Question:

Follow the lectures on fiber optic communication system and, investigate

and discuss different types of optical sources and latest laser technologies
elaborately based on the lecture notes and other references.
Instructions:
1. Write a report in IEEE format. This is an individual task.
2. Write your AIUB ID number at the top right corner of every page of your
report.
3. Add the cover page given here to your report and change the file name
with your AIUB ID number.
4. Plagiarism is strictly prohibited. In case of copied / identical submissions,
both the students (the copier and the student whose assignment is copied)
will get ZERO or LOOSE at least 50% marks from the assignment.
5. Submit your assignment report before the deadline.
6. Submission should be in PDF format. Finally submit it in the MS Forms
link shared in MS Teams.
 Investigate and provide sufficient
knowledge on different optical sources
used in optical communication systems

MD.MAHFUZ ALAM
18-38292-2
Department of EEE
American International University Bangladesh
mafuzsohel@gmail.com

Abstract

The most important devices for fiber optic transmission

systems are presented, and their properties discussed. In
cladding, and the plastic coating that protects the fiber from
particular we consider such systems working with those basic moisture and damage is the buffer coating.Single-mode
components which are necessary to explain the principle of and multi-mode are the two types of optical fibers. The
operation. Among them is the optical transmitter, consisting of single-mode, used for long distances, has small cores and
a light source, typically a high speed driven laser diode. transmits infrared laser light. The multi-mode, normally
Furthermore, the optical receiver has to be mentioned; it used for short distances, has large cores and transmits
consists of a photodiode and a low noise high bit rate front-end infrared light.
amplifier. Yet, in the focus of the considerations you will find
the optical fiber as the dominant element in optical
communication systems. Different fiber types are presented,
and their properties explained. The joint action of these three
basic components leads to fiberoptic systems, mainly applied
for data communication.

Introduction History and development

Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting
information from one place to another by sending pulses of
light through an optical fiber. The light forms an
electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to carry
information. Fiber is preferred over electrical cabling when
high bandwidth, long distance, or immunity to
electromagnetic interference are required. This type of
communication can transmit voice, video, and telemetry
through local area networks, computer networks, or across long
distances .Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications
companies to transmit telephone signals, Internet communication,
and cable television signals. Researchers at Bell Labs have
reached internet speeds of over 100 peta bit ×kilometer per
second using fiber-optic communication. Fiber Optics, also
called optical fibers, are microscopic strands of very pure
glass with about the same diameter of a human hair.
Thousands of these optical fibers are arranged in bundles
in optical cables and are used to transmit light signals over
long distances. The bundles are protected by a jacket,
which is the cable's outer covering .The single optical fiber
consists of the core which is the thin glass center of the fiber
where the light travels, the outer optical material that
surrounds the core and reflects the light back into it is the
First developed in the 1970s, fiber-optics have revolutionized
the telecommunications industry and have played a major
role in the advent of the Information Age. Because of its
advantages over electrical transmission, optical fibers have
largely replaced copper wire communications in core
networks in the developed world. In 1880 Alexander Graham
Bell and his assistant Charles Sumner Tainter created a very
early precursor to fiber-optic communications, the
Photophone, at Bell's newly established Volta Laboratory in
Washington, D.C. Bell considered it his most important
invention. The device allowed for the transmission of sound
on a beam of light. On June 3, 1880, Bell conducted the
world's first wireless telephone transmission between two
buildings, some 213 meters apart. Due to its use of an
atmospheric transmission medium, the Photophone would
not prove practical until advances in laser and optical fiber
technologies permitted the secure transport of light. The
Photophone's first practical use came in military
communication systems many decades later. In 1954 Harold
Hopkins and Narinder Singh Kapany showed that rolled fiber
glass allowed light to be transmitted. Initially it was
considered that the light can traverse in only straight medium.
Jun-ichi Nishizawa, a Japanese scientist at Tohoku
University, proposed the use of optical fibers for
communications in 1963. Nishizawa invented the PIN diode
and the static induction transistor, both of which contributed
to the development of optical fiber communications. In 1966
Charles K. Kao and George Hockham at STC Laboratories
(STL) showed that the losses of 1,000 dB/km in existing glass
(compared to 5–10 dB/km in coaxial cable) were due to
contaminants which could potentially be removed. Optical
fiber was successfully developed in 1970 by Corning Glass
Works, with attenuation low enough for communication
purposes (about 20 dB/km) and at the same time GaAs
semiconductor lasers were developed that were compact and
therefore suitable for transmitting light through fiber optic
cables for long distances. In 1973, Telecom, Inc., co-founded
by the inventor of the laser, Gordon Gould, received a
contract from APA for the first optical communication
systems. Developed for Army Missile Command in
Huntsville, Alabama, it was a laser on the ground and a spout
of optical fiber played out by missile to transmit a modulated
signal over five kilometers. After a period of research starting
from 1975, the first commercial fiber-optic communications
system was developed which operated at a wavelength
around 0.8 μm and used GaAs semiconductor lasers. This
first-generation system operated at a bit rate of 45 Mbit/s with
repeater spacing of up to 10 km. Soon on 22 April 1977,
General Telephone and Electronics sent the first live
telephone traffic through fiber optics at a 6 Mbit/s throughput
in Long Beach, California. In October 1973, Corning Glass
signed a development contract with CSELT and Pirelli aimed
to test fiber optics in an urban environment: in September
1977, the second cable in this test series, named COS-2, was
experimentally deployed in two lines (9 km) in Turin, for the
first time in a big city, at a speed of 140 Mbit/s. The second
generation of fiber-optic communication was developed for
commercial use in the early 1980s, operated at 1.3 μm and
used Inga Asp semiconductor lasers. These early systems
were initially limited by multi-mode fiber dispersion, and in
1981 the single-mode fiber was revealed to greatly improve
system performance, however practical connectors capable
of working with single mode fiber proved difficult to
develop. Canadian service provider SaskTel had completed
construction of what was then the world's longest commercial
fiber optic network, which covered 3,268 km (2,031 mi) and
linked 52 communities. By 1987, these systems were
operating at bit rates of up to 1.7 Gb/s with repeater spacing
up to 50 km (31 mi). The first transatlantic telephone cable to
use optical fiber was TAT-8, based on Deserver optimized
laser amplification technology. It went into operation in
1988. Third-generation fiber-optic systems operated at 1.55
μm and had losses of about 0.2 dB/km. This development was
spurred by the discovery of Indium gallium arsenide and the
development of the Indium Gallium Arsenide photodiode by
Pearsall. Engineers overcame earlier difficulties with pulse
spreading at that wavelength using conventional InGaAsP
semiconductor lasers. Scientists overcame this difficulty by
using dispersion-shifted fibers designed to have minimal
dispersion at 1.55 μm or by limiting the laser spectrum to a
single longitudinal mode. These developments eventually
allowed third-generation systems to operate commercially at
2.5 Gbit/s with repeater spacing in excess of 100 km (62 mi).
The fourth generation of fiber-optic communication systems
used optical amplification to reduce the need for repeaters
and wavelength-division multiplexing to increase data
capacity. These two improvements caused a revolution that
resulted in the doubling of system capacity every six months
starting in 1992 until a bit rate of 10 Tb/s was reached by
2001. In 2006 a bit-rate of 14 Tbit/s was reached over a single
160 km (99 mi) line using optical amplifiers. The focus of
development for the fifth generation of fiber-optic
communications is on extending the wavelength range over
which a WDM system can operate. The conventional
wavelength window, known as the C band, covers the
wavelength range 1.53–1.57 μm, and dry fiber has a low-loss
window promising an extension of that range to 1.30–1.65
μm. Other developments include the concept of "optical
solutions", pulses that preserve their shape by counteracting
the effects of dispersion with the nonlinear effects of the fiber
by using pulses of a specific shape. In the late 1990s through
2000, industry promoters, and research companies such as
KMI, and RHK predicted massive increases in demand for
communications bandwidth due to increased use of the
Internet, and commercialization of various bandwidth-
intensive consumer services, such as video on demand.
Internet protocol data traffic was increasing exponentially, at
a faster rate than integrated circuit complexity had increased
under Moore's Law. From the bust of the dot-com bubble
through 2006, however, the main trend in the industry has
been consolidation of firms and offshoring of manufacturing
to reduce costs. Companies such as Verizon and AT&T have
taken advantage of fiber-optic communications to deliver a
variety of high-throughput data and broadband services to
consumers' homes.
Construction of optical-fiber
Parts of an optical-fiber
• Core
• Cladding
• Buffer
• Jacket Core
Fig 1: Construction of optical-fiber
The core of a fiber cable is a cylinder of plastic or silica or
glass that runs all along the fiber cable’s length, and offers
protection by cladding. The diameter of the core depends on
the application used. Due to internal reflection, the light
travelling within the core reflects from the core and the
cladding boundary. The core cross section needs to be a
circular one for most of the applications.
Cladding is an outer optical material that protects the core.
The main function of the cladding is that it reflects the light
back into the core. When light enters through the core (dense
material) into the cladding (less dense material), it changes its
angle, and then reflects back to the core.
The main function of the buffer is to protect the fiber from
damage while arranged in optical cables. These bundles are
protected by the cable’s strength members covering
Fiber optic cable’s jackets are available in different colors that
can easily make us recognize the exact color of the cable we
are dealing with. The color yellow clearly signifies a single
mode cable, and orange color indicates multimode. It is also
given mechanical strength to the optical cables.
THEORY & METHODOLOGY:
The elements of basic communication system are as follows
A) Information or input signal
B) Input Transducer
C) Transmitter
D) Communication channel or medium
E) Noise
F) Receiver
G) Output Transducer
1.Information source:-
• The objective of any communication system is to
convey information from one point to the other. The
information comes from the information source,
which originates it
• Information is a very generic word signifying at the
abstract level anything intended for communication,
which may include some thoughts, news, feeling,
visual scene, and so on.
• The information source converts this information
into physical quantity.
• The physical manifestation of the information is
termed as message signal
2.Transmitter:-
• The objective of the transmitter block is to collect the
incoming message signal and modify it in a suitable
fashion (if needed), such that, it can be transmitted
via the chosen channel to the receiving point.
• Channel is a physical medium which connects the
transmitter block with the receiver block.
• The functionality of the transmitter block is mainly
decided by the type or nature of the channel chosen
for communication.
3.Channel: -
• Channel is the physical medium which connects the
transmitter with that of the receiver.
• The physical medium includes copper wire, coaxial
cable, fibre optic cable, wave guide and free space or
atmosphere.
• The choice of a particular channel depends on the
feasibility and also the purpose of the
communication system.
4.Receiver: -
• The receiver block receives the incoming modified
version of the message signal from the channel and
processes it to recreate the original (non-electrical)
form of the message signal.
• There are a great variety of receivers in
communication systems, depending on the
processing required to recreate the original message
signal and also final presentation of the message to
the destination.
5.Destination: -
• The destination is the final block in the
communication system which receives the message
signal and processes it to comprehend the
information present in it.
• Usually, humans will be the destination block.
[3]
Types of Fiber Optic Cables: -
1) Single mode step index fiber
In Single mode light takes single path through the fiber core.
Step index means sharp step in the index of refraction between
core and cladding interface. This indicates that in step index,
core and cladding have their own constant index of refractions
N1 and N2 respectively. The step index cable cross section is
depicted in the figure-2.
2) Multimode graded index fiber:
In multimode light follows multiple paths through the fiber
core. In graded index, index of refraction is not constant but
vary smoothly across the diameter of the core. Index of
refraction is increasing as one goes near the center while
decreasing near outer core edges. Index of refraction is
maximum at the center of the core. Index of refraction is
constant for cladding part of the fiber.
Based on above, there are three types of fiber optic cable.
• multimode step index
• single mode step index
• multimode graded index
Multimode step index fiber cable
It is widely used due to benefits of large size. It is easier to
make and hence less expensive. It is used for shorter distances
at very low pulse frequencies. The figure-3 above depicts
graded index cable cross section. [4]
III) Propagation Modes
Fiber-optic cable has two propagation modes: multimode and
single mode. They perform differently with respect to both
attenuation and time dispersion. The single-mode fiber-optic
cable provides much better performance with lower
attenuation. To understand the difference between these types,
you must understand what is meant by "mode of propagation."
Light has a dual nature and can be viewed as either a wave
phenomenon or a particle phenomenon that includes photons
and solitons. Solitons are special localized waves that exhibit
particle-like behavior. For this discussion, let's consider the
wave mechanics of light. When the light wave is guided down
a fiber-optic cable, it exhibits certain modes. These are
variations in the intensity of the light, both over the cable cross
section and down the cable length. These modes are actually
numbered from lowest to highest. In a very simple sense, each
of these modes can be thought of as a ray of light. For a given
fiber-optic cable, the number of modes that exist depends on
the dimensions of the cable and the variation of the indices of
refraction of both core and cladding across the cross section.
The various modes include multimode step index, single-
mode step index, single-mode dual-step index, and multimode
graded index.[5]
Iv) Advantages & Disadvantages: Optical fiber
communication system has many advantages such as it has a
very high capacity, immunity to cross connection and static
interference. It is very safe since it is non-metallic and tapping
is very difficult so it is also very secure. It is very long lasting
and light weighted. Now for disadvantages it is very
expensive system. It has very expensive installation process
and has a interfacing cost. Since it is such a sophisticated
system it has a very high repair and maintenance cost. Also,
this system requires remote electric power to operate and has
a lower tensile length. Now considering its advantages and
shortcoming it can be decided that this system is still on the
profitable side.
V)Applications: Optical fiber is very useful to our modern
life. It has opened new path in communication sector. Because
of this system we enjoy the speed of telecommunication and
LAN. It made cable tv into reality. For that we can now live
stream out favorite events across the globe. We can now
conduct business anywhere at any time. It has made our life
easier.
Optical Fiber Mode
An optical fiber guides light waves in distinct patterns called
modes. Mode describes the distribution of light energy across
the fiber. The precise patterns depend on the wavelength of
light transmitted and on the variation in refractive index that
shapes the core. In essence, the variations in refractive index
create boundary conditions that shape how light waves travel
through the fiber, like the walls of a tunnel affect how sounds
echo inside.
We can take a look at large-core step-index fibers. Light rays
enter the fiber at a range of angles, and rays at different angles
can all stably travel down the length of the fiber as long as
they hit the core-cladding interface at an angle larger than
critical angle. These rays are different modes.
Fig 2: Mode of optical fiber
Fibers that carry more than one mode at a specific light
wavelength are called multimode fibers. Some fibers have
very small diameter core that they can carry only one mode
which travels as a straight line at the center of the core. These
fibers are single mode fibers. This is illustrated in the
following picture
Step-Index Multimode Fibers
Take a look at the illustration for a step-index multimode
fiber. Rays of light enter the fiber with different angles to the
fiber axis, up to the fiber's acceptance angle (numerical
aperture). Rays that enter with a shallower angle travel by a
more direct path, and arrive sooner than those enter at steeper
angles (which reflect many more times off the core/cladding
boundaries as they travel the length of the fiber). The arrival
of different modes of the light at different times is called
Modal Dispersion

Fig4: Graded-Index Multimode Fiber

The bandwidth of a typical off-the-shelf graded-index
multimode fiber with a 50 µm core may approach 1 GHz·km
or more. Multimode graded-index fibers having bandwidths
approaching 3 GHz·km have been produced.

Block Diagram of Optical Fiber Communication

System

Fig3: Step-Index Multimode Fibers

Digital communications use light pulse to transmit signal
down the length of the fiber, as we explain in the fiber optic
network tutorial. Modal dispersion causes pulses to spread out
as they travel along the fiber, the more modes the fiber
transmits, the more pulses spread out. This significantly limits
the bandwidth of step-index multimode fibers.

For example, a typical step-index multimode fiber with a 50

µm core would be limited to approximately 20 MHz for a one-
kilometer length, in other words, a bandwidth of 20 MHz·km.
Graded-Index Multimode Fiber
Graded-index fiber’s refractive index decreases gradually
away from its center, finally dropping to the same value as the
cladding at the edge of the core. The change in refractive
index causes refraction, instead of total internal reflection,
which bends light rays back toward the fiber axis as they pass
through layers with lower refractive index. No total internal
reflection happens because refraction bends light rays back
into the fiber axis before they reach the cladding boundary
Different light modes in a graded-index multimode fiber still
follow different lengths along the fiber, as in step-index
multimode fiber. However, their speeds differ because the
speed of guided light changes with fiber core’s refractive
index.
Fig5: Block Diagram of Optical Fiber Communication
System
Transmitter
The transmitter first converts the input voltage to current
value which is used to drive the light source. Thus, it
interfaces the input circuit and the light source. The light
source is normally an infrared LED or LASER device which
is driven by the current value from the V to I convertor. It
emits light which is proportional to the drive current. Thus,
light which is proportional to the input voltage value is
generated and given as input to fiber. A source to fiber
interface is used for coupling the light source to the fiber optic
cable. The light emitted from the source is inserted into the
fiber such that maximum light emitted from it is coupled to
the fiber.
Optical Splice
For creating long haul communication link, it is necessary to
join one fiber to other fibers permanently. For this purpose,
optical splicing techniques are used to join different fibers
Optical Coupler/ Beam splitter
Optical couplers are used to couple the light output from the
fiber end to the device which can be receiver or regenerator.
Beam splitters are used to split the light beam which can be
given to other equipment.
Regenerator/ Repeater
After an optical signal is launched in to a fiber, it will become
progressively attenuated and distorted with increasing
distance because of scattering, absorption and dispersion
mechanisms in the glass material. Therefore, repeaters are
placed in between to reconstruct the original signal and again
retransmit it. The signal is processed in electronics domain
and hence optical to electrical conversion and electrical to
optical conversions are performed in the repeater.
Optical Amplifier
After an optical signal has travelled a certain distance along a
fiber, it becomes greatly weakened due to power loss along
the fiber. Therefore, when setting up an optical link, engineers
formulate a power loss budget and add amplifiers or repeaters
when the path loss exceeds the available power margin.
The periodically placed amplifiers merely give the optical
signal a power boost, whereas a repeater attempts to restore
the signal to its original shape.
Laser Diode Characteristics:
• Nanosecond & even picosecond response time (GHz BW)
• Spectral width of the order of nm or less
• High output power (tens of mW)
Latest laser technologies: • Narrow beam (good coupling to single mode fibers)
ubiquitous in today's world that it’s hard to imagine that the • Laser diodes have three distinct radiation modes namely,
first one was built less than 60 years ago. Laser, which is an longitudinal, lateral and transverse modes.
acronym for “light amplification by stimulated emission of • In laser diodes, end mirrors provide strong optical feedback
radiation,” is a technology commonly used in our everyday in longitudinal direction, so by roughening the edges and
lives. Lasers are in the optical drives in computers, in barcode cleaving the facets, the radiation can be achieved in
readers in the grocery store, in aesthetic and dental
longitudinal direction rather than lateral direction.
treatments, in surgical procedures, manufacturing and more.
While the science of light itself has not changed, laser
technology has advanced rapidly and today we have a myriad Light Emitting Diodes(LEDs):
of laser types that wouldn’t have been thought possible 60
years ago. Some of the latest advances include the all-silicon
laser, a holmium doped laser on a silicon photonics platform LEDs are a type of semiconductor called "Light Emitting
and a flying micro laser. Diode". White LEDs, which have achieved practical
Laser: realization through the use of high-brightness blue LEDs
developed in 1993 based on Gallium Nitride, are
Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of
attracting increased attention as a 4th type of light source.
Radiation) • Laser is an optical oscillator. It comprises a
resonant optical amplifier whose output is fed back into its LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) are semiconductor
input with matching phase. Any oscillator contains: 1- An light sources that combine a P-type semiconductor
amplifier with a gain-saturated mechanism 2- A feedback (larger hole concentration) with an N-type
system 3- A frequency selection mechanism 4- An output semiconductor (larger electron concentration).
coupling scheme • In laser, the amplifier is the pumped active Applying a sufficient forward voltage will cause
medium, such as biased semiconductor region, feedback can
the electrons and holes to recombine at the P-N
be obtained by placing active medium in an optical resonator,
such as FabryPerot structure, two mirrors separated by a junction, releasing energy in the form of light.
prescribed distance. Frequency selection is achieved by
resonant amplifier and by the resonators, which admits certain Compared with conventional light sources that
modes. Output coupling is accomplished by making one of the first convert electrical energy into heat, and then
resonator mirrors partially transmitting. into light, LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) convert
Laser diode: electrical energy directly into light, delivering
A laser diode is a semiconductor device similar to a light- efficient light generation with little-wasted
emitting diode in which a diode pumped directly with electrical
current can create lasing conditions at the diode's junction. electricity.
Driven by voltage, the doped p-n-transition allows for
recombination of an electron with a hole.
Types of LEDs:
1.Surface emitter LED
Surface emitter LED provides high optical
coupling efficiency because coupling coefficient
carrier recombination close to its top
heterojunction. InGaAsP or InP based LED is used
for long wavelength applications. It provides
higher efficiency when low to high radiance. The
contact layer ensures low thermal resistance and
contact resistance. So, it allows high current
densities. It also gives good forward radiance.

2. Edge emitter LED

Edge emitter LED has greater coupling efficiency

with fiber optic cable compare to surface emitting
LED and provides higher efficiency for low to
high radiance. It can also provide high brightness
LED for the lighting industry. It radiates fewer
power to the air compare to surface. It can provide
better modulation bandwidth. It can provide offers
high data rates (greater than 20 Mbps) than the
surface emitting LED.
ILD Laser:
 At some current level, it will emit a brilliant
light. The physical structure of the ILD is such
that the semiconductor structure is cut
squarely at the ends to form internal
reflecting surfaces.
 One of the surfaces is usually coated with
a reflecting material such as gold. The
other surface is only partially reflective.
 When the diode is properly biased, the light
will be emitted and will bounce back and
forth internally between the reflecting
surfaces.
 The distance between the reflecting surfaces
has been carefully measured so that it is
some multiple of a half wave at the light
frequency.
The bouncing back and forth of the light waves causes their
intensity to reinforce and build up. The structure is like a
cavity resonator for light. The result is an incredibly high
brilliance, single-frequency light beam that is emitted from
the partially reflecting surface.

Semiconductor Light Sources •

A PN junction (that consists of direct band gap
semiconductor materials) acts as the active or recombination
region. • When the PN junction is forward biased, electrons
and holes recombine either radiatively (emitting photons) or
non-radiatively (emitting heat). This is simple LED operation.
• In a LASER, the photon is further processed in a resonance
cavity to achieve a coherent, highly directional optical beam
with narrow linewidth.

DFB Laser:
In a DFB laser, the grating and the reflection is edge emitting lasers. The laser mode properties
generally continuous along the cavity, instead of just were analyzed by travelling wave model and
being at the two ends.As the temperature and current
changes, the grating and the cavity shift together at the Finite Difference Time Domain solution. It also
lower rate of the refractive index change, and there are shows a single mode operation with a linear
no mode-hops. DFB laser has grating and it reflects only a output power of 20mW and surface emitting
wavelength back into the cavity and allow others to pass
efficiency of 45% which is good.
through. This laser discrete grating into one of the cladding
layers of a diode. Overall, the feedback is distributed and
that's why it is called distributed feedback laser. This laser is
more expensive as well as it reliable for long distance
transmission.

The all-silicon laser:

Researchers at Fudan University in Shanghai,
China, developed an all-silicon laser, using silicon
nanocrystals with high optical gains. Lead
researcher Xiang Wu call his team’s all-silicon laser
the “the last piece missing from the jigsaw of silicon
photonics.” He sees this step as leading to a new
VCSELs Laser:
revolution in information technology, “…
VCSELs comes from Vertical Cavity Surface-
Emitting Lasers. It is a semiconductor laser with
a monolithic laser resonator. The emitted light
from the device went in a direction perpendicular
to the chip surface in the resonator. The resonator
is realized by two semiconductors, between them
one is an active region gain structure with few
quantum walls and their thickness is few
micrometers. Sometimes, the active region is
electrically pumped with a tens of mill watts and
generates an output power from 0.5-5mW or
larger powers of multimode devices. The current
is provided through a ring electrode. Here, the
output beam can be extracted and the current is
limited to the cavity region mode by using similar to the case of integrated circuits and
electrically conductive mirror layers. In this year, electronics happening, decades ago.”
a research was happened about 'A high efficiency
The bottleneck that had prevented the realization of
long wavelength surface emitting laser'. It proved
all-silicon lasers until now is the low optical gain of
high efficiency surface emitting laser at 1550nm
silicon nanomaterials, such as nanocrystals. The
that means higher wavelength. This laser is based
researchers developed a way of improving the
on grating structure and it back the advantages of
density of silicon nanocrystals in the gain layer to
enhance the light intensity. Then they used a unique
approach of high-pressure surface passivation t the
gain layer, resulting in the boosted optical gain of
silicon nanocrystals becoming comparable to that of
commonly used III-V lasing compounds.
The biggest challenge in developing the all-silicon
laser, according to the professor, was to figure out
how to increase the optical gain of silicon
nanocrystals to a level comparable to that of
commonly used III-V lasing compounds
The applications of silicon lasers include data
communication, lighting, imaging, display, bio and
chemical sensing, etc.
For more information read All-Silicon Laser: The
missing piece to the integrated silicon photonics
jigsaw.
Holmium-doped laser on silicon photonics
platform:
Mid-infrared laser sources have broad applications
in communications, detection, medicine and
sensing. Fabricating them on a silicon photonics
platform brings down manufacturing costs because
they can be made in a standard CMOS foundry. A
team of researchers from the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT), Harvard University
and other institutions recently demonstrated a
holmium-doped distributed feedback laser
monolithically integrated on a silicon photonics
platform. What is truly new and unique about this
laser and had not been accomplished before is that
it shows the lasing on silicon wafer beyond 2.0 µm
wavelength.
(a) Cross-sectional view of the laser waveguide
including five strips of Si3N4, an Al2O3:Ho3+ film,
SiO2 and air as a lower and upper cladding,
respectively on Si substrate. (b) Refractive indices of
the waveguide materials. (c) Transverse-electric
(TE) field intensity for the fundamental mode at the
pump (1950 nm) and laser output (2100 nm)
wavelengths in the DFB waveguide. (d) 3D
illustration of the DFB laser showing the different
material layers and cavity features (not to scale). (e)
Calculated transmission of designed DFB cavity at
2100 nm.
The mono lithical integration is achieved by a single-
step wafer-scale deposition process. One of the
biggest challenges with this approach is to find the
proper holmium doping concentration for the laser.
In the end, the team was successful in figuring out
the doping concentration to give the best lasing
power: Using a 1950 nm pump, they measured a
maximum output power of 15 mW, a slope efficiency
of 2.3% and a side-mode suppression ratio in
excess of 50 dB. The next step in their research is to
develop rare-earth doped lasers operating in the
pulsed regime, based on this silicon photonics
platform.
For more information read Monolithically Integrated
Holmium Lasers.
Flying micro laser:
Imagine a tiny, flying laser that can move through
optical fiber and deliver light inside the body. That’s
exactly what researchers developed at the Max
Planck Institute for the Science of Light. According
to researcher Richard Zeltner. “By inserting a fiber
into the skin, a micro laser emitting at a suitable
wavelength could deliver precisely positioned light
for use with light-activated drugs. The concept could
also be applied in opto fluidic lab-on-a-chip devices
to provide a light source for various bioanalysis
techniques or for on-chip temperature
measurements with high spatial resolution.”
This is the first time that researchers have optically
trapped and propelled a particle-based laser for
centimeters inside an optical fiber. The new flying
micro laser enables highly sensitive temperature
measurements along the length of the fiber and
could offer a novel way to precisely deliver light to
remote and inaccessible locations. The flying micro
laser is the first demonstration of distributed sensing
using a whispering gallery mode resonator. This
could be used for real-time continuous sensing
along an optical fiber.
To test the new system’s ability to sense
temperature changes, the researchers propelled the
lasing micro particle along two regions of the fiber
heated to 22 degrees Celsius above room
temperature. By measuring shifts in the lasing
wavelengths emitted from the micro particle, they
could precisely detect changes in temperature as
the micro laser moved through the fiber. The sensor
detected temperature changes of just under 3
degrees Celsius and provided a spatial resolution of
a few millimeters.
Using a technique called laser Doppler velocimetry,
the researchers determined that the particle moved
at a speed of 250 microns per second during the
experiment. They say that using a fiber filled with air
rather than water could increase the propulsion
speed to centimeters or even meters per second.
Although the micro particles used in the experiment
tend to lose their ability to lase after about a minute
due to photo bleaching, the researchers say that
micro particles with different gain materials could
solve this problem. They are also exploring whether
multiple micro lasers could be manipulated inside
the fiber simultaneously and are working on
improvements of the particle position detection
scheme.
For more information, read Researchers Create
Micro laser that Flies Along Hollow Optical Fiber
Receiver
At the destination of an optical fiber transmission line there is
a coupling device (connector) which couples the light signal
to the detector. Inside the receiver is a photodiode that detects
the weakened and distorted optical signal emerging from the
end of an optical fiber and converts it to an electrical signal.
(Referred to as photo current). I to V convertor produce an
output voltage proportional to the current generated by the
light detector. Thus, we obtain output value which was given
to the system as data input.
Advantages of Fiber Optic Transmission
Optical fibers have largely replaced copper wire
communications in core networks in the developed world,
because of its advantages over electrical transmission. Here
are the main advantages of fiber optic transmission.
Extremely High Bandwidth
No other cable-based data transmission medium offers the
bandwidth that fiber does. The volume of data that fiber optic
cables transmit per unit time is far great than copper cables.
Longer Distance
In fiber optic transmission, optical cables are capable of
providing low power loss, which enables signals can be
transmitted to a longer distance than copper cables.
Resistance to Electromagnetic Interference
In practical cable deployment, it’s inevitable to meet
environments like power substations, heating, ventilating and
other industrial sources of interference. However, fiber has a
very low rate of bit error, as a result of fiber being so resistant
to electromagnetic interference. Fiber optic transmission is
virtually noise free.
Low Security Risk
The growth of the fiber optic communication market is mainly
driven by increasing awareness about data security concerns
and use of the alternative raw material. Data or signals are
transmitted via light in fiber optic transmission. Therefore,
there is no way to detect the data being transmitted by
"listening in" to the electromagnetic energy "leaking" through
the cable, which ensures the absolute security of information.
Small Size
fiber optic cable has a very small diameter. For instance, the
cable diameter of a single OM3 multimode fiber is about
2mm, which is smaller than that of coaxial copper cable.
Small size saves more space in fiber optic transmission.
Light Weight
Fiber optic cables are made of glass or plastic, and they are
thinner than copper cables. These make them lighter and easy
to install.
Easy to Accommodate Increasing Bandwidth
With the use of fiber optic cable, new equipment can be added
to existing cable infrastructure. Because optical cable can
provide vastly expanded capacity over the originally laid
cable. And WDM (wavelength division multiplexing)
technology, including CWDM and DWDM, enables fiber
cables the ability to accommodate more bandwidth.
Disadvantages of Fiber Optic Transmission
Though fiber optic transmission brings lots of convenience,
its disadvantages also cannot be ignored.
Fragility
Usually, optical fiber cables are made of glass, which lends to
they are more fragile than electrical wires. In addition, glass
can be affected by various chemicals including hydrogen gas
(a problem in underwater cables), making them need more
cares when deployed underground.
Difficult to Install
It’s not easy to splice fiber optic cable. And if you bend them
too much, they will break. And fiber cable is highly
susceptible to becoming cut or damaged during installation or
construction activities. All these make it difficult to install.
Attenuation & Dispersion
As transmission distance getting longer, light will be
attenuated and dispersed, which requires extra optical
components like EDFA to be added.
Cost Is Higher Than Copper Cable
Despite the fact that fiber optic installation costs are dropping
by as much as 60% a year, installing fiber optic cabling is still
relatively higher than copper cables. Because copper cable
installation does not need extra care like fiber cables.
However, optical fiber is still moving into the local loop, and
through technologies such as FTTx (fiber to the home,
premises, etc.) and PONs (passive optical networks), enabling
subscriber and end user broadband access.
Special Equipment Is Often Required
To ensure the quality of fiber optic transmission, some special
equipment is needed. For example, equipment such as OTDR
(optical time-domain reflectometry) is required and
expensive, specialized optical test equipment such as optical
probes and power meter are needed at most fiber endpoints to
properly provide testing of optical fiber.
Applications of Optical Fiber Communications
Fiber optic cables find many uses in a wide variety of
industries and applications. Some uses of fiber optic cables
include:
Medical
Used as light guides, imaging tools and also as lasers for
surgeries
Defense/Government
Used as hydrophones for seismic waves and SONAR, as
wiring in aircraft, submarines and other vehicles and also for
field networking
Data Storage
Used for data transmission
Telecommunications
Fiber is laid and used for transmitting and receiving purposes
Networking
Used to connect users and servers in a variety of network
settings and help increase the speed and accuracy of data
transmission
Industrial/Commercial
Used for imaging in hard-to-reach areas, as wiring where EMI
is an issue, as sensory devices to make temperature, pressure
and other measurements, and as wiring in automobiles and in
industrial settings
Broadcast/CATV
Broadcast/cable companies are using fiber optic cables for
wiring CATV, HDTV, internet, video on demand and other
applications Fiber optic cables are used for lighting and
imaging and as sensors to measure and monitor a vast array of
variables. Fiber optic cables are also used in research and
development and testing across all the above-mentioned
industries
Its other applications are
• Used in telephone systems
• Used in sub-marine cable networks
• Used in data link for computer networks, CATV
Systems
• Used in CCTV surveillance cameras
• Used for connecting fire, police, and other
emergency services.
• Used in hospitals, schools, and traffic management
systems.
• They have many industrial uses and also used for in
heavy duty constructions.
Conclusion:
Optical communication are investigated are presented in this
paper. The laser industry was presented to the customers,
along with other cutting-edge technologies. Moreover, many
types of optical sources were thoroughly discussed, along with
their applications in the optical communication industry.
Different material performance is described for better optical
sources. Optical sources such as lasers, LEDs, DFB,
VCSELs and ILDs will be the future of today's
communication.
REFERENCES
[1] https://mrcet.com/downloads/digital_notes/ECE/III%20
Year/FIBER%20OPTICAL%20COMMUNICATIONS.
pdf
[2] https://www.ques10.com/p/36274/draw-and-explain-
the-block-diagram-of-fiber-optic-/
[3] https://www.fiberoptics4sale.com/blogs/archive-
posts/95152198-multimode-fiber-and-multimode-fiber-
optic-cable-tutorial
[4] https://www.studyelectronics.in/what-is-an-optical-
fiber-its-construction-basics/
[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber
[6] Lecture slide (optical communication)
[7] https://bitesizebio.com/24714/copy-of-introduction-to-optical-
fibers-part-1/
[8] https://www.physics-and-radio-electronics.com/blog/elements-
of-a-communication-system/
[9] https://www.ques10.com/p/3295/draw-explain-block-diagram-
of-basic-communicatio-1/
[10] https://www.rfwireless-world.com/Terminology/single-mode-
step-index-vs-multimode-graded-index-fiber.html
[11] https://www.ciscopress.com/articles/article.asp?p=170740&se
qNum=5