CT472

Optical Communication
Course Outline

Introduction [4]
• Optical communication
• Basics of Optics, EM Theory
and Waveguide
• Bandwidth and Bit rate
• dB scale of measurement
Optical Fibers [6]
• Geometry
Step index
Graded index
• Numerical Aperture
• Modes as solutions of
Maxwell’s equations in glass
fiber medium
Wave propagation in fiber [2]
• Step index
• Graded index
Loss Mechanism [6]
• Attenuation through absorption
• Dispersion of light in a
waveguide
• Material dispersion
• Waveguide dispersion
• Loss due to bend in fibers
• Polarization mode dispersion
Fiber fabrication and cabling [3]
• Material
• Various techniques
• Cabling schemes
Optical Amplifiers [6]
• Types of OAs
Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier
• Basic concepts of EDFAs
• Physics of signal amplification
• Modelling of EDFA
• Qualitative discussion of
Gain Spectrum & bandwidth
Gain Saturation
Amplifier Noise
Optical Receivers [4]
• Characteristics of receivers, viz.,
Responsivity, Rise time, bandwidth
• receivers suitable for optical
communication, photodetectors
• P-N, P-I-N and Avalanche
• Receiver Noise
• SNR calculation and optimization
• Quantum limit of receivers
• Receiver Performance
Optical Transmitter [4]
• Basics of laser theory and rate
equation
• LEDs
• Semiconductor Lasers
• Transmitter design
Design Consideration [4]
• Loss compensating
mechanisms
• Dispersion compensating
fibers
• System design and
performance issues
• Installation issues
Class Timing

Monday Tuesday Thursday

11:00 12:00 11:00

Class Room

CEP105
Evaluation

2 In-sem exams (25% each)

1 End-sem exam (50%)

Assignments
Quizzes
Bonus
Recommended Books
1. Fiber Optic Communication Systems
by G.P. Agrawal (Wiley)
2. Fiber Optic Communications by J.C.
Palais (Pearson Education)
3. Introduction to Fiber Optics by A.
Ghatak & K. Thyagarajan (Cambridge)
4. Optical Fiber Communications by Gerd
Keiser (MGH)
Recommended Books
5. Fiber Optic Communications
Technology by Mynbaev &
Scheiner (Pearson Education)
6. Fiber Optic Cable System
Installation by E. R. Pearson
(Delmar)
7. Optical Networks by R. Ramaswami
& K. N. Sivarajan (Elsevier)
 Overview of previous year’s class
performance, impact of attendance etc.
9
8.43 Total: 66
8

7
Class Profile:
6.23 6.09 Backlog yr – 2,
6
Final yr – 51
5.1
5
4.8
5
3rd yr – 13
4
Final Grade:
3
3 AA: 4, AB: 5,
BB: 6, BC: 9,
2
CC: 11, CD: 10,
1 DD: 14, DE: 6,
0
F: 1
99-90 80-89 70-79 60-69 50-59 40-49 30-39

avg. grade
OVERALL CLASS PERFORMANCE
• Class Size = 66
• Highest mark obtained was 38.7 (out of 100)
• Class average: 19.9
• Lowest: 4.3
• Below class average: 37 students
• Only 9 students were above 30.
• Some students could get advantage of earning
some bonus marks during the semester.
• A not-so-direct but somewhat related correlation
was observed for performance (grade) vs.
regularity in class (attendance)
OBJECTIVE:
To transmit data at the highest capacity over longest
possible distance.

To bring down the cost of transmission per bit per km as

far as possible

EARLY DAYS:
# mid-1960s – information encoded in light signals could
be transmitted over a glass fiber waveguide.
Evolution of optical communication era
1950s: it was realized that an overall increase of several
orders of magnitude in BL product would be possible, if
optical waves were used as carrier.
Bottleneck: Source and medium not available.

1960: Laser was demonstrated

 1966: optical fibers

Bottleneck: very high loss ~ 1000 dB/km

1970: low loss optical fibers

17 dB/km @ 1 mm

Breakthrough: GaAs laser source (CW) and low loss

medium
“Inspired by a belief in light as a communications vehicle
and informed by four years of experimentation and testing,
Maurer, Keck, and Schultz of Corning Inc. invented in 1970
the first low-loss optical fiber with an attenuation of ~17
dB/km.”

Ref.
http://www.corning.com/opticalfiber/innovation/fortyyear
soffiber/index.aspx

17 dB/km implies that if we start with 50 mW input power,

we get 1 mW power after 1 km.
• 1841: Daniel Colladon demonstrates light guiding in jet
of water Geneva
• 1854: John Tyndall demonstrates light guiding in water
jets, duplicating but not acknowledging Colladon
• 1880: Alexander Graham Bell invents Photophone,
Washington
• 1888: Illuminated fountains at Glasgow and Barcelona
fairs
• 1888: Dr. Roth and Prof. Reuss of Vienna use bent glass
rods to illuminate body cavities
• 1920s: Bent glass rods used for microscope illumination

•October 1951: Brian O'Brien (University of Rochester)

suggests to Abraham C. S. Van Heel (Technical University
of Delft) that applying a transparent cladding would
improve transmission of fibers in his imaging bundle.

• July 1952: Harold Horace Hopkins applies for a grant

from the Royal Society to develop bundles of glass fibers
for use as an endoscope at Imperial College of Science
and Technology. Hires Narinder S. Kapany as an assistant
when he receives grant.
• Spring 1953: Hopkins tell Fritz Zernicke his idea of fiber
bundles; Zernicke tells van Heel, who decides to publish
quickly.
• June 12, 1953: van Heel publishes first report of clad
fiber in Dutch-language weekly De Ingeneur after
submitting brief paper to Nature.
• January 2, 1954: Hopkins and Kapany and van Heel
publish separate papers in Nature. Hopkins and Kapany
report imaging bundles of unclad fibers; van Heel reports
simple bundles of clad fibers.
• 1956: Curtiss suggests making glass clad fibers by
melting a tube onto a rod of higher-index glass. Later he
makes first glass-clad fibers by rod-in-tube method.
• Feb 1957: Hirschowitz (Univ. of Michigan) is first to test
fiber-optic endoscope in a patient.
• May 16, 1960: Theodore Maiman demonstrates first
laser at Hughes Research Laboratories in Malibu.
• Dec 1960: Ali Javan makes first He-Ne laser at Bell Labs,
the first laser to emit a steady beam.
• Mid 1962: Four groups separately make first
semiconductor diode lasers, but they operate only pulsed
at liquid-nitrogen temperature.
• Jan 1966: Kao and Hockham of Standard
Telecommunications Laboratories (Harlow, UK) tells IEE in
London that fiber loss could be reduced below 20
decibels per kilometer for inter-office communications.
• 1966: Corning sets up a small research team to look
into the opportunity.
• Kao does not get funding in US.

• A group in Japan proposes graded index fiber for

improvement in transmission distance.

• Corning intensifies its R&D project on optical fiber after

Kao’s publication.

• 1967: British Post Office allocates an extra 12 million

pounds to research.

• 1968: Kao and M. W. Jones measure intrinsic loss of

bulk fused silica at 4 dB/km.
• May 1970: 1st CW room-temperature semiconductor
lasers made by Zhores Alferov's group (Leningrad)

• Summer 1970: Maurer, Donald Keck, Peter Schultz, and

Frank Zimar at Corning develop a single-mode fiber with
loss of 17 dB/km at 633 nm by doping titanium into fiber
core. Announced on 30 Sep, 1970 at a London Conf.

• Nov 1970: British Post Office and STL confirm Corning

results
AND HENCE IS FOUNDED THE HISTORY.
# early 1970s – invention of low-loss optical fiber

# transmission of light signals over distances of several

tens of kms before they needed to be regenerated.

A regenerator converts light signal into electrical signal

and retransmits a fresh copy of the data as a new light
signal.

Ref. on history: http://www.sff.net/people/jeff.hecht/chron.ht

 1975: research phase of
Fiber optic communication
system started

1st generation (1975-80): GaAs laser (@ 0.8 mm), 50-

100 Mbps, 10 km
BL ~ 1000 Mbps-km as compared to 100 Mbps-km
(1970) of coaxial cable technology.
Increase in repeater distance decreased the installation
& maintenance cost.
# Early days fibers were multimode fibers, dia @ 50 – 85
mm.
# each light ray takes a different path and hence
corresponds to a propagation mode.
# each propagation mode travels with a slightly different
speed compared to the other modes. Intermodal
Dispersion
# Source LD of 0.8 mm
Early 1980s:
# around 1984 – single-mode fibers deployed. core dia ~ 8
– 10 mm.
# eliminated the limitation posed by intermodal dispersion
loss.
# source was lasers @ 1.3 mm.
# dramatic increase in bit-rates and distances possible
between regenerators.
2nd generation (1980-87): InGaAsP laser (@ 1.3 mm –
low loss ~ 1 dB/km and minimum dispersion, a suitable
detector responding to this l), 100 Mbps, 25 km
BL ~ 2500 Mbps-km
Bottleneck: Multimode fiber shows high dispersion
between modes.
3rd generation (1987): InGaAsP laser (@ 1.3 mm – low
loss ~ 0.5 dB/km ), 1.7 Gbps, 50 km
BL ~ 85 Gbps-km
Breakthrough: Singlemode fiber and further low loss
medium.
Opportunity: Optical fiber has minimum loss @ 1.55
mm.
Late 1980s:
# Systems deployed @ 1.55 mm.
# to take advantage of the lower loss in this window
than to the 1.3 mm.
# this further increased spacing between regenerators.
# but introduced another peculiar limitation of
chromatic dispersion.
4th generation (1990): InGaAsP laser (@ 1.55 mm –
further low loss ~ 0.2 dB/km ), 2.5 Gbps, 100 km
BL ~ 250 Gbps-km
Breakthrough: further low loss medium because of the
source.
Bottleneck: multi longitudinal modes @ 1.55 mm
caused dispersion a concern with InGaAsP laser.
Opportunity: DSF and optical amplifier.
4th generation (1995): InGaAsP laser (@ 1.55 mm), 10
Gbps, 1500 km
BL ~ 15000 Gbps-km
Breakthrough: DSF, optical amplifier, WDM technology.
Opportunity: Still better light source.
 Evolution of Optical Communication Systems
Operating Bit Rate Repeater
wavelength (B) Length (L)
1st generation 800 nm 100 Mbps 10 km
(1975)
2nd generation 1300 nm 100 Mbps 25 km
(1980)
3rd generation 1300 nm 1.7 Gbps 50 km
(1987)
4th generation 1550 nm 2.4 Gbps 100 km
(1990)
4th generation 1550 nm (WDM) & 10 Gbps 1500 km
(1995 onward) Optical Amplifiers
5th generation Soliton & Optical ~ Tbps 5000 km
(2000s) Amplifiers
The decrease in loss over the years of silica fibers.
Late 1980s and early 1990s:
# development of EDFAs
# the difference in energy levels of the atomic states of
erbium line up with the 1.5 mm low-loss window of
optical fiber.
# WDM and EDFAs dramatically brought down the cost of
long-haul transmission systems and increased their
capacity.
# now one single EDFA could replace an entire array of
expensive regenerators which were deployed one per
fiber.
# cost impact was so compelling that almost every long-
haul carrier widely deployed amplified WDM systems
today.
# also WDM provided the ability to turn on capacity
quickly, as opposed to the months to years it could take to
deploy new fiber.
# capacity has risen to ~ 1 Tbps in a single fiber.

# bit rate in a single channel went upto ~ 10 Gbps.

# IBM’s 20 – wavelength MuxMaster metropolitan system

(1994)

# AT&T’s 4 – wavelength long-haul system (1995)

Current status:
# High capacity Tbps WDM systems with hundreds of
channels @ 10 Gbps with channel spacings as low as 50
GHz with distances between two successive regenerators
extending upto ~ 1000 kms.
# systems operating @ 40 Gbps channel rates are in the
research labs.
Band Descriptor Wavelength
(in nm)
O-band Original 1260 – 1360
E-band Extended 1360 – 1460
S-band Short 1460 – 1530
C-band Conventional 1530 – 1565
L-band Long 1565 – 1625
U-band Ultra-long 1625 – 1675
# The early WDM operated in C-band because that was
where EDFAs were available.
# Today EDFAs are available in L-band also, hence allowing
WDM systems to operate in both C- and L-bands.
# Raman Amplification, that complements EDFAs,
promises to operate in S- and U-bands for WDM systems.
# Development of new fibers also opens opportunity for
working in E-band.
Optical Fiber (Physics and fabrication)
Major elements of an optical fiber transmission link. The
basic components are the light signal transmitter, the
optical fiber and the photo detecting receiver. Additional
components are regenerators or optical amplifiers, splices,
connectors, beam splitters etc.
Optical Fibers
• Most suitable (for long-haul)
• dielectric waveguide (like coaxial cable)
• Total internal reflection
• An optical wire
• Singlemode propagation for core size < 10 µm.

What happens to the Signal?

Fiber losses limit the transmission distance
(minimum loss near 1.55 µm).
Chromatic dispersion limits the bit rate through
pulse broadening.
Nonlinear effects distort the signal and limit the
system performance.
1. What is the structure of an optical fiber?
2. How does light propagate along a fiber?
3. Of what materials is the fiber made?
4. How is the fiber fabricated?
5. How are fibers incorporated into cable
structures?
6. What is the signal loss or attenuation
mechanism in a fiber?
7. Why and to what degree does a signal get
distorted as it travels along a fiber?
Fibers as Optical Waveguide consist of
a. Cylindrical core
b. Cladding
and both are made of dielectric materials of
almost matching refractive indices.

Schematic of a single fiber structure. A circular solid

core of refractive index n1 is surrounded by a cladding
having a refractive index n2 < n1. A protecting layer of
an elastic plastic buffer encapsulates the fiber.
 Optical Fibers

Single Mode Multi Mode

Step Index Graded Index

Step Index
Fiber Cross Section

Note the density of dopants in the core of

graded-index fiber
Fiber Geometry

Comparison of single-mode and multimode

step-index and graded-index optical fibers.
Two natural questions pop up in the mind
1. Why n1 and n2? In other words, how
light is confined within optical fiber?
2. What are the modes?
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN LIGHT HITS
VARIOUS SURFACES?

For example: Mirror

Light bounces off the mirror in a new straight
line which changes by altering inclination of
mirror.

Law of Reflection
θi = θr
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN LIGHT GOES
FROM ONE MEDIUM INTO ANOTHER?

Again it does not go in the same straight line.

It follows:

Snell’s Law
n1 sin θi = n2 sin θr n1

Refractive indices n2

of both media
influence θr
 In this case light is coming
from rarer to denser
medium, n > 1.
n

Snell’s Law: sin θi = n sin θr

Experimental results by (Greek) Theoretical derivation by (Dutch)

Claudius Ptolemy; 140 A.D. Willebrord Snell; 1621 A.D.
Refraction and reflection of a light ray at a
material boundary

Rarer medium

Denser medium
When a ray moves from a denser to rarer
medium
• it moves away from the normal. In other
words, it moves closer to the interface.
• It (refracted ray) comes closer and closer as
angle of incidence becomes larger and larger.
• at a critical angle (of incidence) it moves just
along the interface, hence θr = 900.
• For all θi > θc the ray will come back to the
original medium, hence manifesting the
phenomenon of total internal reflection.
Representation of the critical angle
and the total internal reflection at a
glass-air interface.
The phenomenon of guidance of light by
multiple total internal reflections was, in
fact, demonstrated by John Tyndall (1854).
But the real development started after the
works of Hopkins and Kapany (1950s; UK)
and of van Heel (Holland).
Ref.:
K.C. Kao and G.A. Hockham, Proc. IEEE, 113, 1151 (1966)
F.P. Kapron, D.B. Keck, and R.D. Mauer, Appl. Phys. Lett., 17,
423 (1970).
From the geometry of this figure, note that if we
have to make φ > φc, it implies that we have to
bring θr smaller. WHY?
In turn, θi will have to be further smaller. WHY?
2θi is called acceptance angle and a solid angle
of that is called acceptance cone.
Numerical Aperture
• Refraction at the air–glass interface: n0 sin θi = n1 sin
θr

The refracted ray hits the core-cladding interface and is

refracted again [observe the unguided ray] till
sin φ < (n2 / n1)
If this ray undergoes a Total Internal Reflection
(TIR) at the core-cladding interface, then

sin φ > sin φr = sin [sin−1(n2/n1)] = (n2/n1).

Since, φ = π/2 – θr ; one gets sin φ = cos θr

cos θr > (n2/n1).

2 ½

[ ( )]
sin θr < 1 -
n2
n1

n1 sin θr < [n12 – n22] ½

Substituting this into the relation of Snell’s
Law, i.e.,
n0 sin θi = n1 sin θr

One readily gets

n0 sin θi < [n12 – n22] ½
at φ = φc (critical angle)

This leads us ultimately to the relation

n0 sin θimax = [n12 – n22] ½

Numerical Aperture (NA) of a step-index fiber in defined by
NA = n0sin θimax = [n12 – n22] ½ ~ n1 √(2 D)
where

n1 – n2
D= n1
Typically for a multimode step-index silica fiber,
n1 ≈ 1.48, n2 ≈ 1.46, a ≈ 25 mm, b ≈ 62.5 mm
that gives
D= 0.0135
NA = 0.2431

which implies θimax ≈ 140 (typical value)

DO IT YOURSELF: Define the difference,
Dn = n1 – n2
and hence,
n1 – n2
D= n
where
n1 + n2
n=
2
now,
NA = [n12 – n22] ½
= [(n1 – n2) (n1 + n2)] ½
= [(D n) (2 n)] ½
= [(D n / n) (2 n2)] ½ and hence the formula.
Now looking back into the relation
n0 sin θimax = [n12 – n22] ½
sin θimax = [n12 – n22] ½ assuming n0 = 1 (air)
One finds that range of angle of incidence at air-fiber
interface can be set suitably wider if [n12 – n22] ½ can
be kept larger.
But in fiber design one finds
n1 ≈ n2
and hence one does not get much wider choice of θi .
Why?
 2π
V = λ a n1 √ 2 Δ

For an operating wavelength λ = 1.2 μm and

typical value of n1 = 1.45 we must maintain

V < 2.405

for the fiber to be single moded.

WHY CLADDING IS REQUIRED? WHY NOT
CORE-AIR INTERFACE IS USED FOR
GUIDING LIGHT?
WHY CLADDING IS REQUIRED? WHY NOT
CORE-AIR INTERFACE IS USED FOR
GUIDING LIGHT?

• To provide support during transmission of light

which must not distort the fiber
• To eliminate leakage of light from one fiber to
another in a fiber bundle (HOW?)
Two natural questions should arise in the
mind
1. Why n1 and n2? In other words, how light is
confined within optical fiber?
2. What are modes?
Light – which we see with
A small part of the Electromagnetic
Radiation Spectrum
Various parts of this spectrum are being
distinguished by different values of a
certain quantity which varies.
WHAT IS THAT?
Colour Wavelength Frequency
(nm, 10-9 m) (THz, 1012 Hz)
Red 780 - 622 384 - 482
Orange 622 - 597 482 - 503
Yellow 597 - 577 503 - 520
Green 577 - 492 520 - 610
Blue 492 - 455 610 - 659
Violet 455 - 390 659 - 769
Within vast range of ELECTROMAGNETIC
spectrum, 3 major regions of approximation
which are interesting:

• Geometrical Optics
• Classical theory of Electromagnetic
Radiation
• Quantum theory
Geometrical Optics
• Wavelengths involved are too small compared
with the dimensions of equipment available for
their study
• Photon energies are small compared with the
energy sensitivity of the equipment
Classical theory of Electromagnetic Radiation
• Wavelengths are comparable to the dimensions
of equipment available (difficult to arrange with
visible light but easier with radiowaves)
• Photon energies are still negligibly small
Quantum theory
• Realm of very short wavelengths
• Wave nature of radiation does not hold good
• Photons have very large energy compared with the
energy sensitivity of the equipment
HOW DO WE SEE?
• Light goes in straight lines, if there is nothing in the
way
• The rays do not seem to interfere with one-other
• Light is made up of arrows which go through each
other!!!
 Wavelength of light used in optical
communication typically ranges within 0.5 – 2.0
mm.
 Core radius of a single-mode fiber ~ 2.5 – 3.0
mm.
 80% of the optical fibers deployed in various
systems are single-mode fibers.
So, for all our analyses, we need to select
Classical Theory of Electromagnetic
Radiation to study light-matter interaction.
Within vast range of ELECTROMAGNETIC
spectrum, 3 major regions of approximation
which are interesting:

 Geometrical Optics
 Classical theory of Electromagnetic
Radiation
 Quantum theory
Geometrical Optics
 Wavelengths involved are too small compared
with the dimensions of equipment available for
their study
 Photon energies are small compared with the
energy sensitivity of the equipment
Classical theory of Electromagnetic Radiation
 Wavelengths are comparable to the dimensions
of equipment available (difficult to arrange with
visible light but easier with radiowaves)
 Photon energies are still negligibly small
Quantum theory
 Realm of very short wavelengths
 Wave nature of radiation does not hold good
 Photons have very large energy compared with the
energy sensitivity of the equipment
HOW DO WE SEE?
 Light goes in straight lines, if there is nothing in the
way
 The rays do not seem to interfere with one-other
 Light is made up of arrows which go through each
other!!!
 Wavelength of light used in optical
communication typically ranges within 0.5 – 2.0
mm.
 Core radius of a single-mode fiber ~ 2.5 – 3.0
mm.
 80% of the optical fibers deployed in various
systems are single-mode fibers.
So, for all our analyses, we need to select
Classical Theory of Electromagnetic
Radiation to study light-matter interaction.
Maxwell’s Equations in an optical fiber are
xE=-∂B/∂t
xH= ∂D/∂t
where
.D =0
. B = 0 ε0 is the vacuum
permittivity, μ0 is the
vacuum permeability,
Constitutive Relations and P and M are the
D = ε0 E + P induced electric and
magnetic polarizations,
B = μ0 H + M
respectively.
For optical fibers
 M = 0 because of the non magnetic nature of
silica glass.
 Evaluation of P requires Quantum mechanical
treatment.
 Essential only when optical frequency is near a
medium resonance.
 For optical fibers, we operate in the range l =
0.5 – 2 μm.
Far from resonance. Hence QM treatment is not
required for evaluation of P.
An optical mode refers to a specific
solution of this wave equation that satisfies
the appropriate boundary conditions and
has the property that its spatial distribution
does not change with propagation.

Signal transmission in optical fibers takes place

by virtue of Guided Modes only.
Useful to work with cylindrical coordinates
ρ, φ, z.
Equation for Ez in cylindrical coordinates

∂ 2Ez ∂ Ez ∂ 2
E ∂ 2
Ez
+ 1ρ 1 z 2 k 2 E = 0,
+ 2 + + n
∂ ρ2 ∂ρ ρ ∂ φ2 ∂z 2 0 z

where

{
n1; ρ ≤ a,
n=
n2; ρ > a.
• In fact, it is a set of six equations (three for E
and three for H) .

• It is not necessary to solve all those six ones.

• Only two components of E and H are

independent. Why?

• Common to choose Ez and Hz as independent

components.

• And obtain Er , Ej , Hr and Hj in terms of them.

Use the method of separation of variables:
Ez (ρ, φ, z) = F(ρ) Φ(φ ) Z(z).

We then obtain three ODEs:

d2Z / dz2 + β2Z = 0,

d2Φ / dφ2 + m2Φ = 0,

d2 F + 1 dF (n 2 k 2 – b 2 – m2 / ρ2 ) F = 0.
dρ 2 ρ dρ + 0
β and m are two constants (m must be an integer).

First two equations can be solved easily to obtain

Z = exp(iβz),

Φ = exp(imφ ).

F(ρ) satisfies the Bessel equation.

β has the physical significance of the propagation

constant.

m is restricted to take only integer values since

the field must be periodic in φ with a period of 2p.
General solution for Ez and Hz:

Ez = A Jm(pρ) exp (imφ) exp (iβz); ρ ≤ a,

= C Km(qρ) exp (imφ) exp (iβz); ρ > a.

where p2 = n1k02 − β 2
and q2 = β 2 − n2 k02

Similar equations obtained for Hz

General solution for Hz:

Hz = B Jm(pρ) exp (imφ) exp (iβz); ρ ≤ a,

= D Km(qρ) exp (imφ) exp (iβz); ρ > a.

where p2 = n1k02 − β 2
and q2 = β 2 − n2 k02

B.C.: Ez and Hz have to be continuous across

the core-cladding interface, i.e., at r = a.
For a given set of parameters k0, a, n1, n2, this
can be solved numerically to determine the
propagation constant β.
In general it may have multiple solutions for
each m.
For a given m value, solutions may take the
form βmn
Each value of βmn corresponds to one
possible mode of propagation of the optical
field whose spatial distribution can be
obtained by the expression of Ez.
Jm′ (pa) Km′ (qa) Jm′ (pa) n22 Km′ (qa)
+ q K (qa) + n 2 q K (qa)
p Jm(pa) m p Jm(pa) 1 m

n 2
m2 1+1 1+ 2 1
= a2 p2 q2 p2 n12 q2

This equation should be solved numerically.

Multiple solutions for βmn for a given fiber exist.

Each solution represents an optical mode.

Effective Mode Index: n = b/k0
between n1 and n2, where,
k0 = 2p / l0
Useful to introduce a normalized quantity
n – n2 , 0<b<1
b=n –n
1 2

and
V = k0a√ (n12-n22)
Modes are quantified in terms of b(w) or b(V)
 2 π an √ 2 D
V=
λ 1

For an operating wavelength λ = 1.3 μm and

typical value of n1 = 1.45 we must maintain

V < 2.405

for the fiber to be single moded.

From the previous plot of allowed modes within

fiber one can readily see that there exists only
one mode till V < 2.405. That is why, a designer
has to keep D as low as possible.
 x
Fiber Axis
Direction of propagation
j
r z

core

When Ez = 0, TE mode
When Hz = 0, TM mode
Two types of rays propagate in fiber
• Meridional rays (those pass through fiber axis)
• Skew rays (does not pass through axis)
Skew rays outnumber the meridional rays
cladding
Skew rays take
helical path. core
The cylindrical waveguide is bounded in two
dimensions within fiber, hence we require two
subscripts to identify each of them.
TEmn or TMmn modes correspond to
meridional rays.
Hybrid modes (where Ez and Hz are non-
zero) occur for skew rays.
These are designated by HEmn and EHmn
depending upon if components of H or E
contribute larger to transverse field.
Optical fibers used for communication have
very small D.
Usually less than 3% (0.03)
Meaning coupling angle, q, is too small.
This causes a dominant transverse field
component in guided modes.
Hence all HE, EH, TE, TM modes may be
represented by only two linearly polarized (LP)
modes.
Note that these LP modes are not the exact
modes of the fiber except the fundamental
mode, i.e., HE11 mode.
Basically these LPmn modes are superposed
degenerate EH, HE mode pairs. These
degenerate modes have almost similar
propagation constants.
LP modes Exact modes

LP01 HE11

LP11 HE21, TE01, TM01

LP21 HE31, EH11

LP02 HE12

LP31 HE41, EH21

The permissible range of b for guided waves or
bound solutions is (cf. last class notes)

n2k0 ≤ b ≤ n1k0, where k0 = 2p/l0.

Normalized frequency V is defined as

V2 = (p2 + q2) a2, where

p2 = n12k02 − β 2 (variable of Bessel’s fn in core)

and q2 = β 2 − n22 k02 (variable in cladding)

Hence

(p2 + q2) = n12k02 − n22 k02 = (2p/l0)2 (n12 – n22)

Therefore

V2 = (2pa/l0)2 (n12 – n22)

or

V = (2pa/l0) (NA)
Note that HE11 (or LP01) mode has no cut-off.
It ceases to exist only when the core dia is
zero, or V=0.
Therefore,
V ≤ 2.405 represents condition for a fiber to
be a single mode fiber.
The cut-off condition of various modes is
determined by V number.
A mode reaches cut-off when q = 0.
Total number of guided modes in a multimode
step index fiber may be given by
Ms ≈ V2/2
This is a good approximation for a fiber of
very large V number.
Prove the relation:
Ms ≈ V2/2
where all symbols have their usual meaning.

Solution:
sin qimax -> q for qimax -> 0.
Therefore the solid acceptance angle for this
fiber is
 = pq2 = p (n12 – n22)
From the laser theory we know that for a
wavelength l, no. of modes per unit solid
angle is 2A/l2, where A is the area the mode
is leaving or entering.

In our case A = p a2.

The factor 2 comes from the fact that the
plane wave has two polarization orientations.

Hence, for the solid angle ,

M   2A/l2 = 2p2 a2 (n12 – n22)/l2 = V2/2.
 Wavelength of light used in optical
communication typically ranges within 0.5 – 2.0
mm.
 Core radius of a single-mode fiber ~ 2.5 – 3.0
mm.
 80% of the optical fibers deployed in various
systems are single-mode fibers.
So, for all our analyses, we need to select
Classical Theory of Electromagnetic
Radiation to study light-matter interaction.
Until mid-1960s loss is around 1000 dB/km.
This was because of impurities present in the
fibers.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS LIMITATION
Kao and Hockham, (1966) mentioned to IEE
that it would be viable for inter-office
communications only if Loss < 20 dB/km.
Status in 1966:
50% loss in power after propagating through a
3-m length of fiber.
Status in 1970:
Maurer, Donald Keck, Peter Schultz, and Frank
Zimar at Corning developed a single-mode
fiber with loss of 17 dB/km at 633 nm by doping
titanium into silica core.
Loss ~ 17 dB/km @ l0 ≈ 0.6328 mm.
Status in 2000:
Loss ≤ 0.2 dB/km @ l0 ≈ 1.55 mm.
[95.5% transmission within 1 km]
The formula that we obtained for NA is true for a
step-index fiber.
In practical design of a single mode fiber, the
core-cladding index difference varies between
0.2 and 1.0 percent and the core dia is chosen
just below the cutoff of the first higher order
mode, i.e., V slightly less than 2.4.
Ex:
a = 3 mm, NA = 0.1 @ l = 0.8 mm such that V =
2.356
Core-cladding index difference Δ is defined as:
n1 – n2
D= n1
or simply as:
n2 = n1 (1-Δ).
Typically, n1 ~ 1.48 and n2 is chosen such that
Δ is nominally 0.01 (or 1%).
Single mode Multimode
Δ 0.002 - 0.01 0.01 - 0.03
0.2 to 1% 1 to 3%
Ray Trajectories in Step Index Fiber
Two types of rays propagate in a fiber
• Meridional rays (those who confine to the
meridian planes of the fiber involving core axis,
pass through fiber axis)
cladding

core

Meridional Rays
• Skew rays (do not pass through the core axis)
Skew rays outnumber the meridional rays of the
total number of guided rays.

cladding

Skew Rays
core
Skew rays take
helical path.
Main reason of the loss at that time was
Pulse Broadening or Pulse Dispersion
We had multimode fibers.
Multimode fibers may be dealt with
geometrical optics, i.e., different rays take
different times to propagate through a given
length of the fiber.
 Multimode fibers can be treated by
Geometrical/Ray Optics.
 We say that a graded index fiber performs
better than a step index fiber in multimode
class of fibers.

WHY?
Intermodal (Pulse) Broadening
Different rays take different times to propagate through
a given length of the fiber.
For a step-index multimode fiber

 = [n1 L / c] [(n1 – n2) / n2] HOW?

Shortest path – fiber axis (L)
Longest path – for which f = fc
n0 sinθi = n1 cosφc = [n12 – n22] ½
B
fc

qr
A C

Using simple geometry, AB = AC/sinfc

Total length covered (in longest path) = L/sinfc
Within core velocity of propagation
v = c/n1

Hence time delay = max time – min time

= (L/sinφc – L)/v

= Ln1/c (1/sinφc – 1)
From the relation n1 cosφc = [n12 – n22] ½
Find out sinφc
That gives
Tf = Ln1/c
Ts = Ln1/(c sinφc) = Ln12/cn2
which yields
 = Ts – Tf = Ln1/c (n1/n2 – 1) = (Ln12/cn2) D

n1 – n2
where, D = n1
In one of the modulation schemes
TB = 1/B
Therefore,  < 1/B => B < 1
Substituting  from the earlier equation gives
BL < [c/n1] [n2/(n1-n2)]

See the impact of smaller n2 and larger relative

index (n1-n2) on BL.
Example (For a bare fiber):
n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1 (air), [(n1 – n2) / n2] = 0.5,
L = 1 km (assume), c = 3 x 108 m/sec
BL < [c/n1] [n2/(n1-n2)]

That leads to
BL < 4 x 108 bps-km = 0.4 Mbps-km.
Take another example of a typical fiber:
n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1.485,
[(n1 – n2) / n2] = 0.0101,
L = 1 km (assume), c = 3 x 108 m/sec
With BL < [c/n1] [n2/(n1-n2)]

That leads to BL < 20 Mbps-km.

50 times better performance.
Better Design
A Graded-index multimode fiber with near
parabolic refractive index profile:
 = [n1 L / 2c] [(n1 – n2) / n2]2
For a typical fiber:
n1 = 1.48, n2 = 1.46, [(n1 – n2) / n2] = 0.01,
L = 1 km, c = 3 x 108 m/sec
That leads to  = 50 ns/km.
For example, a 10 Mbps fiber optic system
where we have to send one pulse every 100 ns,
a pulse broadening of 50 ns/km would require
repeaters to be placed ~ every 1 km, which
would be highly inefficient and expensive
design.
On the other hand, in a graded index fiber
 = [n1 L / 2c] [(n1 – n2) / n2]2
Therefore for the same typical fiber:
n1 = 1.48, [(n1 – n2) / n2] = 0.01,
L = 1 km, c = 3 x 108 m/sec
We readily obtain
 = 250 ps/km.
An improvement by a factor of 200 over that
of step-index fiber.
Graded Index Fibers perform much better than
the Step Index Fibers in case of multimode
transmission.
Reason: Product BL is higher
Conclusion
Graded index fiber performs almost 1000
times better than a step index fiber in case of
multimode operation.
Note that during 1st and 2nd generation of
optical communication systems multimode
fibers were deployed extensively because of
the ease in coupling of signal in the fiber.
But the best solution for eliminating intermodal
dispersion loss is to use SINGLE MODE
FIBERS.
Loss in Fiber
Conclusion
Graded index fiber performs almost 1000
times better than a step index fiber in case of
multimode operation.
Note that during 1st and 2nd generation of
optical communication systems multimode
fibers were deployed extensively because of
the ease in coupling of signal in the fiber.
But the best solution for eliminating intermodal
dispersion loss is to use SINGLE MODE
FIBERS.
Reduction of optical loss from the ancient times
of Egyptian glasses to today’s silica fibers.
Typical Limitations of Transmission
through an Optical Fiber

Attenuation
Pulse Broadening or Pulse Dispersion

Dispersive loss is due to

Intermodal dispersion
Intramodal dispersion

Intermodal dispersive loss supersedes

intramodal.
Intermodal loss is caused by
difference in propagation constants of
different modes in core

Intramodal loss is caused by

Material Dispersion
Waveguide Dispersion
The attenuation/loss in a typical fiber
occurs mainly due to
1. Material Absorption
2. Rayleigh Scattering

Material absorption:
1. Intrinsic absorption loss
2. Extrinsic absorption (absorption by
impurity ions) loss
Other sources of attenuation/loss are

Scattering due to fiber imperfection

Bend induced loss etc.
Attenuation in fibers is attributed to several reasons.
Beer’s Law:
d P / d z = - a P,
where a is the attenuation coefficient that includes
not only material absorption, but other sources of
power attenuation too.

Solving Beer’s law eqn. gives

Pout = Pin exp (- a L)
It can readily be seen that in terms of length
a = 10 log10 [Pin / Pout].
Until mid-1960s loss is around 1000 dB/km.
This was because of impurities present in the
fibers.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS LIMITATION
Kao and Hockham, (1966) mentioned that it
would be viable only if Loss < 20 dB/km.
Status in 1966:
50% loss in power after propagating through a
3-m length of fiber.
Status in 1970:
Loss ~ 17 dB/km @ l0 ≈ 0.6328 m m.
Current Status (in 2000):
Loss ≤ 0.2 dB/km @ l0 ≈ 1.55 m m.
[95.5% transmission within 1 km]
Intrinsic absorption is absorption by fused
silica (materials used to make fibers)
Electronic and vibrational resonances
associated with specific molecules.
Vibrational resonance is in infrared (l > 7 mm)
Loss < 0.1 dB/km; range (l ~ 0.8 – 1.6 mm)
Loss < 0.03 dB/km; range (l ~ 1.3 – 1.6 mm)
Since our operating wavelength is within l ~ 0.8
– 1.6 mm, this is not a point of concern.
Absorptive loss (Extrinsic)

Losses because of absorption caused by

impurities within silica.

absorption due to minute presence of

several transition metal ions like
Fe2+, Cu2+, Cr3+

Also ions of Co, Ni, Mn absorb strongly in

wavelength range l ~ 0.6 – 1.6 mm
Absorptive loss (Extrinsic)

–
Presence of OH ions also contributes to this
loss.

It appears considerably around 1.39, 1.24,

0.95 mm
 Due to minute presence of several transition
metal ions and also due to the presence of
–
OH ions dissolved in glass.

Absorptive loss in silica glass due to presence of 1

–
ppm of different metals and OH ions as impurities.
Using Vapor-phase Axial Deposition (VAD) technique
–
OH ions content ----- 1 ppb (parts per billion).

0.6 dB/km

Loss spectrum of an ultimately low OH - content VAD optical

fiber. Such fibers provide a wide low-loss window.

Enabling the use of WDM in fiber optic systems.

 –
OH ions is reduced to 10-8 in modern fibers to lower
the 1.38 mm peak below 1 dB/km.
Dry Fiber (this peak almost disappears).

Dry Fiber
marketed
under the
brand name
AllWave by
Lucent
The overall attenuative loss picture of fused
silica fiber
So, to get best result from optical
fiber as a medium for long-haul
communication system we need to
operate
near 1.55 mm, or at the most in the
range of 1.3 mm – 1.6 mm.
Intramodal (Pulse) Dispersion
Graded index fiber performs almost 1000 times
better than a step index fiber in case of multimode
operation.
Note that during 1st and 2nd generation of optical
communication systems multimode fibers were
deployed extensively because of the ease of
coupling of signal in the fiber.
But the best solution for eliminating intermodal
dispersion loss is to use SINGLE MODE FIBERS.
We still focus on the wavelength range
of 1.3 mm – 1.6 mm.
Intramodal Dispersion

Group Velocity Dispersion

 Material dispersion
 Waveguide Dispersion
Intramodal Dispersion
Material Dispersion
Origin: Frequency dependence of the mode
index n(w) = b(w)/k0

b(w) = n(w) w/c = b0 + b1(w-w0) + b2(w-w0)2

where w0 is the carrier frequency of the optical

pulse.
Different frequency components travel at
different speeds and arrive at different times
at output end (pulse broadening)
Material Dispersion
Mode Index n
n = n2 + b(n1 – n2) ≈ n2(1 + bD)
where one may use an approximation for ‘b’ as
b(V) ≈ (1.1428 – 0.9960/V)2
The above approximation is accurate within
0.2% for V in the range of 1.5-2.5

n – n2 , 0<b<1
b=n –n
1 2
 Material (Fiber) Dispersion arises because
the propagation constant b is not
proportional to the angular freq. w,

db
dw
≠ constant (independent of w)

db
b1
dw

From dimensional inquiry find out what β1 is.

b is inverse of length and w is inverse of time.
So b1 is inverse of velocity. Such that
Vg = (b 1)-1

Call it “group velocity”, with which a pulse

propagates through the fiber.

Mode index or Effective index ñ = b / k0

Each fiber mode propagates with an effective

refractive index ñ such that n1 > ñ > n2

A mode ceases to be guided if ñ ≤ n2

Consider a fiber of length L
Transit time: T = L/Vg = b 1L
where
db - 1 dw
Vg = ( dw
) ≠ ( db
)
Use b = ñ k0 = ñ w / c

db 1 ñ + w dñ ñg
dw
= c [ dw
] = c

c
Vg = ñ
g

read all ñ as n
where ñg is the group index. Since ñg is
different for different frequency component, so
is Vg, hence leading to pulse broadening as
each spectral component travels with different
group velocity.
Let Dw be the spectral width.
Then the extent of pulse broadening for a fiber
of length L is dT
DT= Dw
dw
Substitute T = L/Vg

d
DT=
dw
( VL ) Dw
g
= L b 2 Dw

d2b
where b 2 =
dw 2
and is known as GVD (Group Velocity Dispersion)
parameter. It determines how much a pulse would
broaden for a fixed L and Dw.
Normally spectral width is given in terms of l.
That is, instead of Dw one must find relation in Dl.
2pc dw _ 2pc
Dw= _ Dl ( )=
2
l dl l2

Meaning spectral width is determined by the range of

wavelengths Dl emitted by the optical source.
In terms of wavelength, pulse broadening can be
expressed as
d L
DT= ( ) Dl = D L Dl
dl Vg

d 1 _ 2pc b
D=
dl
( )
Vg
=
l2
2
D is called Dispersion Parameter.
units of D is ps/(km – nm).
Criteria for Reliable Detection of information (or
estimation of effect of dispersion) is
B Dt < 1.
B L |D| Dl < 1.

For std. silica fiber D is very small near l0 ~ 1.3 mm

D ~ 1 ps/(km – nm)
Example: a semiconductor laser has spectral width
Dl ~ 2 – 4 nm. BL = 250 Gbps – km.
Hence BL product may exceed 100 Gbps –
km.
In fact, 1.3 mm lightwave systems operate at a
bit rate of 2 Gbps with a repeater spacing of 40
– 50 km.
If spectral width Dl ~ 1 nm, BL may touch 1
Tbps – km for a single mode fiber.

Refer to the condition: B L |D| Dl < 1.

What actually is this parameter, D?
The wavelength dependence of D is governed by the
frequency dependence of the mode index ñ .
We have, in fact,
d 1 _ 2pc d 1
D=
dl
( )=
Vg l
2 dw
( )
Vg
By substituting
1 ñg 1 ñ+w dñ
Vg
= c = c[ dw
]

One readily gets

_ 2p
2
dñ d ñ
D= (
2
dw
+w
d w2
)
l2
 _ 2p
2
dñ d ñ
D= (
2
dw
+w
d w2
)
l2

This Dispersion Parameter consists of two

terms.
D = DM + D W

Waveguide Dispersion
Material Dispersion
 _ 2p d ng
1 d ng
DM = = c
l2 dw dl

_ 2pD ng2 V d2 (V b) d ng d (V b)
DW = [ n2 w 2 +
dl
]
l2 dV dV

where the parameters V and b are given by

2 p a n (2 D)½
V= l 1

b/k0 – n2 ñ – n2
b= n –n = n –n
1 2 1 2

We assumed here that D is frequency independent.

Waveguide dispersion parameter DW depends
upon V parameter of the fiber.
Since both derivatives are positive always in
the wavelength range 0 – 1.6 mm, DW is
negative althrough.
The main effect of waveguide dispersion is to
shift by an amount 30 – 40 nm.
Hence the total dispersion (D = DM + DW) is
zero near 1.31 mm.
It also reduces D from its material dispersion
value DM in the wavelength range 1.3 – 1.6
mm, that is of considerable interest in optical
communication systems.
Typical value of D near 1.55 mm is 15 – 18
ps/(km-nm).
Trade – off
DW depends upon V parameter, hence on a and D.
It is possible to design a fiber such that lZD is shifted
near 1.55 mm.
Ref.
L.G. Cohen, C. Lin and W.G. French, Electron. Lett.,
15, 334 (1979).
C.T. Chang, Electron. Lett., 15, 765 (1979); Appl.
Opt., 18, 2516 (1979).
Such fibers are called Dispersion Shifted Fibers
(DSF).
Trade – off
It is also possible to tailor DW such that D becomes
relatively small (and flat) over a wide range of
wavelength between 1.3 – 1.6 mm.
Ref.
L.G. Cohen, W.L. Mammel and S. Lumish, Opt. Lett., 7, 183
(1982).
S.J. Jang, L.G. Cohen, W.L. Mammel and M.A. Shaifi, Bell
Syst. Tech. J., 61, 385 (1982).
V.A. Bhagavatula, M.S. Spotz, W.F. Love and D.B. Keck,
Electron. Lett., 19, 317 (1983).

Such fibers are called Dispersion Flattened Fibers

(DSF).
Bend Loss
Recall condition for TIR.
A guided ray hits the core-cladding
interface at an angle > c.
Near a bend the angle decreases and may
become < c for tight bends. The ray would
then escape out of the core.
In the mode description a part of the mode
power will scatter in the cladding layer.
Bend Loss
The bending loss  exp (-R/Rc)
where,
Rc = a/(n12 – n22)
and R is the radius of curvature of the fiber
bend
For a typical SMF, Rc = 0.2 – 0.4 mm
Take n1 = 1.45, n2 = 1.44 and a = 6 mm,
calculate Rc.
Bend Loss

In which case
bending is more?
1 2
R1 = 5 mm
R2 = 15 mm
Bend Loss
Higher the R, lesser the bend loss.
Bend loss < 0.01 dB/km for R > 5 mm.

Since most macroscopic bends exceed R = 5

mm, macrobending losses are negligible in
practice.
Spot size
Fundamental mode field distribution for a single
mode fiber is important because it determines
splice loss or bend loss of long-haul system.

This is not
FWHM.
This is where
the maxima
falls by 1/e.
For any profile of the fiber it has been found
that the typical fundamental mode field
distribution resembles almost a Gaussian
shape given by:
y (r) = A e - r 2/w2

where, w is called the spot size of the mode

field pattern. The quantity d = 2w is usually
referred to as the mode field diameter (MFD).
w/a = 0.65 + 1.619 V-3/2 + 2.879 V-6
is accurate to within 1% for 1.2 < V < 2.4
In a Gaussian approximation, the field
distribution Ex can be written as:

Ex = A exp (- r2/w2) exp (ibz)

The power contained in the core can be

obtained by the following calculation:

Check its behaviour with w/a.

G decreases with increasing w/a or decreasing V.
Since w/a is a function of V, the fraction of
mode power contained inside the core for a
given value of V highly depends upon this
parameter.
Although nearly 75% of the mode power
resides in the core for V = 2, this drops down
drastically to 20% for V =1. For this reason
most telecommunication SMFs are designed
to operate in the range
2 < V < 2.4.
For a typical single-mode fiber with n1 =
1.454, n2 = 1.45, a = 4.46 mm, operating at
1300 nm, the MFD = 10.0 mm.
At 1500 nm, the same fiber has MFD = 11.2
mm.
But even if we change the fiber parameters
(two non-identical fibers), we can adjust them
such that the MFD could be the same. For
example, the MFD remains 10.0 mm for V =
2.2 and a = 4.27 mm.
Consider two examples:
1. A step index multimode fiber with core dia
of 80 mm and relative index difference of 1.5%
is operating at l = 0.85 mm. If n1 = 1.48, one
may find V = 75.8 and Ms = 2873.
2. Now find out the core dia of the fiber in
order that it may be suitable for single mode
operation for same l = 0.85 mm, n1 = 1.48 and
Δ = 1.5%.
One finds, a = 1.3 mm or dia = 2.6 mm.
Now reduce the relative index difference Δ by
a factor of 10 such that Δ = 0.15%.
Then you will find, a = 4 mm or dia = 8 mm.
Hence it is possible to achieve single-mode
operation with a slightly larger core dia, but it
is still much less than the dia of multimode
step index fiber.
Smaller core dias pose serious problems
while launching light into the fiber and while
joining two fibers in the field.
Causes major power loss.
Gaussian approximation gives simple
analytical expressions for losses at joints
between two SMFs.

Longitudinal

Transverse

Angular
Even if there is no misalignment, loss may
occur due to nonidentical field distributions for
dissimilar SMFs.
Transverse Misalignment
In general the ratio may be given as
T = [(2w1w2)/(w12+w22)]2 exp [-(2u2)/(w12+w22)]
Transverse Misalignment
The maximum power coupling occurs at u=0.
Tmax = [(2w1w2)/(w12+w22)]2
For w1 = w2, i.e., fibers having the identical
Gaussian fundamental modes, this is
maximum.
For perfectly aligned fibers, i.e., u=0
a (dB) = -20 log [(2w1w2)/(w12+w22)]
 The loss
will be less
than 0.1 dB
provided:
0.86 < w1/w2
< 1.16

Loss profile in transverse misalignment

Transverse Misalignment
For two identical fibers (w1 = w2 = w) the
transverse offset loss varies as
T = exp (- u2/w2)
The loss in decibels is:
at (dB) = 4.34 (u/w)2
Note the effect of w on tolerance to transverse
misalignment.
Example: l = 1.3 mm, w = 5 mm, at = 0.1 dB @
u < 0.76 mm.
Longitudinal Misalignment

Schematic of Longitudinal misalignment

Longitudinal Misalignment
The field at the exit of the first fiber will diffract
over the distance D before being incident on the
receiving fiber. This results into
Tmax = [1 + (D2 l2)/(4 p2 w4)]-1,
where, l = l0/nl.
Note that the light traverses the distance D
which have a different refractive index than that
of core of fiber. Let’s assume this be nl, hence
al (dB) = 10 log [1 + (D2 l02)/(4 p2 nl2 w4)]
Longitudinal Misalignment
Example:
l = 1.3 mm, D = 20 mm, w = 5 mm, nl = n2 =
1.45 gives
al (dB) = 0.056 dB
Thus longitudinal misalignment is not a major
source of loss.
Longitudinal Misalignment
Problem may occur if nl is not of the matching
order as that of core/cladding.
It causes Fresnel Reflection loss at the ends
of the launching and receiving fibers.
On top of that is fiber end faces are perfectly
aligned (u=0, no transverse misalignment),
multiple reflection effects can dominate.
Transmission through the splice oscillates as
a function of D and the period of oscillation ~
l/2. This reflection causes laser instabilities.
Angular Misalignment
Parameter of measurement is θ (in radians).
The general expression for this angular
misalignment loss is:
T(θ) = [(2w1w2)/(w12+w22)]2 x
exp [(k02 nl2 θ2 w12 w22)/2(w12+w22)]
For two single-mode fibers with spot sizes w,
the loss is given by
aa (dB) = 4.34 [(p nl w θ)/(l0)]2
Angular Misalignment
aa (dB) = 4.34 [ (p nl w θ)/(l0)]2
Note that smaller value of w lead to greater
tolerance to angular misalignment.
Example:
l = 1.3 mm, D = 20 mm, w = 5 mm, nl = n2 =
1.45, if slice loss due to angular misalignment
is to be < 0.1 dB, then θ ≤ 0.5°.
In the presence of both transverse and
angular misalignment, the total loss is
approximately given by
a (dB) = 4.34 [ (u/w)2 + (p nl w θ/l0)2]
Find out:
If u0 and θ0 represent the transverse and
angular misalignment required to introduce
the same splice loss a0 , find out the resultant
effect.
The loss will become independent of w.
Commercial Fibers
Band Descriptor Wavelength
(in nm)
O-band Original 1260 – 1360
E-band Extended 1360 – 1460
S-band Short 1460 – 1530
C-band Conventional 1530 – 1565
L-band Long 1565 – 1625
U-band Ultra-long 1625 – 1675
Optical Communication Systems are limited
by:
a) Dispersive loss (bandwidth-limiting factor)
b) Power loss (Attenuation)
Regenerators compensate both by:
a) retiming
b) reshaping/reconstructing
c) retransmitting
In Optical Communication Systems we
generally don’t bother much for dispersive
loss because we may:
a) Operate around zero-dispersion range (??)
b) Use dispersion shifted fiber
Therefore what bothers us much is
Attenuation (power loss) over long-haul
Source: http://www.ptable.com/
 68
Erbium
an element of the
Rare Earth family
Z = 57-70 (4f) & 89-102 (5f)
Principal characteristics of the Rare Earth
Elements
• Occur together in nature, in minerals, e.g.,
monazite (a mixed rare earth phosphate)
• Very similar chemical properties
• found combined with non-metals largely in
the 3+ oxidation state
• little tendency to variable valence
• Small difference in solubility/chemical
properties is due to the size of the atoms
Z=57 – Lanthenium (La)
Z=89 – Actanium (Ac)
Abundance & Distribution
• Not especially Rare!
except Prometheum (61Pm147, t1/2 = 2.6 years) which is
produced artificially, e.g., La, Ce & Nd are more
common than Pb
"Rare Earth" label not really justified today
• Most-common minerals:
monazite & xenotime (mixed La, Th, Ln
phosphates) widely-distributed, concentrated in sand
& river beds due to relative insolubility
bastnaesite (a La, Ln fluorocarbonate MIIICO3F)
Lanthanides were called rare earths originally
because they were not widespread and were
difficult to identify and separate from their ores
by their discoverers

Lanthanides are grouped because of their

chemical similarities (most are trivalent, but
some can be divalent or tetravalent), their
properties differ only slightly with atomic
number
• Single Mode For Pumping @ 980 to 1480nm
• Operating Wavelength: 1530nm-1560nm
• Mode Field Diameter: 7.4mm @ 1550nm
• Cladding: 125mm ±2mm
• Jacket: 250mm ±15mm
• Cut-Off Wavelength: 910 ± 50 nm
• Peak Absorption: 8.7dB/m @ 1530nm
• Core Material: Er3+Al2O3/GeO2/SiO2
• NA: 0.22
PRICE PER METER:
1-9 m: $67.50
10-49 m: $50.00
50-249 m: $43.50
250-999 m: $36.43
Energy level diagram of Er3+ ion
Example 1. Nd3+; 4f3
For f-electrons, l=3 so ml = 3,2,1,0,-1,-2 and -3.
Electrons have s=1/2 so ms=+1/2 (up spin or ) and
-1/2 (down spin or  )
The lowest energy arrangement for f3:

ml
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
MS=1/2+1/2+1/2 so Smax=3/2
ML = 3+2+1 so Lmax= 6.
The term symbol is written as 2S+1L where L is a
label for the orbital angular momentum according
to the historical key:

L= 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 ···

label S P D F G H I ···

The ground term for Nd3+ is thus 4I.

The ground term for Nd3+ is thus 4I.
Example 2. Tb3+; 4f8
ml
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3


MS=(7*1/2)+(1*-1/2) so Smax=3 => 2S+1=7

ML = 3+2+1+0-1-2-3+3 so Lmax=3.
The ground term is 7F
Spinning and orbiting electrons generate magnetic fields.
These interact with one another ("spin-orbit coupling").
This splits a term into a number of levels. The full level
symbol is then written as 2S+1LJ.
(iii) Spin-orbit coupling splits a term into levels
with J=L+S, L+S-1, ... , | L-S |
• for less than half-filled shells, smallest J lies
lowest
• for more than half-filled shells, largest J lies
lowest
Nd3+; L=6, S=3/2 so J=15/2, 13/2, 11/2, 9/2
and f3 is less than half filled.

The ground level is 4I9/2

Optical Amplifiers
Erbium Doped Fiber
Amplifier (EDFA)
• First studied in 1964
• Extensive research started after 1989, by
that time fabrication and characterization
techniques were perfected
• Silica fiber is host medium and
amplification properties are determined by
the dopants
• EDFA enables systems operate ~ 1 Tbps
Initial pump wavelengths:
Ar-ion laser (514 nm; green and 488 nm; blue)
Nd:YAG laser (532 nm)
GaAs laser (820 nm) – pump efficiency
1dB/mW
AlGaInP laser (670 nm) – pump efficiency
1dB/mW
Maxm efficiency achieved in 1990 –
11 dB/mW (980 nm pump)
Most EDFAs are 980 nm pumped:
• Available commercially (Ti-Sapphire laser??)
• upto 100 mW power available
• makes the system a three-level lasing
system
Pumping @ 1480 nm
• high pump power and longer length of fiber
required to achieve population inversion
Pumping Mechanisms
• Forward pumping – signal and pump
propagate in the same direction
• Backward pumping – in saturation regime,
power conversion efficiency is better, because
ASE moves in opposite direction
• Bidirectional pumping – population inversion
and hence small-signal gain is uniform all
through the fiber length
Major conclusions:
• Threshold pump power to achieve gain
• Optimum length for maximum gain, after
which gain reduces; it is a function of input
pump power
• Under small signal regime, gain is almost
independent of input signal power
• two noise components are there:
 ASE
 ESA
• 980 and 1480 nm pump schemes do not
show ESA and hence best suitable pump
schemes for EDFAs
• the flat gain profile within 1520 – 1580 nm
wavelength range makes EDFAs versatile for
WDM application.
Energy level diagram of Er3+ ion
Schematic of pump and signal variation
Terms which will frequently be used:
• Input pump power (Ppin)
• Pump power (Pp(z))
• Input signal power (Psin)
• Signal power (Ps(z))
• Optimum length (Popt)
Modeling
A threshold pump power, Ppth, is needed for
amplification. WHY???
The complete core or a fraction of core may
be doped by Er3+ ions.
SMF for both ls, i.e., 980 nm and 1550 nm
We assume the relaxation rate of E3 level is
very rapid – so even a 3-level system may be
modelled as a 2-level one.
N1(r,z) + N2(r,z)  Nt(r)
E3

E2

E1
We have 2 intensities
What are those?
We have 2 intensities
Ip(r,z) + Is(r,z)
And 3 cross sections
Can you name them?
We have 2 intensities
Ip(r,z) + Is(r,z)
And 3 cross sections
spa, ssa, and spe.
Now let’s assume:
N1 – number density of lower energy level E1
N2 – number density of lower energy level E2
And try to see what processes do take place
at these 2 levels.
N1 – number density of lower energy level E1
N2 – number density of lower energy level E2

N1 encounters 4 processes, e.g., ????

N2 encounters 3 processes, e.g., ????
E3

E2

E1
Rapid thermalization of Er3+ ions do occur at
4I
13/2 level and hence emission takes place
from bottom of the 4I13/2 level to top of the 4I15/2
level.
For this reason we consider
ssa ≠ sse.
Selection of dopants affects absorption-emission spectrum
At 1550 nm, se(n) = 3.41 units and sa(n) = 2.54, whereas at
1480 nm absorption cross section in much higher.
Selection of dopants affects absorption-emission spectrum.
This is for EDFA whose core is doped by germania (GeO2).
N1 encounters 4 processes –
1. Pump absorption (E1  E3)
2. Signal absorption (E1  E2)
3. Signal stimulated emission (E2  E1)
4. Signal spontaneous emission (E2  E1)
For analytical
analysis, pulse can
be approximated by
Gaussian envelope.
This is useful for
modeling.
Variation of pump power w.r.t. length. Note that
around input, pump power is high and the decrease
is almost linear, whereas for large z it becomes
exponential.
Variation of signal power with length. Input signal
power is 1 mW. Beyond an optimum length (which is ~
7m for Ppin = 5 mW), the signal gets attenuated.
Optimum length depends upon input pump power.
Variation of gain w.r.t. length. For maximum gain,
the length of the fiber must be chosen equal to the
optimum value, Lopt.
Variation of optimum length with the input pump
power.
Variation of gain with input pump power for different
length of the doped fiber. For any given fiber length
there is a threshold pump power for transparency of
the fiber. Beyond this, gain increases with pump
initially and then saturates.
 Variation of gain with Input signal power for an
EDFA with different input pump powers.
For small input signal powers, gain is almost
independent of signal power.
Variation of gain with output signal power for an EDFA
with different input pump powers.
For small input signal powers, gain is almost
independent of signal power.
Variation of output amplified signal power with input
signal power.
Variation of gain with signal wavelength of a 980 nm pumped
EDFA for different input pump powers. Fiber exhibits gain for
ls greater than a specific l. As pump power increases, this
specific l shifts towards shorter wavelengths.
Major conclusions:
•Threshold pump power to achieve gain
• Optimum length for maximum gain, after
which gain reduces; it is a function of input
pump power
• Under small signal regime, gain is almost
independent of input signal power
• two noise components are there:
 ASE
 ESA
• 980 and 1480 nm pump schemes do not
show ESA and hence best suitable pump
schemes for EDFAs
• the flat gain profile within 1520 – 1580 nm
wavelength range makes EDFAs versatile for
WDM application.
Silica fiber is just a host medium.
EDFAs are bit-rate transparent, hence are
scalable.
Theory of EDFA came around 1964. But
Fabrication and characterization techniques
got perfected by 1987.
First EDFA deployed in 1993 by AT&T.
Typical gain ~ 40-50 dB
Insertion loss of EDFAs is very low.
Noise added by a typical EDFA ~ 3-4 dB.
Optical Amplifiers are not available for 1300
nm based systems. The only suitable
element is Praseodymium (Pr, Z=59).
However no commercial thrust was found for
this to develop.
Doping level usually remains ~ 200 ppm =
1025 ions/m3.
Three types based on the location of use:
1. Power Amplifiers: Psin ~ -3 dBm to 0
dBm. Though overall gain remains low,
Psout ~ high. Noise figure is also high.
2. Preamplifiers: Psin ~ -40 to -50 dBm (0.1
to 0.01 mW), small signal or unsturated
regime. ASE becomes a major concern.
Backward directional pumping at 980 nm
is preferred.
3. Line Amplifiers:
Er3+ ions excited to higher energy levels
quickly relax down to 4I13/2 level. At this level
due to rapid thermalization of Er3+ ions, the
emission takes place from the bottom of 4I13/2
level to 4I15/2 level.
Therefore emission cross section shifts
towards higher wavelength no matter what are
the co-dopants.
Al2O3 is found to be most suitable for WDM.
Pump Efficiency
1. Initial lasers – Ar-ion (514 nm-green and
488 nm-blue), Nd:YAG ( 532 nm), very low
efficiencies
2. GaAs (820 nm), pump efficiency 1 dB/mW,
absorption 4I15/2 --- 4I9/2.
3. AlGaInP (670 nm), 33 dB @ 27 mW,
absorption 4I15/2 --- 4F9/2.
4. at 1480 nm, population inversion remains
low, and so is pump efficiency. WHY???