Optical Fiber Fundamentals

Optical Fiber Technician Page |1
UNIT-1
FUNDAMENTALS OF OPTICAL FIBER TECHNOLOGY
We have already discussed the Optical Fiber, and its

splicing methods and how many types of Fiber are classified and
how the optical Fiber using for different places , advantages,
applications and when the splicing is to be taken what are the
precautions to be taken by splicer.
Let in this Session we have discussing about the
fundamentals of optical Fiber technology in optics .
Basics of Fiber Optics
Fiber optic technology has its roots back in the Roman

times when they started drawing glass into Fibers.
 In the 1970s, the ‘’optical telegraph” was invented. A series
of lights were placed on towers, in order to transmit
messages from a place to another.
 In 1840, Daniel Collodon and Jaques Babinet, both
physicists, managed to prove that light can be directed
along jet of water in the fountain displays.
 In 1854, John Tyndall, also a physicist, took it one step
further. He proved that light could travel through a curved
stream of water therefore a light signal could be tilted.
 In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell created the optical
telephone system, called photo phone.
 In 1888, the Viennese doctors Roth and Reuses, used
curved rods to illuminate body cavities.
 Seven years later, in 1895, in an early attempt at
television, Henry Saint-Rene designed a system of bent glass
rods for guiding light images.
 In the 1920s, John Logie Baird patented the idea of using
arrays of transparent stems to transmit images for
television. However, in the 1930s, Heinrich Lamm was the
first person to transmit an image through a batch of optical
Fibers.
 In 1951, Hogler Moeller applied for a Danish patent on
Fiber optic imaging in which he proposed cladding glass or
plastic Fibers with a low index, transparent material but
was refused because of the Braid’s patent.
 In 1961, Elias Snitzer published a theoretical description of

single-mode Fibers, with a core so small that it could carry
light with only one waveguide mode. He was able to
demonstrate that a laser (light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation) directed through a thin glass Fiber
can be sufficient for medical applications. For
communication applications, the light loss became too
great.
 In 1964, Standard Communication Laboratories in
England proved that light loss of existing glass Fiber could
be diminished by removing impurities.
 In 1970, Corning Glass Works made single mode Fibers
with attenuation less than 20dB/ km.
 In 1973, Bell Laboratories developed a modified vapour
deposition process that can be mass-produced into a low-
loss optical Fiber. This process remains, to this day, the
standard for Fiber optic cabling manufacturing.
 In 1977, the first live telephone traffic through Fiber optics
happens in Long Beach, California.
 In the early 1980s, telephone companies started to use
Fiber optics to rebuild their communication infrastructure.
 In 1986, Emmanuel Desurvire invented the erbium-doped
amplifier which reduced the cost of long-distance Fiber
systems.
 In 1988, the first transatlantic telephone cable went into
operation.
 In 1991, Desurvire and Payne demonstrate amplifiers were
built into the Fiber optic cable itself. Also in 1991, the
photonic crystal Fiber was developed.
Nowadays, the Fiber optic technology is used in a great variety of

industries, including telecommunication, medical field,
networking, broadcasting, aviation and many others.
Optical Fiber Technology :
Fiber optics, or optical Fibers, are long, thin strands of

carefully drawn glass about the diameter of a human hair. These
strands are arranged in bundles called optical cables. We rely on
them to transmit light signals over long distances.
At the transmitting source, the light signals are encoded
with data… the same data you see on the screen of a computer.
So, the optical Fiber transmits “data” by light to a receiving end,
where the light signal is decoded as data. Therefore, Fiber optics
is actually a transmission medium – a “pipe” to carry signals over
long distances at very high speeds.
Fiber optic cables were originally developed in the 1950s

for endoscopes. The purpose was to help doctors view the inside
of a human patient without major surgery. In the 1960s,
telephone engineers found a way to use the same technology to
transmit and receive telephone calls at the “speed of light”. That
is about 186,000 miles per second in a vacuum, but slows to
about two-thirds of this speed in a cable.
Light travels down a Fiber optic cable by bouncing off the

walls of the cable repeatedly. Each light particle (photon) bounces
down the pipe with continued internal mirror-like reflection.
The light beam travels down the core of the cable. The core
is the middle of the cable and the glass structure.
The cladding is another layer of glass wrapped around the core.
Cladding is there to keep the light signals inside the core.
Types of Fiber Optic Cables :
There are many types of Fiber optic cables, often that end
up in Fiber optic cable assemblies to execute their function.
Single And Multimode Fiber :
Fiber optic cables carry light signals in modes. A mode is a path
that the light beam follows when travelling down the Fiber. There
are single mode and multimode Fiber cables.
Single mode Fiber is the simplest structure. It contains a very
thin core, and all signals travel straight down the middle without
bouncing off the edges. Single mode Fiber optic cables are
typically used for CATV, Internet, and telephone applications,
where the signals are carried by single mode Fibers wrapped into
a bundle.
Multimode
Fiber is the other type of Fiber optic cable. It is about 10
times larger than a single mode cable. The light beams can travel
though the core by following a variety of different paths, or in
multiple different modes. These cable types can only send data
over short distances. Therefore, they are used, among other
applications, for interconnecting computer networks.
There are four types of multimode Fiber optic cables, identified by
“OM” (optical multimode). An industry association designated
them as OM1, OM2, OM3 and OM4. They are described by
ISO/IEC 11801. OM4’s standard was approved by TIA/EIA
492AAAD. Each OM has a minimum Modal Bandwidth
requirement.
Plenum
In addition, Fiber optic cables can be made to comply
with industry standard requirements for installation in air
plenums. These are used inside buildings with special materials
and compounds for jacketing. Called “plenum cables,” these meet
flame and toxicity requirements in the event of fire.
Simplex And Duplex Optical Fiber

Simplex Fiber optic cable constructions contain a single strand
of glass. Most often, simplex Fiber is used where only a single
transmit and/or receive line is required between devices or when
a multiplex data signal is used (bi-directional communication
over a single Fiber).
A duplex Fiber cable consists of two strands of glass or plastic

iber. Typically found in a “zipcord” construction format, this
cable is most often used for duplex communication between
devices where a separate transmit and receive are required.
Other Applications Of Optical Fiber Technology

Besides plenum cable constructions, Fiber optic cable
assembly manufacturers create:
 “Siamese” structures (two cables side by side, each with its own
jacket)
 hybrid cables (with copper cables)
 bundled and composite cable constructions that include other
Fiber optic, copper, or sometimes power pair cables
Shorter “patch cables” or “Fiber jumpers” are used to
interconnect various pieces of electronic equipment in a server
room, telco closet or data centre.
Uses of Optical Fiber in Our Daily Life

You may have seen plastic Fibers carrying colored lights in
decorative applications. What you may not have seen are the real
glass Fiber optic cables that are now the foundation of our
communication and computer networks. Many thousands of
miles of installed Fiber optic cable carry many types of
information underground, in tunnels, building walls, ceilings,
and other places you don’t see. For examples of uses of optical
Fiber in our daily life include applications such as:
 computer networking
 broadcasting
 medical scanning
 military equipment
In recent years, other Fiber optic uses have arisen. Fiber

optic cables have become the backbone for MANs, WANs and
LANs. There has been a trend toward “FTTX” or “Fiber to the
XXXX” applications. That is, for example, Fiber to the:
 Home (FTTH)
 Curb (FTTC)
 Premise (FTTP)
 Building (FTTB)
 Node (FTTN)
Initially, Fiber optic uses were primarily trunk cable lines
designed to carry signals to larger populated areas. Over time,
theses cables have extended their reach to the home, the
building, etc., giving rise to the FTTX trend.
Fiber Optics
An optical fiber can be understood as a dielectric
waveguide, which operates at optical frequencies. The device or a
tube, if bent or if terminated to radiate energy, is called
a waveguide, in general. Following image depicts a bunch of fiber
optic cables.
The electromagnetic energy travels through it in the

form of light. The light propagation, along a waveguide can be
described in terms of a set of guided electromagnetic waves,
called as modes of the waveguide.
Working Principle :
A fundamental optical parameter one should have an idea about,
while studying fiber optics is Refractive index. By definition, “The
ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to that in matter is the
index of refraction n of the material.”
Fiber Optics Standards :
BS : British Standard Institute
CEI : Comitato Elettrotecnico Italiano
EN :European Norm
IEC : International Electro technical Commission.
ITU-T : International Telecommunication Union.
NEK : Norsk Electroteknisk Komite
NF : Norme Francaise
VDE : Verband der Electrotechnik
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cable are :
The following are the advantages and Disadvantages of

Optical Fiber Cable are :
An optical fiber or fiber optic cable is a flexible, transparent fiber

made by drawing glass, which are used most often as a means to
transmit light between the two ends of the fiber and find wide usage in
fiber-optic communications, where they permit transmission over
longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than wire
cables.
Advantages of Optical Fiber Cable
Bandwidth
Fiber optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal

cables. The amount of information that can be transmitted per
unit time of fiber over other transmission media is its most
significant advantage.
Low Power Loss

An optical fiber offers low power loss, which allows for longer
transmission distances. In comparison to copper, in a network,
the longest recommended copper distance is 100m while with
fiber, it is 2km.
Interference
Fiber optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference. It

can also be run in electrically noisy environments without
concern as electrical noise will not affect fiber.
Size
In comparison to copper, a fiber optic cable has nearly 4.5 times

as much capacity as the wire cable has and a cross sectional
area that is 30 times less.
Weight
Fiber optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires.
They also occupy less space with cables of the same information
capacity. Lighter weight makes fiber easier to install.
Security
Optical Fibers are difficult to tap. As they do not radiate

electromagnetic energy, emissions cannot be intercepted. As
physically tapping the fiber takes great skill to do undetected,
fiber is the most secure medium available for carrying sensitive
data.
Flexibility
An optical fiber has greater tensile strength than copper or steel

Fibers of the same diameter. It is flexible, bends easily and
resists most corrosive elements that attack copper cable.
Cost
The raw materials for glass are plentiful, unlike copper. This
means glass can be made more cheaply than copper.
Optical Fiber Technician P a g e | 10
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cable
Difficult to Splice
The optical Fibers are difficult to splice, and there are loss of the
light in the fiber due to scattering. They have limited physical arc
of cables. If you bend them too much, they will break.
Expensive to Install
The optical Fibers are more expensive to install, and they have to
be installed by the specialists. They are not as robust as the
wires. Special test equipment is often required to the optical fiber.
Highly Susceptible
The fiber optic cable is a small and compact cable, and it is

highly susceptible to becoming cut or damaged during
installation or construction activities. The fiber optic cables can
provide tremendous data transmission capabilities. So, when the
fiber optic cabling is chosen as the transmission medium, it is
necessary to address restoration, backup and survivability.
Can’t Be Curved
The transmission on the optical fiber requires repeating at

distance intervals. The Fibers can be broken or have
transmission losses when wrapped around curves of only a few
centimeters radius.
Applications of Optical Fiber Cable are :
Fiber optic cables find many uses in a wide variety of

industries and applications. Some uses of fiber optic cables
include:
 Medical
Used as light guides, imaging tools and also as lasers for
surgeries
 Defence/Government
Used as hydrophones for seismic waves and SONAR , as wiring
in aircraft, submarines and other vehicles and also for field
networking
 Data Storage
Used for data transmission
 Telecommunications
Fiber is laid and used for transmitting and receiving purposes
 Networking
Used to connect users and servers in a variety of network
settings and help increase the speed and accuracy of data
transmission
 Industrial/Commercial
Used for imaging in hard to reach areas, as wiring where EMI
is an issue, as sensory devices to make temperature, pressure
and other measurements, and as wiring in automobiles and in
industrial settings
 Broadcast/CATV
Broadcast/cable companies are using fiber optic cables for
wiring CATV, HDTV, internet, video on-demand and other
applications.
Fiber optic cables are used for lighting and imaging and
as sensors to measure and monitor a vast array of variables.
Fiber optic cables are also used in research and development and
testing across all the above mentioned industries.
Light :
Light is the prime factor in the human life as all activities of
human beings ultimately depend upon the light. Where there is
no natural light, use of artificial light is made. Artificial lighting
produced electrically, on account of its cleanliness, ease of
control, reliability, steady output, as well as its low cost, is

playing an increasingly important part in modern everyday life.
Apart from its aesthetic and decorative aspects, good lighting has
a strictly utilitarian value in increasing production, reducing
workers fatigue, protecting their health, eyes and nervous
system, and reducing accidents. The science of illumination
engineering is, therefore, becoming of major importance.
Nature of Light:
Light is a form of radiant energy. Various forms of
incandescent bodies are the sources of light and the light emitted
by such bodies depend upon the temperature of bodies. Heat
energy is radiated into the medium by a body which is hotter
than the medium surrounding it. The heat of the body, as seen,
can be classified as red-hot or white-hot. While the body is red-
hot the wavelength of radiated energy will be sufficiently large
and the energy available is in the form of heat.
When the temperature increases the body changes from

red-hot to white-hot state, the wavelength of the energy radiated
becomes smaller and enters into the range of the wavelength of
light. Actually the hot bodies emit heat as well as light energy,
the velocity of these being equal to 3 x 108 m/s. The light waves
have wavelengths varying from 0.00075 mm to 0.0004 mm. The
wavelength of light is usually expressed in Angstrom.
1 Angstrom = 10-10 metre.
The ratio of the energy emitted by the body in the form
of light to the total energy emitted by the body is known as the
‘radiant efficiency’ of the body, which depends upon the
temperature. Higher the temperature of the body; lower the
wavelength of the radiant energy and higher the radiant
efficiency. The radiant efficiency will be maximum when the
temperature of the body will be such that the wavelength of the
shortest wave radiated by the body is 0.0004 mm (4,000 Å).
It is found that maximum radiant efficiency would

occur at about 6,250°C and even then it would be 20%. Since
this temperature is far above the highest that has yet been
obtained in practice, it is obvious that the actual efficiency of all

artificial light sources, i.e., those depending upon the
temperature of incandescence is quite low.
Colour:
The sensation of colour is due to the difference in the
wavelengths of the light radiations. Visible light can have a
wavelength between 4,000 Å and 7,500 Å and the colour varies in
the way, as shown in Figs. 7.1 and 7.2.
Relative Sensitivity:
The sensitivity of the eye to the lights of different
wavelengths varies from person to person and according to the
age. The average relative sensitivity is shown in Fig. 7.2. The eye
has greatest sensitivity for wavelengths of about 5,500 Å; that is,
yellow-green can be seen under poor conditions of illumination
when blue or red cannot be seen under dim illumination, the
sensitive curve tends to shift, as shown by the shaded region in
Fig. 7.2. Therefore, violet disappears first and red remains visible.
Yellow disappears last as the illumination becomes very

dim. As each colour disappears, it becomes a grey shade, and
finally black. The sensitivity of the eye to yellow-green radiation is
taken as unity or 100% and the sensitivity to other wavelengths
is expressed as a fraction or percentage of it. The relative
sensitivity at any particular wavelength λ is written Kλ, and is
known as relative luminosity factor.
Sources of Light:
According to principle of operation the light sources may be
grouped as follows:
1. Arc Lamps:
Electric discharge through air provides intense light. This
principle is utilised in arc lamps.
2. High Temperature Lamps:

Oil and gas lamps and incandescent filament type lamps, which
emit light when heated to high temperature.
3. Gaseous Discharge Lamps:

Under certain conditions, it is possible to pass electric current
through a gas or metal vapour, which is accompanied by visible
radiations. Sodium and mercury vapour lamps operate on this
principle.
4. Fluorescent Type Lamps:

Certain materials, when exposed to ultraviolet rays, transform
the absorbed energy into radiations of longer wave length lying
within the visible range. This principle is employed in fluorescent
lamps.
Snell’s Law :
Snell's law (also known as Snell-Descartes law and
the law of refraction) is a formula used to describe the
relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction, when
referring to light or other waves passing through a boundary
between two different isotropic media, such as water, glass, or
air.
In optics, the law is used in ray tracing to compute the

angles of incidence or refraction, and in experimental optics to
find the refractive index of a material. The law is also satisfied
in metamaterials, which allow light to be bent "backward" at a
negative angle of refraction with a negative refractive index.
Snell's law states that the ratio of the sines of the
angles of incidence and refraction is equivalent to the ratio
of phase velocities in the two media, or equivalent to the
reciprocal of the ratio of the indices of refraction:
with each as the angle measured from the normal of the

boundary, as the velocity of light in the respective
medium (SI units are meters per second, or m/s), and as
the refractive index (which is unit less) of the respective
medium.
Critical Angle :
Refraction is the change in direction of propagation of
light due to a change in its transmission medium.
If light enters a denser medium from rarer (comparatively less

dense) medium the direction of light changes and the light Ray
bends towards the normal (normal is an imaginary perpendicular
line) drawn at the point of contact of light and the interface
between the two media.
Similarly if a ray of light enters a rarer medium from a

denser medium, the light Ray bends away from the normal at
that point.
Now the angle the incident ray makes with the normal is
is known as the angle of incidence, denoted by i and angle the
refracted Ray makes with the normal is called the angle of
refraction and is denoted by r as seen in above figure.
In the latter case, as the angle of incidence increases so

does the angle of refraction. So we can imagine at a certain angle
of incidence the angle of refraction will become 90°, i.e the
refracted ray lies along the interface or boundary of the 2

mediums. This angle of incidence is known critical angle.
Critical angle is angle of incidence of a ray of light,

moving from denser medium to rarer medium, such that the
angle of refraction becomes 90°.
This angle is special because after the angle of incidence

becomes greater than the critical angle the ray of light isn't
refracted but instead completely reflects back into the denser
medium and is known as total internal reflection. This has many
interesting applications, but that is for another answer.
Acceptance angle : The Acceptance angle of an optical fiber is

defined based on a purely geometrical consideration (ray optics):
it is the maximum angle of a ray (against the fiber axis) hitting
the fiber core which allows the incident light to be guided by the
core.
Acceptance Cone : In fiber optics, the cone within which

optical power may be coupled into the bound modes of an optical
fiber.
Note: The acceptance cone is derived by rotating the acceptance

angle about the fiber axis.
Numerical Aperture : In optics, the numerical aperture (NA) of

an optical system is a dimensionless number that characterizes
the range of angles over which the system can accept or emit
light.
Optical Fiber Structure :
 The basic structure of an optical fiber consists of three parts;

the core, the cladding, and the coating or buffer. The basic
structure of an optical fiber is shown in figure.
 Total internal reflection is the operating principle of optical

Fibers, which are used in endoscopes and
telecommunications.
 An optical fiber consists of a very thin core of high purity glass.

The core is covered by a second layer (cladding) also made
from high purity glass.
 The cladding is less dense than the core and has a lower
refractive index for total internal reflection to occur. Thus light
rays passing along the core at an angle greater than the critical
angle are totally internally reflected.
 The surface of the high purity glass core acts like a perfect
mirror and the light ray is continuously reflected along the
length of the optical fiber core.
Optical fiber cable are Glass Fibers and Plastic Fibers also
we can use to transmit but based on fiber sizes .
Single mode silica glass Fibers typical has a 8.3um

core size. Telecommunications uses exclusively single mode glass
Fibers, though data communications also shows a slow but
steady adoption of single mode glass Fibers.
For plastic and Glass optical Fibers, the fiber core size
ranges from 0.25mm to 3mm of which 1mm is the most popular.
Multimode Fibers comes in a variety of core sizes

between 7um and 3mm, of which the most usual are 50um,
62.5um, 100um and 200um. The industry standard for data
communications is now 50um and 62.5um multimode using
silica glass Fibers.
Types of Optical Fibers :

They are two types of optic fiber are
1) Single mode Optic Fiber.
2) Multi mode Optic Fiber.
Single Mode Optical Fiber : Single Mode fiber optic cable has a
small diametral core that allows only one mode of light to
propagate. Because of this, the number of light reflections
created as the light passes through the core decreases, lowering
attenuation and creating the ability for the signal to travel
further. This application is typically used in long distance, higher
bandwidth runs by Telcos, CATV companies, and Colleges and
Universities.
Note : Single Mode fiber is usually 9/125 in construction. This

means that the core to cladding diameter ratio is 9 microns to
125 microns.
Multi mode Optic Fiber : Multimode fiber optic cable has a
large diametral core that allows multiple modes of light to
propagate. Because of this, the number of light reflections
created as the light passes through the core increases, creating
the ability for more data to pass through at a given time. Because
of the high dispersion and attenuation rate with this type of fiber,
the quality of the signal is reduced over long distances. This
application is typically used for short distance, data and
audio/video applications in LANs. RF broadband signals, such as
what cable companies commonly use, cannot be transmitted over
multimode fiber.
Note: Multimode fiber is usually 50/125 and 62.5/125 in

construction. This means that the core to cladding diameter ratio
is 50 microns to 125 microns and 62.5 microns to 125 microns .
Attenuation and Dispersion :

Attenuation is the reduction in power of the
light signal as it is transmitted. Attenuation is caused by passive
media components, such as cables, cable splices, and
connectors. While attenuation is significantly lower for optical
fiber than for other media, it still occurs in both multimode and
single-mode transmission.
Dispersion is the spreading of the signal in
time. The following two types of dispersion can affect an optical
data link:
 Chromatic dispersion—Spreading of the signal in time
resulting from the different speeds of light rays.
 Modal dispersion—Spreading of the signal in time resulting

from the different propagation modes in the fiber.
Cables are used to transmission we can transmit by two

methods i.e., by under ground and over head transmission.
Transmission types :
In network communications, a transmission medium is a
physical connection or an interface between the transmitter and
the receiver. There are two major categories of transmission
media, namely guided and wireless (or unguided).
1. Twisted Pair Cable:
Twisted pair cables have been around for a long time.
They were mainly invented for voice transmissions. Twisted pair
is a widely used medium in networking because it's lighter,
cheaper, more flexible, easy to install, and provides greater
speeds than coaxial cables. There are two types of twisted pair
cables: the unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and the shielded
twisted pair (STP). Let's take a closer look at each of them.
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
UTP and STP Difference
2. Coaxial Cables
The coaxial cables have a central copper conductor,
surrounded by an insulating layer, a conducting shield, and the
outermost plastic sheath. Thus, there are three insulation layers
for the inner copper cable. There are two basic modes of data
transmission in coaxial cables: baseband mode that has
dedicated bandwidth, and broadband mode that has distributed
cable bandwidth.
Coaxial Cable
There are many advantages to coaxial cables, including the

following:
 High bandwidth
 Easy and cheap installation
 Better immunity from noise
 Better scaling
3. Optical Fibers :
Optical fibers use light waves for transmission. Crosstalk,
EMI, and attenuation aren't issues with optical fibers. These
cables are well-suited for voice, data, and video transmissions.
Optical fibers are the most secure of all the cable media.
Installation and maintenance are difficult and costly. Fiber optic
cables have greater transmission speed, high bandwidth, and the
signal can travel longer distances when compared to coaxial and
twisted pair cables.
Optical Fiber Cable
The advantages of optical fibers include the following:
 There is zero interference and covers major cities and

countries.
 They have high speed and high bandwidth.
 They're highly secure.
There also are a number of disadvantages, including the

following:
 Installation and maintenance are difficult.

 Cabling is costly.
 Retrofitting an existing network is difficult, since optical
fibers are incompatible with many types of electronic
networking equipment.
Optical Fiber Transmission in the Form of

Light Waves
4. Wireless or Unguided Transmission Media :

The features of wireless/unguided transmission
media are that the signal gets broadcast without any guided
medium through the air and is less secure. There are three types
of wireless transmission media:
 Radio wave
 Infrared
 Microwave
The advantages of unguided transmission media include the

following:
 They are useful in wireless remote accessing methods.

 Networks can be expanded without disturbing the current
users.
The disadvantages include:
 Potential security issues.

 They have limited speed compared to guided transmission
media.
The OFS broad product offering of telecommunications

and specialty optical fibers, fiber optic cables, and optical fiber
assemblies are used in a broad spectrum of applications from
ambient to extremely harsh environments.
The coatings technologists at OFS can propose a

variety of buffer and cable jacket options to meet the
requirements of your specific operating environment.
Materials we have applied to specialty optical fibers include:
 Acrylate
 High-Temperature Acrylate
 Fluoroacrylate
 Silicone
 Silicone/Acrylate
 Polyimide
 Carbon
 Polyetheretherketone PEEK
 Polybutylene terephthalate PBT
 Polypropylene PP
 Polyethylene PE
 LSZH (low-smoke, zero halogen) PE-PP
 Polyvinylchloride PVC
 Polyvinylidene Fluoride PVDF
 Halogen free Flame retardant Polyurethane HFFR
 Hytrel TPE
 Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene ETFE
 Perfluoroalkoxy Teflo PFA
 Fluorinated ethylene propylene FEP
Indoor /Outdoor Cables are :

To begin with, indoor/outdoor cable is available
in two designs: loose-tube and tight-buffered. Both cable
types have been available for many years. However, loose-
tube cable has its roots in outside-plant applications, while tight-
buffered cable is typically used for indoor applications.
Indoor-Outdoor cabling bridges the gap for applications

where network routings include external pathways while
providing the Flame Safety requirements for transitions into
Campus Buildings. Exceptional mechanical and environmental
performance are the hallmark of this cable family.
Indoor-Outdoor Loose-Tube cable is recommended for

the following installation techniques:
 Duct/Conduit
 Lashed Aerial
 Tray based Fiber Management
Indoor-Outdoor Tight Buffered cable incorporates the

advantages of 900um Tight Buffered fiber found in Inside-Plant
Cable with the enhanced Mechanical and Environmental
attributes found in cable suitable for outdoor deployments.
Available in multiple constructions ranging from Distribution
style single-jacket cable to High Fiber Count designs, Indoor-
Outdoor Tight Buffered cable reduces the need for transitions
within the Campus network.
Fire Prevention Requirements :

Low Smoke Zero Halogen.
Plenum.
Riser Cables.
All indoor/outdoor cables.
Some more are the different types of cables are :
Distribution Cable: They are typically made into patch cords or

jumpers. The major difference between cordage and cables is
that cordage only has one optical-fiber/buffer combination in a
jacket, while cables may have multiple optical fibers inside a
jacket or sheath. The two common types of cordage are simplex
and duplex.
Breakout Cable
Armored Cable
Messenger Cable
Ribbon Cable
Submarine Cable
Short and Long Run Cables
Hybrid
Composite Cables.
ASSESMENT
A. Short Answer Questions:

1. Explain the Nature of light ?
2. Write the Advantages and Disadvantages of Fiber optics ?
3. Explain Snell’s Law ?
4. Define Critical Angle ?
5. Define Acceptance angle, Acceptance Cone and Numerical aperture ?
B. Fill in the blanks :

1. The light beam travels down the __________ of the cable.
2. The ___________ is another layer of glass wrapped around

the core.
3. _______ is the prime factor in the human life as all

activities of human beings .
4. The velocity of Light being equal to __________.
5. The light waves have wavelengths varying from __________

to_____________.
6. 1 Angstrom = __________.
7. __________ Colour disappears last as the illumination

becomes very dim.
8. The ____________ of an optical fiber is defined based on a

purely geometrical consideration.
C. Discuss the following in the class
i. Discuss the various types of cables used in our daily life.
ii. Discuss the nature of light and propagation angle of light and beam.
iii. Draw the different types cables.
D. Essay Questions .
1) Explain the working principle of fiber optics with a neat diagram ?
2) Explain the types of fiber based mode of propagation ?
3) Explain the Single, Multi mode fiber optics ?
Performance standards may include, but not limited to:
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS YES NO

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CABLES USED IN TRANSIMISSION AND
DISTRIBUTION
UNIT-2
Tools and equipment and safety precautions
When the electrical and electronics materials some of
the equipment we are using the that equipment will be using in
different person by different materials by different persons. Let
we discuss some of the equipment that will see different

equipment, different electronics materials and their advantages,
applications.
Session-1
Light Sources Of Optical Fiber
There is much more to tools for electronics than just

screwdrivers and pliers. While most of the common tools can be
found at a local hardware or home improvement store, many are
unique to the electronics industry. These specialized tools have
evolved over many years, in some cases starting out as modified
versions of common hardware store types, and in other cases
designed from the outset to fulfill a specific need.
For the most part, you shouldn’t need to spend a lot of

money on odd-ball tools if you stick to the common hardware
described in not available and avoid things like surface-mounted
components with ultra-fine pitch leads.
If you need to use an integrated circuit (IC) with
something like 144 leads with hair-width spaces between the
leads, then you should probably consider paying someone to
mount it for you using screened solder paste and a reflow
soldering system. For just a single project, it might not be worth
the expense of acquiring a decent bench microscope and a fancy
surface-mount soldering station and then learning to use it.
This chapter is a survey of some of the common tools you should

consider owning for working with modern electronics. It is not
intended to be a definitive or comprehensive guide. There are
hand tools, power tools, and bench-mounted tools for tightening,
cutting, drilling, and trimming. Other tools are used for soldering,
inspecting, and finishing. I would suggest obtaining a selection of
catalogs from companies such as Digikey and Mouser and
perusing the tool sections. If you have a good electronics supply
outlet nearby, it might be useful to browse its display racks to get
an idea of what’s available and examine the tools in person.
LED :
A Light Emitting Diode (LED) consists of three layers: p-
type semiconductor, n-type semiconductor and depletion layer.
The p-type semiconductor and the n-type semiconductor are
separated by a depletion region or depletion layer.
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are the most widely

used semiconductor diodes among all the different types of
semiconductor diodes available today. Light emitting diodes emit
either visible light or invisible infrared light when forward biased.
The LEDs which emit invisible infrared light are used for remote
controls.
A light Emitting Diode (LED) is an optical semiconductor

device that emits light when voltage is applied. In other words,
LED is an optical semiconductor device that converts electrical
energy into light energy.
When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased, free

electrons in the conduction band recombines with the holes in
the valence band and releases energy in the form of light.
The process of emitting light in response to the strong electric

field or flow of electric current is called electroluminescence.
A normal p-n junction diode allows electric current only

in one direction. It allows electric current when forward biased
and does not allow electric current when reverse biased. Thus,
normal p-n junction diode operates only in forward bias

condition.
Like the normal p-n junction diodes, LEDs also operates

only in forward bias condition. To create an LED, the n-type
material should be connected to the negative terminal of the
battery and p-type material should be connected to the positive
terminal of the battery. In other words, the n-type material
should be negatively charged and the p-type material should be
positively charged.
The construction of LED is similar to the normal p-n

junction diode except that gallium, phosphorus and arsenic
materials are used for construction instead of silicon or
germanium materials.
In normal p-n junction diodes, silicon is most

widely used because it is less sensitive to the temperature. Also,
it allows electric current efficiently without any damage. In some
cases, germanium is used for constructing diodes.
However, silicon or germanium diodes do not emit

energy in the form of light. Instead, they emit energy in the form
of heat. Thus, silicon or germanium is not used for constructing
LEDs.
Layers of LED :
A Light Emitting Diode (LED) consists of three layers: p-

type semiconductor, n-type semiconductor and depletion layer.
The p-type semiconductor and the n-type semiconductor are
separated by a depletion region or depletion layer.
P-type semiconductor
When trivalent impurities are added to the intrinsic or

pure semiconductor, a p-type semiconductor is formed.
In p-type semiconductor, holes are the majority charge carriers

and free electrons are the minority charge carriers. Thus, holes
carry most of the electric current in p-type semiconductor.
N-type semiconductor
When pentavalent impurities are added to the intrinsic

semiconductor, an n-type semiconductor is formed.
In n-type semiconductor, free electrons are the majority charge

carriers and holes are the minority charge carriers. Thus, free
electrons carry most of the electric current in n-type
semiconductor.
Depletion layer or region
Depletion region is a region present between the p-type and n-

type semiconductor where no mobile charge carriers (free
electrons and holes) are present. This region acts as barrier to
the electric current. It opposes flow of electrons from n-type
semiconductor and flow of holes from p-type semiconductor.
To overcome the barrier of depletion layer, we need to apply

voltage which is greater than the barrier potential of depletion
layer.
If the applied voltage is greater than the barrier potential of the

depletion layer, the electric current starts flowing.
Light Emitting Diode (LED) works only in forward bias condition.

When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased, the free
electrons from n-side and the holes from p-side are pushed
towards the junction.
When free electrons reach the junction or depletion

region, some of the free electrons recombine with the holes in the
positive ions. We know that positive ions have less number of
electrons than protons. Therefore, they are ready to accept
electrons. Thus, free electrons recombine with holes in the
depletion region. In the similar way, holes from p-side recombine

with electrons in the depletion region.
Because of the recombination of free electrons and holes in

the depletion region, the width of depletion region decreases. As a
result, more charge carriers will cross the p-n junction.
Some of the charge carriers from p-side and n-side will

cross the p-n junction before they recombine in the depletion
region. For example, some free electrons from n-type
semiconductor cross the p-n junction and recombines with holes
in p-type semiconductor. In the similar way, holes from p-type
semiconductor cross the p-n junction and recombines with free
electrons in the n-type semiconductor.
Thus, recombination takes place in depletion region as well as in

p-type and n-type semiconductor.
The free electrons in the conduction band releases energy in the

form of light before they recombine with holes in the valence
band.
In silicon and germanium diodes, most of the energy is released

in the form of heat and emitted light is too small.
However, in materials like gallium arsenide and gallium

phosphate the emitted photons have sufficient energy to produce
intense visible light.
Light emitting diode (LED) symbol
The symbol of LED is similar to the normal p-n junction diode

except that it contains arrows pointing away from the diode
indicating that light is being emitted by the diode.
LEDs are available in different colors. The most common colors of

LEDs are orange, yellow, green and red.
The schematic symbol of LED does not represent the color of

light. The schematic symbol is same for all colors of LEDs. Hence,
it is not possible to identify the color of LED by seeing its symbol.
LED construction :
One of the methods used to construct LED is to deposit three

semiconductor layers on the substrate. The three semiconductor
layers deposited on the substrate are n-type semiconductor, p-
type semiconductor and active region. Active region is present in

between the n-type and p-type semiconductor layers.
When LED is forward biased, free electrons from n-type

semiconductor and holes from p-type semiconductor are pushed
towards the active region.
When free electrons from n-side and holes from p-side recombine
with the opposite charge carriers (free electrons with holes or
holes with free electrons) in active region, an invisible or visible
light is emitted.
In LED, most of the charge carriers recombine at active region.

Therefore, most of the light is emitted by the active region. The
active region is also called as depletion region.
Biasing of LED
The safe forward voltage ratings of most LEDs is from 1V to 3 V

and forward current ratings is from 200 mA to 100 mA.
If the voltage applied to LED is in between 1V to 3V, LED works

perfectly because the current flow for the applied voltage is in the
operating range. However, if the voltage applied to LED is
increased to a value greater than 3 volts. The depletion region in
the LED breaks down and the electric current suddenly rises.
This sudden rise in current may destroy the device.
To avoid this we need to place a resistor (Rs) in series with the

LED. The resistor (Rs ) must be placed in between voltage source
(Vs) and LED.
The resistor placed between LED and voltage source is called

current limiting resistor. This resistor restricts extra current
which may destroy the LED. Thus, current limiting resistor
protects LED from damage.
The current flowing through the LED is mathematically written

as
Where,
IF = Forward current
VS = Source voltage or supply voltage
VD = Voltage drop across LED
RS = Resistor or current limiting resistor
Voltage drop is the amount of voltage wasted to overcome the

depletion region barrier (which leads to electric current flow).
The voltage drop of LED is 2 to 3V whereas silicon or germanium

diode is 0.3 or 0.7 V.
Therefore, to operate LED we need to apply greater voltage than

silicon or germanium diodes.
Light emitting diodes consume more energy than silicon or

germanium diodes to operate.
Output characteristics of LED
The amount of output light emitted by the LED is directly

proportional to the amount of forward current flowing through
the LED. More the forward current, the greater is the emitted
output light. The graph of forward current vs output light is
shown in the figure.
Visible LEDs and invisible LEDs
LEDs are mainly classified into two types: visible LEDs and
invisible LEDs.
Visible LED is a type of LED that emits visible light. These LEDs
are mainly used for display or illumination where LEDs are used
individually without photosensors.
Invisible LED is a type of LED that emits invisible light (infrared

light). These LEDs are mainly used with photosensors such as
photodiodes.
What determines the color of an LED?
The material used for constructing LED determines its color. In

other words, the wavelength or color of the emitted light depends
on the forbidden gap or energy gap of the material.
Different materials emit different colors of light.
Gallium arsenide LEDs emit red and infrared light.
Gallium nitride LEDs emit bright blue light.
Yttrium aluminium garnet LEDs emit white light.
Gallium phosphide LEDs emit red, yellow and green light.
Aluminium gallium nitride LEDs emit ultraviolet light.
Aluminum gallium phosphide LEDs emit green light.
Advantages of LED
1. The brightness of light emitted by LED is depends on the

current flowing through the LED. Hence, the brightness of
LED can be easily controlled by varying the current. This
makes possible to operate LED displays under different

ambient lighting conditions.
2. Light emitting diodes consume low energy.
3. LEDs are very cheap and readily available.
4. LEDs are light in weight.
5. Smaller size.
6. LEDs have longer lifetime.
7. LEDs operates very fast. They can be turned on and off in
very less time.
8. LEDs do not contain toxic material like mercury which is
used in fluorescent lamps.
9. LEDs can emit different colors of light.
Disadvantages of LED
1. LEDs need more power to operate than normal p-n junction

diodes.
2. Luminous efficiency of LEDs is low.
Applications of LED
The various applications of LEDs are as follows
1. Burglar alarms systems

2. Calculators
3. Picture phones
4. Traffic signals
5. Digital computers
6. Multimeters
7. Microprocessors
8. Digital watches
9. Automotive heat lamps
Types of Diodes
The various types of diodes are as follows:
1. Zener diode
2. Avalanche diode
3. Photodiode
4. Light Emitting Diode
5. Laser diode
6. Tunnel diode
7. Schottky diode
8. Varactor diode
9. P-N junction diode
There are five major types of LED structure and although

only two have found extensive use in optical fiber
combination. These are the surface emitter, the edge
emitter, and the super luminescent LED respectively. The
other two structures, the planar and dome LED.
Surface Emitting LED structure / Surface Emitting LED working

operation :
• It is modified form of DH LED (Double Heterojunction LED). In

this LED type, optical fiber is butt-coupled with itself. This is
shown in the figure-1.
• The surface emitting LED structure consists of thin central
active layer of p type GaAs.
• This central layer is bounded by n-type AlGaAs/n+-type GaAs at
the top side.
• This central layer is bounded by p-type AlGaAs/p+-type GaAs at
the bottom side.
• The extreme top n+ type GaAs and bottom p+-type GaAs layers
are used to provide low resistive ohmic contacts only.
• The external optical fiber is butt connected by etching the top
layers and by shielding with epoxy resin.
• When refractive indices of both p-type and n-type materials are
same, light is free to come out from all the sides of the
semiconductor device due to no confinement. However only active
region near the surface will emit the significant amount of light
while absorbing from the other parts. Hence it is known as
surface emitting LED.
• Output radiation is originated from central thin layer i.e. p-type

GaAs layer.
• Maximum optical power Pc is coupled with the optical fiber is
expressed as follows.
• Pc = π * (1-R) * A* Rs * (NA)2
Where,
R = Reflection loss at fiber surface
A = Fiber cross section area
Rs = Radiance amount from source
NA = Numerical Aperture
Edge Emitting LED structure | Edge Emitting LED working

operation
• It is widely used in optical fiber communication system. Here

collimated light from LED is required to be fed into the fiber with
high coupling efficiency.
• The figure-1 depicts multilayer structure of InP based edge
emitting LED. It is used for long wavelength optical
communication approx. between 1.33 to 1.55 µm.
• Modern epitaxial growth techniques such as MBE, MOCVD etc.

are used in order to design such complex LED structures.
• Central active layer is made using InGaAs having narrow
bandgap. It is bounded by wide bandgap layers such as p+
InGaAsP and n+ InP cladding layers.
• These two cladding layers help in confining injected electrons
and holes into the middle layer. It also helps emitted photons to
travel along LED axis as per optical properties.
• Due to above, light is emitted from the edge of the LED. Hence
it is known by the name edge emitting LED.
Benefits or advantages of Edge Emitting LED
Following are the benefits or advantages of Edge Emitting LED:

➨It has superior beam collimation property which offers greater
coupling efficiency with fiber optic cable compare to surface
emitting LED.
➨It offers higher efficiency with low to high radiance. It fulfills
high brightness LED requirements of the lighting industry.
➨It radiates less power to the air compare to surface emitting
LED due to reabsorption and interfacial recombination.
➨It offers better modulation bandwidth and more directional
emission pattern.
➨It offers 5-6 times more coupled power into NA (Numerical
Aperture) of step/graded index fibers. This is due to small beam
divergence.
➨It offers high data rates (> 20 Mbps) than surface emitting LED.
In LED different types of materials we are using
The particular semiconductors used for LED

manufacture are gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium phosphide
(GaP), or gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP). The
different semiconductor materials (called substrates) and
different impurities result in different colors of light from the
LED.
Laser Diode :
A Laser Diode is a semiconductor device similar to a

light-emitting diode (LED). It uses p-n junction to emit coherent
light in which all the waves are at the same frequency and phase.
This coherent light is produced by the laser diode using a process
termed as “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation”, which is abbreviated as LASER. And since a p-n
junction is used to produce laser light, this device is named as a
laser diode. Before we learn more about the working process of a
laser diode, let’s look at how laser light is different from other
types of light, and its advantages.
The light from sunlight or from most of the artificial light

sources contains waves of multiple wavelengths and they are out
of phase with each other. The light waves from monochromatic
light sources like incandescent bulb also are not in phase with
each other. In contrast to the previous light sources, laser diodes
produce a narrow beam of laser light in which all the light waves
have similar wavelengths and they travel together with their
peaks lined up. This is why laser beams are very bright, and can
be focused over a very tiny spot.
All the devices that produce laser light, laser diodes or

semiconductor lasers are the most efficient and they come in
smaller packages. So they are widely used in various devices like
laser printers, barcode readers, security systems, Autonomous
vehicles (LIDAR), Fiber optic communications etc.
The working of a laser diode takes place in three main steps:
Energy Absorption
The laser diode consists of a p-n junction where holes

and electrons exist. (Here, a hole means the absence of an
electron). When a certain voltage is applied at the p-n junction,
the electrons absorb energy and they transition to a higher
energy level. Holes are formed at the original position of the
excited electron. The electrons stay in this excited state without
recombining with holes for a very small duration of time, termed
as “recombination time” or “upper-state lifetime”. The
recombination time is about a nanosecond for most laser diodes.
Spontaneous Emission
After the upper-state lifetime of excited electrons, they recombine

with holes. As the electrons fall from higher energy level to a
lower energy level, the difference in energy is converted into
photons or electromagnetic radiation. This same process is used
to produce light in LEDs. The energy of the emitted photon is
given by the difference between the two energy levels.
Stimulated Emission
We need more coherent photons from the laser diode than the
ones emitted through the process of spontaneous emission. A
partially reflecting mirror is used on either side of the diode so
that the photons released from spontaneous emission are
trapped in the p-n junction until their concentration reaches a
threshold value. These trapped photons stimulate the excited
electrons to recombine with holes even before their recombination
time. This results in the release of more photons that are in exact
phase with the initial photons and so the output gets amplified.
Once the photon concentration goes above a threshold, they
escape from the partially reflecting mirrors, resulting in a bright
monochromatic coherent light.
Construction of a Laser Diode
A simple semiconductor laser diode is made up of the following

parts in order:
 Metal Contact
 P-type Material
 Active/Intrinsic Region (N-type Material)
 N-type Material
 Metal Contact
The input terminals are connected to a metal plates which are

sandwiched to the n-type and p-type layers. This type of laser
diode is also called as a “Homojunction Laser Diode”. The
intrinsic region between the p-type and n-type material is used to

increase the volume of active region, so that more number of
holes and electrons can accumulate at the junction. This allows
more number of electrons to recombine with holes at any instant
of time, resulting in better output power. The laser light is
emitted from the elliptical region. This beam from the laser diode
can be further focused using an optical lens. This entire PIN
diode (P-type, Intrinsic, N-Type) arrangement is enclosed
normally in a metal casing.
Types of Laser Diodes :
Double Heterostructure Laser Diode
Quantum Well Laser Diode
Separate Confinement Heterostructure Laser Diode
Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser Diode (VCSEL)
Other Types
 Quantum Cascade Laser Diode

 Interband Cascade Laser Diode
 Distributed Bragg Reflector Laser Diode
 Distributed Feedback Laser Diode
 External Cavity Diode Laser
 Vertical External Cavity Surface Emitting Laser Diode
(VCSEL)
Applications of a Laser Diode
Laser Diode modules are used in all major areas of electronics

ranging from
 Consumer Electronics: CD/DVD players, Laser printers,

Fiber Optic Communication, Barcode Readers etc.
 Medical Machines: Laser diodes are used in machines used
to remove unwanted tissues, eliminating cancer cells, non-
invasive and cataract surgeries etc.
 Autonomous Vehicles: Laser diode technology is used in
making LIDAR systems implemented for autonomous driving
 Scientific Instrumentation: Lasers are used in devices

used for remote contactless measurements, spectrometry,
range finders etc.
 Industrial Applications: Laser Diodes are used as a source
of high intensity laser beam for precise cutting of materials.
They are also used in 3D printing to soften the substrate.
PIN Diode : A PIN diode is a diode with a wide, un doped

intrinsic semiconductor region between a p-type semiconductor
and an n-type semiconductor region. The p-type and n-type
regions are typically heavily doped because they are used for
ohmic contacts.
Basic Hand Tools that are using for electrical and electronic
purpose :
 Screwdriver,
 Cable cutting knife,
 Plier,
 Scissors.
 Round tube cutter,
 Electrical tape,
 Optical fiber stripper.
Specifications of Fiber Optic cable:
Fiber optic cables are composed of one or more

transparent fibers enclosed in protective coverings and strength
members. Fiber optic cables allow signals, such as light, to travel
through without interference. A real fiber optic cable is made of
glass which is incredibly pure to allow light to pass through over
very long distances. The glass is then coated in two layers of
plastic. The plastic gives the equivalent mirror effect which
creates total internal reflection. Light traveling through the fiber

bounces at shallow angles and stays completely within the fiber.
This happens when the light hits the interface at angle larger
than the critical angle. At this angle it will not pass through to
the second medium at all.
ASSESMENT

1. Define LED ?
2. Explain the output characteristics of LED?
3. Define PIN diode ?
4. What are the applications of Laser Diode ?

1. LED Stands for ______________.
2. LED Symbol _______________.
3. The voltage drop of LED is _________whereas silicon and germanium

diode is __________.
4. VCSEL Stands for _________________

i. Discuss the Diode and working principle .
ii. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of diode .
iii. Discuss the different types Diodes.
D. Essay Questions .
1) Explain the construction and working principle of LED ?
2) Explain the working principle of Surface Emitting LED structure ?
3) Explain the working principle of Edge Emitting LED structure ?
4) Explain the construction and working principle of Laser diode ?


DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIODES USED IN OUR DAILY LIFE
UNIT-3
Conditional Maintenance and Safety Measures
Condition-based maintenance (CBM) is

a maintenance strategy that monitors the actual condition of an
asset to decide what maintenance needs to be done. CBM
dictates that maintenance should only be performed when
certain indicators show signs of decreasing performance or
upcoming failure.
Unlike in planned maintenance (PM), where

maintenance is performed based upon predefined scheduled
intervals, condition-based maintenance is performed only after a
decrease in the condition of the equipment has been observed.
Compared with preventive maintenance, this increases the time
between maintenance repairs, because maintenance is done on
an as-needed basis.
The following are advantages and disadvantages of

Conditional based maintenance are :
Advantages
 CBM is performed while the asset is working, which lessens

the chances of disruption to normal operations
 Reduces the cost of asset failures
 Improves equipment reliability
 Minimizes unscheduled downtime due to catastrophic failure
 Minimizes time spent on maintenance

 Minimizes overtime costs by scheduling the activities
 Minimizes requirement for emergency spare parts
 Optimizes maintenance intervals (more optimal than

manufacturer recommendations)
 Improves worker safety
 Reduces the chances of collateral damage to the system
Disadvantages
 Condition monitoring test equipment is expensive to install,

and databases cost money to analyze
 Cost to train staff–you need a knowledgeable professional to

analyze the data and perform the work
 Fatigue or uniform wear failures are not easily detected with

CBM measurements
 Condition sensors may not survive in the operating

environment
 May require asset modifications to retrofit the system with

sensors
 Unpredictable maintenance periods
Electrical Safety in the Workplace both direct workers to

de energize all energized parts to which an employee may be
exposed, unless energized conditions are required for
troubleshooting.
Placing electrical equipment or systems in an electrically-safe

work condition might seem simple, but there are several factors
to consider.
 Proper planning and preparation will make any type of

testing simpler and safer.
 Perform a risk assessment and Shock Risk Assessment
 Having to stop work to fetch other tools or test instruments
interrupts focus and can contribute to an accident.
 Traffic in the area can pose a substantial hazard. This
includes foot traffic, as well as forklifts and other type of
vehicles. Barriers, barricades, signs and possibly an
attendant may be needed to prevent intrusion into the work
zone.
Before taking a single measurement, first determine:
 Is this troubleshooting or testing for the absence of voltage?

 What test instruments are required to verify the energized or
de-energized state?
 Is a safety backup required? Has he/she been trained in the
proper methods of release, how to contact emergency
assistance or CPR/use of an AED? Where is the location of
the nearest AED?
 Where will the safe work zone be established? Will it be at
the limited approach boundary or the arc flash boundary?
 What Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) will be required?
o What is the voltage of the circuit?
o What is the arc flash boundary?
o How much incident energy is possible at your working

distance?
Top THREE Tools to use for electrical safety testing
Low-voltage proximity or non-contact voltage

testers
Electrical testers (previously solenoid)
Digital multimeter
Visual Inspection Of Optics Fiber:
Visual tracing :
Continuity checking makes certain the fibres
are not broken and to trace a path of a fibre from one end to
another through many connections. Use a visible light "fibre optic
tracer" or "pocket visual fault locator". It looks like a flashlight or
a pen-like instrument with a light bulb or LED source that mates
to a fibre optic connector. Attach a cable to test to the visual
tracer and look at the other end to see the light transmitted
through the core of the fibre. If there is no light at the end, go
back to intermediate connections to find the bad section of the
cable.
A good example of how it can save time and
money is testing fibre on a reel before you pull it to make sure it
hasn't been damaged during shipment. Look for visible signs of
damage (like cracked or broken reels, kinks in the cable, etc). For
testing, visual tracers help also identify the next fibre to be tested
for loss with the test kit. When connecting cables at patch
panels, use the visual tracer to make sure each connection is the
right two fibres! To make certain the proper fibres are connected
to the transmitter and receiver, use the visual tracer in place of
the transmitter and your eye instead of the receiver (remember
that fibre optic links work in the infrared so you can't see
anything anyway).
Visual fault location

A higher power version of the tracer uses a laser that
can also find faults. The red laser light is powerful enough to
show breaks in fibres or high loss connectors. You can actually
see the loss of the bright red light even through many yellow or
orange simplex cable jackets except black or grey jackets. You
can also use this gadget to optimise mechanical splices or
prepolished-splice type fibre optic connectors. In fact, don't even
think of doing one of those connectors without one; no other
method will assure you of high yield with them.
Visual connector inspection

Fibre optic microscopes are used to inspect
connectors to check the quality of the termination procedure and
diagnose problems. A well made connector will have a smooth,
polished, scratch-free finish and the fibre will not show any signs
of cracks, chips or areas where the fibre is either protruding from
the end of the ferrule or pulling back into it.
The magnification for viewing connectors can be 30 to 400 power
but it is best to use a medium magnification. The best
microscopes allow you to inspect the connector from several
angles, either by tilting the connector or having angle
illumination to get the best picture of what's going on. Check to
make sure the microscope has an easy-to-use adapter to attach
the connectors of interest to the microscope.
And remember to check that no power is present in the cable
before you look at it in a microscope - protect your eyes!
Cleaning the Optics Fiber :
Cleaning is the produce for maintains of Optics fiber that

should be clean by dry and wet for the connectors by end to end.
Bare Test Fiber:
Bare fibre adaptors are designed to quickly connect

to un-terminated (bare fibre) for testing, servicing or
communication requirements. Simply connect the patch cable to
the test equipment and insert the bare fibre into the end of the
bare fibre adaptor. Connections are suitable for many testing
applications with results similar to a standard terminated piece
of fibre.
Reflectance and Optical Return Loss (ORL) Measurement and

Testing – Optic Fiber :
Optic Fiber is able to measure optical return loss.

Optical return loss for individual events, i.e. the reflection above
the fiber backscatter level, relative to the source pulse, is called
reflectance. Optical return loss is given in units of dB and always
a negative value for passive optics, with values closer to 0
representing larger reflections (poorer connections).
Return loss for the entire fiber under test, including

fiber backscatter and reflections and relative to the source pulse,
is called Optical Return Loss (ORL). It is also given in units of dB,
but always a positive value, with values closer to 0 dB
representing more total light reflected.
This document discusses the limitations on these optical return

loss measurements.
There is a limit to the range of values that can be

measured for optical reflectance. The maximum optical
reflectance is limited by where the signal saturates at the top of
the trace. The minimum optical reflectance is limited by where
the signal is too small relative to the noise to be detected.
Likewise, ORL is limited when any part of the signal saturates or
the entire trace is not captured (such as when there is
insufficient dynamic range).
The limits listed are typical. The range for
measuring optical reflectance depends on a number of factors
wavelength, pulse width, backscatter coefficient, attenuation, and
dynamic range.
The limits listed in the table are based on using the

default FOTP-8 values for backscatter coefficient. Using different
values should not affect the maximum limits much if the
backscatter coefficient value is accurate for the fiber being tested
and the backscatter level is at least 2 dB below the saturation
level (top of the trace).
For the minimum limit of the reflectance, the backscatter
coefficient has a direct impact, as can be seen by comparing 62.5
mm to 50 mm fiber. However, as the backscatter level nears the
noise floor (bottom of the trace), increased noise limits the
detection of small reflections.
The term near-end implies negligible fiber attenuation,

which is expected for reflections near the OTDR port (say, within
100 meters) with good connections and low insertion loss and
little fiber attenuation. At longer distances, higher reflectances
can be measured. As an extreme example, for single-mode fibers
using the widest pulse width (1000 ns), a reflection that has its
backscatter level near the noise floor could be measured as high
as about -20 dB. However, when the backscatter level is within 5
dB above the noise floor, smaller reflections become hidden in the
noise. Reflections at the noise floor level have a minimum limit as
much as 7 dB higher than listed in the table.
Typical Reflectance’s :
As a comparison, here are some typical reflectance’s:
 Fiber end with flat cleave: -14 dB

 Good multimode PC connection: -35 dB or lower
 Good single mode PC connection: -50 dB or lower
 Good angle-polish connection: -60 dB or lower
 Good fusion splice: -60 dB or lower
Methods for Measuring Return Loss :

There are three established reflecto meter techniques used
for measuring RL as a function of location along an optical
fiber assembly or network:
Optical time domain reflecto meter (OTDR),
Optical low coherence reflecto meter (OLCR)
Optical frequency domain reflecto meter (OFDR)
OTDR:
An optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) is

an optoelectronic instrument used to characterize an optical
fiber. An OTDR is the optical equivalent of an electronic time
domain reflectometer. It injects a series of optical pulses into the
fiber under test and extracts, from the same end of the
fiber, light that is scattered (Rayleigh backscatter) or reflected
back from points along the fiber. The scattered or reflected light
that is gathered back is used to characterize the optical fiber.
This is equivalent to the way that an electronic time-domain
meter measures reflections caused by changes in
the impedance of the cable under test. The strength of the return
pulses is measured and integrated as a function of time, and
plotted as a function of length of the fiber.
Light Source in Optic Fiber :
The principal light sources used for fiber

optic communications is hetero junction structures, semi
conductor laser diodes and light emitting diodes. The hetero-
junction consists of two adjoining semi-conducting materials with
different band gap energies.
Splicing in Optic Fiber :
Splicing is also used to restore fiber optic cables when a

buried cable is accidentally severed. They are two types of
splicing are present in Optic fiber are
1) Mechanical Splicing
2) Fusion Splicing
Mechanical Splicing :
A Mechanical splice is a junction of two or

more optical fibers that are aligned and held in place by a self-
contained assembly (usually the size of a large carpenter's nail).
The fibers are not permanently joined, just precisely held
together so that lightcan pass from one to another.
Fusion Splicing:
Fusion splicing is the act of joining two optical

fibers end-to-end. The goal is to fuse the two fibers together in
such a way that light passing through the fibers is
not scattered or reflected back by the splice, and so that the
splice and the region surrounding it are almost as strong as the
intact fiber. The source of heat is usually an electric arc, but can
also be a laser, or a gas flame, or a tungsten filament through
which current is passed.
Electrical Safety :
You might be wondering what electrical safety has

to do with fiber optics. Well fiber cables are often installed around
electrical cables. Electricians are well-trained in electrical safety,
but some fiber optic installers are not. We've heard rumors of
fiber installers being shocked when working around electrical
cables, but know that two fiber installers were killed when
working on aerial cables because we heard about it from OSHA
These two installers were

installing all-dielectric self-supporting aerial cables on
poles. The hangers, however, were metal and over six feet
long. Both had attached the hangers to the poles, then
when installing the fiber cables had rotated the hangers
enough to contact high- voltage lines.
So even if the fiber is not conductive, fiber hardware can

conduct electricity or the installer can come in contact
with live electrical wires when working in proximity to
AC power.
Fiber Optic Installation Safety Rules:
1. Keep all food and beverages out of the work area. If

fiber particles are ingested they can cause internal
hemorrhaging
2. Wear disposable aprons to minimize fiber particles on your

clothing. Fiber particles on your
1. Always wear safety glasses with side shields and

protective gloves. Treat fiber optic splinters the snare as
you would glass splinters.
2. Never look directly into the end of fiber cables until

you are positive that there is no light source at the other

end. Use a fiber optic power meter to make certain the
fiber is dark. When using an optical tracer or continuity
checker, look at the fiber from an angle at least 6 inches
away from your eye to determine if the visible light is
present.
3. Only work in well ventilated areas.
4. Contact wearers must not handle their lenses until they have
thoroughly washed their hands.
5. Do not touch your eyes while working with fiber optic

systems until they have been thoroughly washed.
6. Keep all combustible materials safely away from the curing

ovens.
7. Put all cut fiber pieces in a safe place.
8. Thoroughly clean your work area when you are done.
9. Do not smoke while working with fiber optic systems.

ASSESMENT

1. Write the advantages and disadvantages of CBM ?
2. What are the Tools to use for electrical safety testing ?

3. Define Visula fault location ?
4. Define Bare Fiber test ?
5. Expalin the OTDR ?

6. Explain the Light source in Optic Fiber ?
7. Define Fusion splicing ?
8. Write the Fiber Optic Installation Safety Rules?

1. CBM Stands for ______________.
2. The magnification for viewing connectors can be __________

power.
3. Cleaning is the produce for maintains of Optics fiber that

should be clean by dry and wet for the connectors by ___________.
4. Return loss for the entire fiber under test, including

fiber backscatter and reflections and relative to the source
pulse, is called ____________.
5. OLCR Stand for _________________.
6. OFDR Stand for _____________________.
7. An ____________is an optoelectronic instrument used
to characterize an optical fiber.

i. Discuss the different types testing procedure .
ii. Discuss the Splicing methods in Fiber Optics.

iii. Discuss the safety Rules in Fiber Optics.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTING PROCEDURE AND SPLICING
TECHNIQUE
UNIT-4
SITE VISIT AND OPTICAL NETWORKING
The different best network in optical fiber are Classified are :
Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM

Packet Optical Transport Systems
Data Centre Interconnect
Optical Network Management
Route Planning for Optical fiber cable laying:
It is recommended that a survey of the cable route

should be conducted. Manholes and ducts should be inspected to
determine the optimum splice point locations and duct
assignments. Potential problems with inner duct and cable
placement should be identified at this time.
Manholes in which cable will be spliced should be

inspected and plans made for closure and cable slack racking.
Accessibility of manholes to splicing vehicles should be
considered.
Fibre optic cable must be protected in intermediate

manholes. Racking space should be carefully chosen so that it
will provide maximum bend radius.
Based upon the cable route survey and the

equipment/manpower resources available, a cable pull plan
should be developed. Reel and winch location should be
inspected for suitability and plans should be made for
installation techniques such as back feeding or use of
intermediate assist winches.
Factors to consider in developing the full plan include

changes in elevation and locations of bends and offsets. For ease
of installation, cable should be pulled from higher elevation
manholes to lower ones whenever possible.
Bends describe pronounced turns in the routing of a

duct system. Offsets in a duct system are more gradual
variations from the ideal straight path of a duct section. Offsets
can substantially increase the pulling tension.
When placing fibre optic cable in duct, the fill ratio of

the duct should not exceed 50%.
Following are the pre installation consideration:
1. Inspect Right of way

- Verify Duct/ location
- Note obstacles and accessibility
.
2. Verify splice point locations

- Accessibility
- Slack storage
3. Accomplish pre-installation construction

- Duct
- Inner duct
- Conduit/ pull Box.
4. Plan the installation

- Cable reel set up
- Winch set up
- Pull direction
Fig Shows the Networking Route diagram of Fiber Optics
Fiber To The Home Installation :

There is probably no way to generalize on the installation
process for FTTx since every system is unique and, in some
cases, every subscriber is different. Rather than telling you how
to install FTTx here, we will try to illustrate some of the ways that
others have installed their systems and offer advice on how to
design and install systems most efficiently.
The below drawing shows the location of the

hardware used in creating a typical PON network. This drawing
also defines the network jargon for cables: a "feeder" cable
extends from the OLT (optical line terminal) in the CO (central
office) to a FDH (fiber distribution hub) where the PON (passive
optical network) splitter is housed. It then connects to
"distribution" cables that go out toward the subscriber location
where "drop" cables will be used to connect the final link to the
ONT (optical network terminal).
Multiplexing :
Multiplexing (or muxing) is a way of sending multiple
signals or streams of information over a communications link at
the same time in the form of a single, complex signal; the receiver
recovers the separate signals, a process
called demultiplexing (or demuxing).
Networks use multiplexing for two reasons:
To make it possible for any network device to talk to any other

network device without having to dedicate a connection for
each pair. This requires shared media;
To make a scarce or expensive resource stretch further -- e.g.,

to send many signals down each cable or fiber strand running
between major metropolitan areas, or across one satellite

uplink.
In analog radio transmission, signals are commonly multiplexed

using frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), in which
the bandwidth on a communications link is divided into
subchannels of different frequency widths, each carrying a signal
at the same time in parallel. Analog cable TV works the same
way, sending multiple channels of material down the same
strands of coaxial cable.
Similarly, in some optical networks, data for different

communications channels are sent on lightwaves of different
wavelengths, a variety of multiplexing called wave-length division
multiplexing (WDM).
These techniques are all basically use the same concept. FDM
describes fields that traditionally discuss frequencies (like radio
and television broadcasting). WDM is used in fields that
traditionally talk about wavelengths, like telecommunications
and computer networks that use laser systems (which generate
the signals sent over fiber optic cables). Variations include coarse
WDM (CWDM) and dense WDM (DWDM), which put relatively
fewer or more channels of information, respectively, on the
medium at the same time. Other variations use light polarization
to multiplex.
In digital transmission, signals are commonly multiplexed

using time-division multiplexing (TDM), in which the multiple
signals are carried over the same channel in alternating time
slots. For example, TDM is used on SONET links that used to be
a mainstay of enterprise WAN and Internet connectivity.
Code Division Multiplexing :
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM) uses identifying

codes to distinguish one signal from another on a shared
medium. Each signal is assigned a sequence of bits called the
spreading code that is combined with the original signal to
produce a new stream of encoded data; a receiver that knows the
code can retrieve the original signal by subtracting out the
spreading code (a process called dispreading). CDM is widely
used in digital television and radio broadcasting and in 3G
mobile cellular networks. Where CDM allows multiple signals
from multiple sources, it is called Code-Division Multiple
Access (CDMA).
Link power budget Optical technologies – FTTX :
The optical power budget in a fiber-optic

communication link is the allocation of available optical power
(launched into a given fiber by a given source) among various
loss-producing mechanisms such as launch coupling loss, fiber
attenuation, splice losses, and connector losses, in order to
ensure that adequate signal strength (optical power) is available
at the receiver.
In optical power budget attenuation is specified in

decibels (dB) and optical power in dBms.
Splice loss
In addition to transmission loss, including those of any

splices and connectors, allowance should be made for at least
several dB of optical power margin losses, to compensate for
component aging and to allow for future splices in the event of a
severed cable.
Connectors and Splices loss

Length of fiber (Transmission Distance):
1. FTTH PON can support a transmitting distance of about 20
Km under a 1:32 splitting ratio, and about 10 km under a
1:64 splitting ratio.
2. The length of fiber mainly depends on the optical loss. The

higher the optical loss is, the shorter the transmitting
distance will be.
3. If fiber transmission distance is more than 2 Km, fiber
splicing should be considered, or combined with other
technology.
For nodes in different distances we may use FBT

splitter to distribute more optical power to a farther node and
less optical power to a closer node thus making sure all the
nodes get enough optical power.
ASSESMENT

1. Write the Route Planning for Optical fiber cable
laying ?
2. Define Multiplexing ?
3. Explain Code Division Multiplexing ?
1. When placing fibre optic cable in duct, the fill ratio of the
duct should not exceed ___________.
2. CDMA stands for __________________.
3. Data for different communications channels are sent on

lightwaves of different wavelengths, a variety of multiplexing
called _______________________.
4. FTTH PON can support a transmitting distance of about

______under a _______splitting ratio, and about _______under a
_______ splitting ratio.
i. Discuss the route inspection in fiber optics.
ii. Discuss the Fiber in Home Cabling.

DIFFERENT NETWORK SYSTEM AND ROUTE INSPECTION IN
FIBER OPTICS

Optical Fiber Fundamentals

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Optical Fiber Fundamentals

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Optical Fiber Technician Page |1

We have already discussed the Optical Fiber, and its

Basics of Fiber Optics

Fiber optic technology has its roots back in the Roman

 In 1961, Elias Snitzer published a theoretical description of

Nowadays, the Fiber optic technology is used in a great variety of

Optical Fiber Technology :

Fiber optics, or optical Fibers, are long, thin strands of

Fiber optic cables were originally developed in the 1950s

Light travels down a Fiber optic cable by bouncing off the

Types of Fiber Optic Cables :

Simplex And Duplex Optical Fiber

A duplex Fiber cable consists of two strands of glass or plastic

Other Applications Of Optical Fiber Technology

Uses of Optical Fiber in Our Daily Life

In recent years, other Fiber optic uses have arisen. Fiber

The electromagnetic energy travels through it in the

The following are the advantages and Disadvantages of

An optical fiber or fiber optic cable is a flexible, transparent fiber

Advantages of Optical Fiber Cable

Fiber optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal

Low Power Loss

Fiber optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference. It

In comparison to copper, a fiber optic cable has nearly 4.5 times

Optical Fibers are difficult to tap. As they do not radiate

An optical fiber has greater tensile strength than copper or steel

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cable

The fiber optic cable is a small and compact cable, and it is

The transmission on the optical fiber requires repeating at

Applications of Optical Fiber Cable are :

Fiber optic cables find many uses in a wide variety of

control, reliability, steady output, as well as its low cost, is

When the temperature increases the body changes from

It is found that maximum radiant efficiency would

obtained in practice, it is obvious that the actual efficiency of all

Yellow disappears last as the illumination becomes very

2. High Temperature Lamps:

3. Gaseous Discharge Lamps:

4. Fluorescent Type Lamps:

In optics, the law is used in ray tracing to compute the

with each as the angle measured from the normal of the

If light enters a denser medium from rarer (comparatively less

Similarly if a ray of light enters a rarer medium from a

In the latter case, as the angle of incidence increases so

refracted ray lies along the interface or boundary of the 2

Critical angle is angle of incidence of a ray of light,

This angle is special because after the angle of incidence

Acceptance angle : The Acceptance angle of an optical fiber is

Acceptance Cone : In fiber optics, the cone within which

Note: The acceptance cone is derived by rotating the acceptance

Numerical Aperture : In optics, the numerical aperture (NA) of

Optical Fiber Structure :

 The basic structure of an optical fiber consists of three parts;

 Total internal reflection is the operating principle of optical

 An optical fiber consists of a very thin core of high purity glass.

Single mode silica glass Fibers typical has a 8.3um

Multimode Fibers comes in a variety of core sizes

Types of Optical Fibers :

Note : Single Mode fiber is usually 9/125 in construction. This

Note: Multimode fiber is usually 50/125 and 62.5/125 in

Attenuation and Dispersion :

 Modal dispersion—Spreading of the signal in time resulting

Cables are used to transmission we can transmit by two