy, Laszlo (1895–1946)
170–1
Monnet, Jean 61
Monsters of Grace (Glass/Wilson, 1998)
115
Montalti, Mauro 167
mood (atmosphere) 7, 8, 30–4, 38, 46,
59, 65, 73, 94–100, 103–8, 120–4,
126, 129, 134, 142, 149,156, 198, 204,
207–8, 213, 217, 220, 221, 246,
251, 265
moonlight 5, 31, 32, 33, 34, 47, 59, 67,
69, 70–3, 82, 85–6, 90, 100, 107, 120,
122, 126, 131, 133–4, 164, 170, 178,
181, 184, 185, 187–8, 192, 203–4,
211, 227
Moran, Nick 223
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Morgan, Nigel 198, 200fn, 205fn, 206fn,
223, 248
Morning Advertiser (London) 159
Morning Chronicle (London) 62
Moscow Art Theatre 101, 120–4, 145
Hamlet (1911–12) 101–2
Seagull, The (1898) 120–4
Three Sisters (1901) 124
Mother Courage (Brecht) 137
Mr Puntila and his Servant Matti (Brecht)
133fn, 134
Mukařovský, Jan 66
Murdoch, William (1754–1839) 175
music, in relation to light 26, 28–30,
36–7, 39, 40, 58, 77–86, 88–92, 94, 96,
100, 106, 109, 126, 129, 136, 137,
144–6, 148, 156–7, 162–4, 167,
169–70, 171, 206, 219, 232, 234–5,
245–6, 249–51, 253, 254, 256, 261,
271–2 see also colour music, concert
lighting, sound
National Theatre, London 198fn, 220,
255–6, 258, 261
National Theatre, Prague 110–14, 110,
112, 223, 224
Neher, Casper (1897–1962) 133, 136
Nemirovich-Danchenko, Vladimir
(1858–1943) 120–4
neon 71, 73, 140, 166
Neppach, Robert (1890–1939) 132
Nesbitt, Robert 212–13
‘new stagecraft’ 103, 139, 207
New Theatre, London 230fn
New Theatre, New York 228
New York Theatre Review 154
New York Times 151
Newton, Isaac (1642–1727) 58, 162fn
Nicoll, Allardyce 52–3
Nineteenth Century and After, The – A
Monthly Review 190–6
Noble Mirror of Art, The (Furttenbach,
1663) 16–18
Northen, Michael (1921–2001) 102,
234fn, 237
Not I 140
Nottingham Playhouse 198fn
Noverre, Jean Georges (1727–1810) 60
Nuremburg 38–9
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Odéon, Paris 64
Oedipus Rex (Sophocles, c.496 BC) 12,
109, 223
Oenslager, Donald 139
oil lamps 5, 10, 17–18, 23, 25, 29–30,
44–5, 47, 48, 51–6, 54, 57, 61, 63–5,
162, 175, 176fn, 178, 190, 225, 226
OISTAT 242
Olivier, Laurence 220
Olympia, London 36
Olympic Games 38fn, 245
O’Neill, Eugene (1888–1953) 103, 139
On the Art of the Theatre (Craig, 1912)
102
opera 20, 28–30, 31, 32, 49, 54, 58, 60,
78–86, 89, 94–5, 110, 144, 158, 159,
164, 178, 181, 249, 252, 259, 261
Opéra, Paris 57, 59, 61, 183–4, 229
operator 29, 41, 95, 150–3, 152, 163, 177,
179, 181–3, 186, 192, 195–6, 206, 214,
225–47, 271–3 see also candlesnuffer,
electrician, technician
as performer 234–40, 240–5, 246–7
Orpheus and Eurydice (Gluck, 1762) 36,
93, 126, 128
Ost, Geoffrey 214
Otto, Teo 137
Owner of the Keys, The (Kundera, 1962)
110
pageant lantern 213
Palmer, Richard 215, 223–4
panorama 34
pantomime 32, 62, 74, 95,158, 159, 182,
183 see also fairy scenes
Paper on how to illuminate the auditoria
(Lavoisier, 1781) 56
par can 40
Paramount Theatre, New York 206fn
Parigi, Giulio (1571–1635) 16, 30
Patte, Pierre (1723–1814) 53–5
Pattern 23 spotlight 235
Patterson, Michael 127–9, 132fn
Pavis, Patrice 68, 69
Pellegrina, La (Bargagli, 1589) 28–9
Pellegrino da San Daniele (1467–1547) 2
Penzel, Frederik 18–19, 61fn, 63–4,
173fn
Pepper’s Ghost 185
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performer see actor, dancer, operator
perspective scene see scenic stage
Peruzzi, Baldassare (1481–1536) 2–3,
4, 5
Petit Palais Bourbon, Paris 29–30
Philadelphia Exhibition (1884) 159
Pichel, Irving 200–1
Pilbrow, Richard 220–2, 247
Piot, Etienne Adolphe 100
Piranesi, Gianbattista (1720–1778) 58–9
Pircha, Emil 207
Piscator, Erwin (1893–1966) 126, 132,
133–4, 137–8
plasticity, of stage space and light 78,
80–1, 90, 108–14, 139–40, 144–9, 201,
203 also see choreography
Play (Beckett) 8, 140
playhouse see auditorium
playwright xiv, 22, 30–1, 101, 118–23,
132, 133, 139–41, 147, 164–6, 204,
216, 220
Pleskot, Jaromir (1922–2009) 110
Poetics VI (Aristotle) 21
Pozzo, Andrea (1642–1709) 57
Prague School, The 66
Prampolini, Enrico (1894–1956) 164–6
Prentice, Herbert (1896–1955) 268
Preset Electronic 235–6
Princess’s Theatre, London 183, 186–7
profile ‘ellipsoidal’ spotlight 213, 214
see also followspot
Projecting Performance 243–5, 244
projection 65, 81–9, 92, 101, 108,
115–16, 134, 138, 146, 149, 156, 170,
171, 183, 209, 218, 221, 224, 242–5,
244, 248, 268–9
holographic projection 115
prompt corner 178, 191, 193, 194
prompter 61, 167, 178, 195, 196
proscenium 9, 10, 11, 17, 18, 45, 50–1,
51fn, 52, 54, 55, 57, 61, 63, 87, 95,
104, 108, 113, 116, 177, 184, 195, 198,
203, 207, 242, 256, 258fn, 260, 271
Pyrophone 162
Quaglio, Ferdinando 57, 58fn
Quinquet, Antoine-Arnault (1745–1803)
64
quinquets see Argand lamp
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Radio City Music Hall, New York 206
Raleigh, Walter 46–7
‘rampe mobile’ 87–8
Ramsaur, Michael 242
Rebellato, Dan 232, 246–7, 248
Redon, Odilon 106
Reflecting-Colour-Light-Play
(Schwerdfeger, 1922) 169
reflectors 5, 6, 10, 17–18, 26–8, 56–7, 61,
63, 111, 113, 178, 190–1, 271
Reid, Francis 223, 238, 239
Reinhardt, Max (1873–1943) xiv, 36,
102, 103–4, 125–32, 139, 198fn, 205,
207
Beggar, The (1917) 127–8, 128
Danton’s Death (1916–1921) 126,
130–1
Miracle, The (1911–1927) 36, 206fn
Orpheus (1921) 36, 126
Salome (1902) 126
Rembrandt, Harmenszoon van Rijn
177, 217
Revue d’histoire du théâtre (1954) 89
Reynolds, Joshua 33
‘rhythmic space’ 92–3, 93, 96
Ricciardi, Achille (1884–1923) 166
Riccoboni, Marie-Jeanne 55
Ridge, Harold, C (1890–1957) 200fn,
206–10, 213, 220
Rimington, Alexander Wallace
(1854–1918) 163–4
Rosalie 171
Rosenthal, Jean (1912–1969) 214,
215–20, 222, 248
Round in Fifty (1922) 210
Runaway, The (1776) 62
Ryder, Albert Pinkham 106
Sabbattini, Nicoló (1574–1654) 13–16,
17, 44–6, 55, 56, 225
Saggio sopra l’opera in musica (Algarotti,
1755), 58
St. Augustine 22
St. Bonaventure 22
St Joan (Brecht) 137
Salle des Machines, Paris (Spectacle
d’optique, 1738) 31
Salome (Reinhardt, 1902) 126
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Saltzmann, Alexander von (1874–1934)
93
Samoiloff effect 210, 211
Sangallo, Bastiano da (1481–1551) 3
Savoy Theatre, London 158–9
Scaderberg (1735) 31
Scamozzi, Vincenzo (1548–1616) 11–13
scene changes 29–30, 35, 49, 50, 72, 102,
126, 174, 179–80, 193, 246, 253, 261
scenery 2–16, 26–30, 45, 49–50, 51fn, 94,
100, 126, 130, 168, 184–5, 186–9, 210,
212, 217, 219, 220, 229, 252–4, 259,
260, 263, 265, 268 see also scenic stage
gauze (scrim) 35, 87, 94–5, 184–5,
186–8
lighting of 2–16, 16–19, 25–6, 27–34,
49, 56, 57, 77–9, 87, 88, 144–9, 190,
192, 194, 204, 210fn, 212, 221, 258,
265
painted scenery 45, 57–63, 78, 88,
144–9, 181, 186–9, 207, 208 see also
scenic artist
projected scenery 156, 217, 243–4,
248, 250–1 see also projection
scenic artist 91, 131, 186, 187, 197, 226,
227
scenic designer see scenographer
scenic stage 2, 3, 4, 8–9, 16, 44–6, 51, 54,
62, 90
scenographer 2–4, 6, 32, 57, 59, 60–2,
63, 78, 94, 103, 104, 108, 113, 115,
126, 130, 132, 133, 135, 139, 164–5,
201, 204, 207, 213, 216, 217, 219, 222,
225, 232, 237, 239, 253, 258, 259, 260,
263, 265, 268
scenography 1, 31, 41, 68, 79, 88, 102,
108–14, 139, 164–6, 224, 240 see also
mise en scène
Schechner, Richard 240–1
Schlemmer, Oskar (1888–1943) 75,
145, 170
Schouwburg Theatre, Amsterdam 48,
54
Schwerdfeger, Kurt (1897–1966) 169
Schwabe lighting system 207–8, 210
sconces 47, 52–3, 178
Scriabin, Prometheus, the Poem of Fire
(1911) 163
Seagull, The (Chekhov, 1898) 113, 120–4
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Secret of Theatrical Space, The 109,
110–14
selective visibility 20, 143, 221
Semiramis (Voltaire) 57
Ser Jacopi, Girolamo 29
Serlio, Sebastiano (1475–1554) 3, 4–6, 7,
11–14, 18, 29, 30, 31, 45, 49
Servandori, Giovanni Nicholas
(1695–1766) 31–2, 34, 58, 60
Ezio (1755–1756) 32
spectacle d’optique (1738) 31–2, 34
set designer, see scenographer
shadows 9, 31, 59–60, 64, 69, 72, 81–3,
87–9, 93–100, 103–8, 111, 119, 122,
129, 131, 140, 147, 148, 150, 154, 155,
156, 165, 167, 169–70, 171, 177, 178,
183, 189, 192, 195, 201, 209, 211, 213,
218, 222, 227, 260, 265
absence of/obliteration of 90, 174,
189, 192, 207
importance of 11, 12–14, 77, 87–9,
101
painted 4, 13–14, 49, 57–60, 82fn, 83,
90–1, 101, 145–8, 188, 189 see also
chiaroscuro, light: active
Shakespeare, William (1564–1616)
Coriolanus 189
Hamlet 101–2, 107, 109, 110–113,
112, 242
Henry VIII 34, 173, 184
King Lear 65
Macbeth 107, 186–7
Midsummer Night’s Dream A 47, 244
Shakespeare Memorial Theatre 198fn
Showco 41
Showlight 245fn, 257
shutters see windows
side-light 5, 7–9, 12, 45, 49, 51, 55, 58,
87–8, 95, 101, 119, 143, 151–3, 155,
177, 183, 187, 222, 255–6, 258,
259–60, 265
Siegfried (Wagner) 72, 79,fn, 81, 82fn,
144, 145, 147–8
Sightline (ABTT Journal) 211
silks 6, 32, 36, 126, 176, 187–8, 194, 209,
226
Simonson, Lee 139
Simov, Viktor 123
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Six Axioms for Environmental Theatre
(1967) 240–1
Sketch, The 152
sky dome 126, 131
smoke (from lights) 9, 55, 64
smoke effect 23, 27–8, 33, 85
Society of London Theatres 239
Sohn, Der (Hasenclever, 1918) 126, 129
Somi, Leone Ebreo, di (1527–1592) 7,
10–11,14, 45
son et lumière 36–7
Sorge, Reinhard, Johannes (1892–1916)
127–8
sound (in relation to light) 16, 33, 36–41
47, 49, 55, 73, 80, 120–4, 162–9, 241
see also music, son et lumière
spectacle d’optique (Servandori, 1738) 31,
34
spectators see audience
spotlight 5, 38–9, 68, 87, 93, 95, 104,
111, 126–7, 129, 130, 134, 143, 198,
202, 214, 217, 231, 235, 236, 271–3
see also profile, followspot
Staatstheater, Berlin 207
Stael, Germaine de 162fn
stage designer see scenographer
stage director see director
Stage Lighting (Bentham, 1950) 211–14
Stage Lighting (Fuchs,1929) 201
Stage Lighting (Ost, 1954) 214
Stage Lighting (Ridge, 1928) 207–9
Stage Lighting Design in Britain (Morgan,
2005) 248
Stage Lighting Principles and Practice
(1936, Ridge/Aldred) 207
Stage Lighting for Theatre in the Round
(Joseph, 1964) 222
stage management 263fn see also
prompter, prompt corner, scene
changes
stage manager 65, 123fn, 196, 225, 227,
232–3, 237, 238, 263fn, 264
standard see boom, bunchlight
standing light box 18
Stanislavski, Konstantin (1863–1938)
101–2 , 120–4, 125, 139, 145, 149, 202
States, Bert, Olen 66–7
Steps, The (Craig, c.1905) 95–100
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Stern, Ernst (Ernest) (1876–1954) 126,
128, 130
Stoker, Bram (1847–1912) 176, 185,
188–197, 200
‘Irving and Stage Lighting’ 190–6
Storming of the Winter Palace, The
(Evreinov, 1920) 37–8
Strand Electric (Rank Strand) 199, 212,
214, 220, 222, 230fn, 233–6, 240 see
also Tabs
street lighting 8, 25, 57, 63–4, 96, 178
Streetcar Named Desire, A (Williams)
140
Strehler, Giorgio 69–70
Strindberg, August 118–20
sun, sunlight 3, 5, 12, 20, 22, 25, 34,
67–8, 69, 70–3, 75, 129, 172, 181,
203–4, 219 see also daylight, sunset
sunset 22, 32, 34, 82, 187, 188
Sunday Times 181
Suzdal, Bishop Abraham 26
Svoboda, Josef (1920–2002) 40, 102,
108–14, 223, 224, 240
contralight, 109–10, 113–14, 223, 224
Hamlet (1959) 109–13, 112
Oedipus (1963) 109, 223
Owner of the Keys, The (1962) 110
‘polyphonic spectacle’ 109
‘psycho-plastic space’ 108–10
Seagull, The (1960) 113
Secret of Theatrical Space, The 109,
110–14, 224
Traviata, La 109
Tristan and Isolde (1967) 109
Swan, Joseph Wilson (1828–1914) 159,
191
Swan Lake 257
Sweeney Todd 263
symbolism 36, 70–4, 129, 141, 149, 156
see also light: as symbol
synaesthesia 156–7, 162–3, 164, 167
Tabs 174, 212, 220, 222
Tairov, Alexander 74
Teatro Argentina, Rome 166
Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza 12–13
technical rehearsal 113, 136, 151, 260,
263–4 see also lighting: plot
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300 INDEX
technician xiv, 41, 89, 90, 91, 92, 135fn,
151–2, 179, 186, 188, 218, 225–47,
250, 254, 268 see also electrician,
operator
Technique of Stage Lighting, The (Williams,
1947) 210–11
Telling Orchestra, The (Verdensteatret,
2008) 171
Tenebrae 7
Terry, Ellen 189, 196–7
Tessenow, Heinrich 93
Tessin, Nicodemus (1654–1728) 49
theatre critics (on lighting) 95, 123, 183,
230, 268
theatre (stage) designer, see
scenographer
Theatre in the Round (Joseph, 1967) 222
Theatre of Colour (1919–1920) 166
Theatre of Cruelty, The (Artaud, 1932)
38, 39–40, 164
Theatrical Lighting Practice (Rubin &
Watson) 220
Theatrical Management Association
239
Three Sisters (Chekhov) 124
thyratron 206, 236, 238
Times, The 158, 183, 187
Tipton, Jennifer 115, 248
toplight 12, 17–18, 45, 49, 52, 56, 81–3,
94, 101, 152, 183, 217
torches, torchlight 6, 8–9, 23, 26, 27–8,
44, 47, 54, 71, 104, 161
total theatre (Artaud) 39
tragedy, lighting for 4, 7–8, 14, 21, 101
Traviata, La 109
Tribüne Theatre, Berlin 131–2,198fn
Trimingham, Melissa 75
tungsten 135fn, 197, 251, 269
Turrell, James 171–2
Uimonen, Markku 242
ultraviolet light 104, 110, 166
Universal Museum 61
urban scenography 41–3
Utrillo, Maurice 106
vacuum lamps 193, 209
Varekai (Cirque de Soleil, 2002) 67
Vari∗ lite 41, 248
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Vasari, Giorgio (1511–1574) 3, 26
Veltruský, Jiři 66
Verdensteatret 171
verfremdung 132–6
verisimilitude 14, 127fn, 230, 231
Verklärte Nacht (Rosalie, 2006) 171
Vieux Colombier, Paris 207
Vilar, Jean 69
Vinci, Leonardo, da (1452–1519) 12
Vitruvius 2
Voltaire 57
Von Morgens bis Mitternachts (Kaiser,
1912) 129
vraisemblance 60–1
Waiting for Godot 67
Wagner, Richard (1813–1883) 78–81, 89,
125, 136, 156, 162
Art-Work of the Future, The (1849) 79
‘Gesamtkunstwerk’ 79
Parsifal 79
Ring Cycle (Ring Des Nieberlungen, Das)
78–86, 89–92
Siegfried 144, 145, 147–8
Tristan and Isolde 109, 113–14 114
Walkyrie, Die 81–6
‘worttondrama’ 79
water 3, 6, 20, 24, 25, 30, 31, 34, 41, 46,
70, 90, 92, 96, 114, 119, 122, 153–4,
153fn, 187, see also fountain
Waves (National Theatre, 2006) 243
Weather Project, The (Eliasson, 2003)
172
Webster, John 46
Weichart, Richard 126–7, 129
White, Christine 245–6
White, Martin 50
White Devil, The (Webster, 1612) 46
Wild Duck, The, (Ibsen) 120
Williams, Rollo Gillespie (1903–1982)
210–11, 220
Williams, Tennessee 139–40
Glass Menagerie, The (1944) 139–40
Streetcar Named Desire, A (1947)
140
Wilson, Robert 75, 103, 115–17, 162
Einstein on the Beach (1976) 115
Monsters of Grace (1998) 115
Quartet (1987) 117
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INDEX 301

windows 9, 12, 43, 47–9, 74, 189, World Behind the Scenes, The (Fitzgerald)
192 176–9, 182, 200
wings 9, 29, 49, 116, 180, 191, 206, 207, WYSIWYG 245
263, 264
lighting from 9, 18, 49, 51, 52, 58, 59, Yale University 201, 216
61, 87, 101, 153, 155, 176, 180, 183, Yeats, W.B. 101
185, 187, 188, 206, 231, 263–4 see Yellow Sound, The (Kandinsky, 1909)
also booms, side-light 164
operating position 227, 231, 233, 242
Winsor, Frederick (1763–1830) Zola, Emile 118
175 Zich, Otakar 66

Copyrighted material – 9780230551909

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