MODULE – II: Wireless Networking

2.1 To understand Satellite Communication

2.1.1 Describe satellite parameters

● The heart of a satellite communications system is a satellite-based antenna in a stable orbit
above the earth.
● In a satellite communications system, two or more stations on or near the earth communicate
via one or more satellites that serve as relay stations in space.
● The antenna systems on or near the earth are referred to as earth stations.
● A transmission from an earth station to the satellite is referred to as uplink, whereas
transmissions from the satellite to the earth station are downlink.
● The component in the satellite that takes an uplink signal and converts it to a downlink signal
is called a transponder.
There are a number of different ways of categorizing communications satellites:
⮚ Coverage area: Global, regional, or national. The larger the area of coverage,the more satellites
must be involved in a single networked system.
⮚ Service type: Fixed service satellite (FSS), broadcast service satellite (BSS), and mobile service
satellite (MSS).
⮚ General usage: Commercial, military, amateur, experimental.

Satellite Orbits
Satellite orbits may be classified in a number of ways:
1. The orbit may be circular, with the center of the circle at the center of the earth, or elliptical, with
the earth's center at one of the two foci of the ellipse.
2. A satellite may orbit around the earth in different planes. An equatorial orbit is directly above
the earth's equator. A polar orbit passes over both poles. Other Orbits are referred to as inclined
orbits.
3. The altitude of communications satellites is classified as geostationary orbit(GEO), medium earth
orbit (MEO), and low earth orbit (LEO).
I.TYPES OF SATELLITES (BASED ON ORBITS)
1) Geostationary or geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO)
🡺 GEO satellites are synchronous with respect to earth. Looking from a fixed point from
Earth, these satellites appear to be stationary.
🡺 These satellites are placed in the space in such a way that only three satellites are
sufficient to provide connection throughout the surface of the Earth (that is; their
footprint is covering almost 1/3rd of the Earth).
🡺 The orbit of these satellites is circular.
🡺 There are three conditions which lead to geostationary satellites.
🡺 Lifetime expectancy of these satellites is 15 years.
1) The satellite should be placed 37,786 kms (approximated to 36,000 kms) above the surface
of the earth.
2) These satellites must travel in the rotational speed of earth, and in the direction of motion
of earth, that is eastward.
3) The inclination of satellites with respect to earth must be 00.
🡺 Geostationary satellite in practical is termed as geosynchronous as there are multiple
factors which make these satellites shift from the ideal geostationary condition.
1) Gravitational pull of sun and moon makes these satellites deviate from their orbit. Over the
period of time, they go through a drag. (Earth‟s gravitational force has no effect on these
satellites due to their distance from the surface of the Earth.)
2) These satellites experience the centrifugal force due to the rotation of Earth, making them
deviate from their orbit.
3) The non-circular shape of the earth leads to continuous adjustment of satellite speed of
satellites. These satellites are used for TV and radio broadcast, weather forecast and also,
these satellites are operating as backbones for the telephone networks.
 ⮚ Disadvantages of GEO:

Northern or southern regions of the Earth (poles) have more problems receiving these
satellites due to the low elevation above a latitude of 60°, i.e., larger antennas are
needed in this case.
Shading of the signals is seen in cities due to high buildings and the low elevation
further away from the equator limit transmission quality.
The transmit power needed is relatively high which causes problems for battery
powered devices.
These satellites cannot be used for small mobile phones.
The biggest problem for voice and also data communication is the high latency as
without having any handovers, the signal has to at least travel 72,000 kms. Due to the
large footprint, either frequencies cannot be reused or the GEO satellite needs special
antennas focusing on a smaller footprint.
Transferring a GEO into orbit is very expensive.

2) Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites:

⮚ These satellites are placed 500-1500 kms above the surface of the earth.
⮚ As LEOs circulate on a lower orbit, hence they exhibit a much shorter period that is 95
to 120 minutes.
⮚ LEO systems try to ensure a high elevation for every spot on earth to provide a high
quality communication link. Each LEO satellite will only be visible from the earth for
around ten minutes.
⮚ Using advanced compression schemes, transmission rates of about 2,400 bit/s can be
enough for voice communication.
⮚ LEOs even provide this bandwidth for mobile terminals with Omnidirectional antennas
using low transmit power in the range of 1W.
⮚ The delay for packets delivered via a LEO is relatively low (approx 10 ms).
⮚ The delay is comparable to long-distance wired connections (about 5–10 ms).
⮚ Smaller footprints of LEOs allow for better frequency reuse, similar to the concepts
used for cellular networks. LEOs can provide a much higher elevation in Polar Regions
and so better global coverage.
⮚ These satellites are mainly used in remote sensing an providing mobile communication
services (due to lower latency).
 Disadvantages:
∙ The biggest problem of the LEO concept is the need for many satellites if global
coverage is to be reached. Several concepts involve 50–200 or even more satellites in
orbit.
∙ The short time of visibility with a high elevation requires additional mechanisms for
connection handover between different satellites.
∙ The high number of satellites combined with the fast movements resulting in a high
complexity of the whole satellite system.
∙ One general problem of LEOs is the short lifetime of about five to eight years due to
atmospheric drag and radiation from the inner Van Allen belt1.
∙ Assuming 48 satellites and a lifetime of eight years, a new satellite would be needed
every two months.
∙ The low latency via a single LEO is only half of the story.
∙ Other factors are the need for routing of data packets from satellite to if a user wants to
communicate around the world.
∙ Due to the large footprint, a GEO typically does not need this type of routing, as senders
and receivers are most likely in the same footprint.

3) Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites:

🡺 MEOs can be positioned somewhere between LEOs and GEOs, both in terms of their
orbit and due to their advantages and disadvantages.
🡺 Using orbits around 10,000 km, the system only requires a dozen satellites which is
more than a GEO system, but much less than a LEO system.
🡺 These satellites move more slowly relative to the earth‟s rotation allowing a simpler
system design (satellite periods are about six hours).
🡺 Depending on the inclination, a MEO can cover larger populations, so requiring fewer
handovers.
 Disadvantages:

∙ Due to the larger distance to the earth, delay increases to about 70–80 ms. ∙ The
satellites need higher transmit power and special antennas for smaller footprints.

Elevation angle θ

∙ The elevation angle θ of the earth station, which is the angle from the horizontal(i.e., a line
tangent to the surface of the earth at the antenna's location) to the point on the center of the
main beam of the antenna when the antenna is pointed directly at the satellite.

3 problems when θ=0

1. Building , trees and other objects would block line of sight.

2. Atmospheric attenuation is high when θ is low because the signal needs to transmit a longer
distance.
3. Electrical noise generated by the earth’s heat affects reception.
Coverage angle (β)

β defines a circle on the earth's surface centered on the point directed on the point directed below
the satellite.

The following equation holds

𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛α 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (π/2−β−θ)

𝑅+ℎ
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛(θ+π/2)
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛(θ+π/2)

𝐶𝑜𝑠(β+θ)
= 𝐶𝑜𝑠θ
; R-earth’s radius , h - orbit height

The distance from the satellite to furthest point of coverage is calculated as

𝑑 𝑆𝑖𝑛β 𝑆𝑖𝑛β
𝑅+ℎ
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛(θ+π/2)
= 𝐶𝑜𝑠θ

(𝑅+ℎ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 β 𝑅𝑆𝑖𝑛β

d= 𝐶𝑜𝑠θ
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛α
 II.Frequency Bands

∙ Increasing bandwidth is available in the higher-frequency bands.

∙ The higher the frequency, the greater the effect of transmission impairments.
∙ The mobile satellite service (MSS) is allocated frequencies in the Land S bands. In these
bands, compared to higher frequencies, there is a greater degree of refraction and greater
penetration of physical obstacles, such as foliage and non-metallic structures.
∙ These characteristics are desirable for mobile service.
∙ However, the Land S bands are also heavily used for terrestrial applications. Thus, there is
intense competition among the various microwave services for Land S band capacity.
∙ For any given frequency allocation for a service, there is an allocation of an uplink band and
a downlink band, with the uplink band always of higher frequency.
∙ The higher frequency suffers greater spreading, or free space loss, than its lower frequency
counterpart. The earth station is capable of higher power, which helps to compensate for the poorer
performance at higher frequency.
III.Transmission Impairments

The performance of a satellite link depends on three factors:

• Distance between earth station antenna and satellite antenna
• In the case of the downlink, terrestrial distance between earth station antenna and the "aim point" of
the satellite
• Atmospheric attenuation

1. Distance
Distance Recall from Equation (5.2) that free space loss can be expressed as:

2.Satellite Footprint

∙ Satellite Footprint At microwave frequencies, which are used in satellite communications,

highly directional antennas are used.
∙ Thus, the signal from a satellite is not isotropically broadcast but is aimed at a specific point on
the earth,depending on which area of coverage is desired.
∙ The center point of that area will receive the highest radiated power, and the power drops off as
you move away from the center point in any direction.
∙ This effect is typically displayed in a pattern known as a satellite footprint; an example is
shown in Figure 9.6.
 ∙ The satellite footprint displays the effective radiated power of the antenna at each point, taking
into account the signal power fed into the antenna and the directionality of the antenna. ∙ In the
example figure, the power for Arkansas is +36 dBW and for Massachusetts is +32 dBW.
∙ The actual power received at any point on the footprint is found by subtracting the free space
loss from the effective power figure.

3.Atmospheric Attenuation

∙ The primary causes of atmospheric attenuation are oxygen, which is of course always present,
and water.
∙ Attenuation due to water is present in humid air and is more pronounced with fog and rain.
Another factor that affects attenuation is the angle of elevation of the satellite from the earth
station (angle () in Figure 9.1).
∙ The smaller the angle of elevation, the more of the atmosphere that the signal must travel
through.
∙ Finally, atmospheric attenuation depends on frequency.
∙ In general, the higher the frequency, the greater the effect.
∙ Figure 9.7 shows the typical amount of attenuation as a function of angle of elevation for
frequencies in the C band.

∙ Of course, the attenuation due to fog and rain only occurs when those elements are present in
the atmosphere.

Inclination angle

⮚ The inclination angle δ is defined between the equatorial plane and the plane described by the
satellite orbit.
⮚ An inclination angle of 0 degrees means that the satellite is exactly above the equator.
⮚ If the satellite does not have a circular orbit, the closest point to the earth is called the
perigee.
 2.1.2 Describe satellite configurations

Satellite Network Configurations

∙ In a general way two common configurations for satellite communication.

∙ In the first, the satellite is being used to provide a point-to-point link between two distant
ground-based antennas.

∙ In the second, the satellite provides communications between one ground-based transmitter and
a number of ground based receivers.
⮚ A variation on the second configuration is one in which there is two-way communication
among earth stations, with one central hub and many remote stations.
⮚ This type of configuration, is used with the very small aperture terminal (VSAT) system.
⮚ A number of subscriber stations are equipped with low-cost VSAT antennas. Using some
discipline, these stations share a satellite transmission capacity for transmission to a hub station.
⮚ The hub station can exchange messages with each of the subscribers and can relay messages
between subscribers.
2.1.3 Explain capacity allocation frequency division

⮚ Typically, a single GEO satellite will handle a rather large bandwidth (e.g., 500 MHz)and
divide it into a number of channels of smaller bandwidth (e.g., 40 MHz).
⮚ Withineach of these channels, there is a capacity allocation task to be performed.

All of the allocation strategies fall into one of three categories:

• Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)

• Time division multiple access (TDMA)
• Code division multiple access (CDMA)

🡺 Frequency Division Multiplexing

⮚ The overall capacity of a communications satellite is divided into a number of channels.

⮚ Figure is an example of an FDM scheme, which is typical of GEO communications satellites;
this particular allocation is used in theGalaxy satellites from PanAmSat.3
PanAmSat.3 satellite uses C band frequencies which provide a 500-MHz bandwidth . This is
divided into twenty four 40MHz channels.

➢ Each channel could be used for a number of purposes.

○ 1200 voice frequency(VF) voice channel
○ 0ne 50 Mbps datastream
○ 16 channels 0f 1.544Mbps each
○ 400 channel of 64nkbps each
○ One analog video channel
○ 6 to 9 digital video channel

⮚ Each frequency assignment is used by two carriers with orthogonal polarization (vertical and
horizontal).

⮚ Each 40-MHz channel includes a 4-MHz guardband, so each channel is actually36 MHz
wide.
⮚ When used in a point-to-point configuration (Figure a), each channel could be used for one of
a number of alternative purposes.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

⮚ The discussion in the preceding subsection suggests that the satellite is used as intermediate
device providing, in effect, a point-to-point link between two earth stations.Because of the
wide area coverage of the satellite, this is not necessarily the case.
⮚ For example, the INTELSAT4 series satellites allow a single 36-MHz channel to be divided
using FDM into a number of smaller channels, each of which uses FM.
⮚ Each of the smaller channels in turn carries a number of voice frequency (VF) signals using
FDM.
⮚ The ability of multiple earth stations to access the same channel is referred to as FDMA.
⮚ The number of sub-channels provided within a satellite channel via FDMA is limited by three
factors:

• Thermal noise : Due to heat in transmission media.

• Intermodulation noise : Due to non linearity between transmitter and receiver.
• Crosstalk : One able to hear another conversation.

⮚ The first two factors work in opposite directions.

⮚ With too little signal strength, the transmitted signal will be corrupted by background noise. ⮚
With too much signal strength, nonlinear effects in the satellite's amplifiers result in high
inter-modulation noise.
⮚ Crosstalk stems from desire to increase capacity by reusing frequencies and limits but does
not eliminate that practice.
 ⮚ A frequency band can be reused if antennas that can radiate two polarized signals of the same
frequency (co-channels) in orthogonal planes are employed.
⮚ Again if signal strength is too high, co-channel interference becomes significant.

Two forms of FDMA are possible:

• Fixed-assignment multiple access (FAMA): The assignment of capacity within the overall
satellite channel is distributed in a fixed manner among multiple stations.This often results in
significant underuse of the capacity, as demand may fluctuate.

• Demand-assignment multiple access (DAMA): The capacity assignment ischanged as needed to

respond optimally to demand changes among the multiplestations.

1. FAMA-FDMA

FAMA-FDMA Figure 9.11 is a specific example of FAMA-FDMA, with seven earth

stations sharing the 36-MHz uplink capacity( a similar downlink diagram can be drawn).
Station A is assigned the 5-MHz bandwidth from 6237.5 to 6242.5 MHz,in which it can
transmit 60 VF channels using FDM-FM.
That is, FDM is used to carry the 60 channels, and FM is used to modulate the channels onto
the carrier frequency of 6240 MHz.
The figure indicates that station A has traffic for other stations as follows: 24 channels to B,
24 channels to D, and 12 channels to E. The Remaining spectrum of the 36-MHz channel is
divided among the other earth stations according to their traffic needs.
 In FAMA logical link between two channels between two stations is preassigned.
Each station must be able to receive at least one carrier for remote location which it wishes to
communicate with. Ie, A must be able to receive carrier signals from B,D and E.

2. DAMA-FDMA

⮚ The FAMA-FDMA scheme just described is not efficient.

⮚ Typically,in the C band, each channel has a usable bandwidth of 36 MHz.
⮚ One INTELSAT TDMA scheme divides this into 7 5-MHz blocks, each of which carries a
group of 60 VF channels, for a total of 420 channels.
⮚ Our example (Figure 9.11) also carries420 channels.
⮚ When the bandwidth is divided into 14 2.5-MHz subchannels, two groups of 48 VF channels
can be carried in each channel for a total of 336 channels.
⮚ It Turns out to be more efficient to avoid groupings altogether and simply to divide the36-MHz
bandwidth into individual VF channels. This technique is known as a single channel per
carrier (SCPC).
⮚ ISCPC is currently provided in the C band.

⮚ A single 36-MHz channel is subdivided into 800 45-kHz analog channels, each dedicated to a
simplex VF link,using FM.
⮚ There is also digital SCPC, using QPSK, which provides 64-kbps service in the same 45-kHz
bandwidth, enough for digitized voice.
⮚ With FAMA, pairs of channels (for full duplex) are assigned to pairs of earth stations.
⮚ Typically, eachearth station is multiplexed, supporting a small number of user stations.
⮚ With multiple user stations per earth station, a high degree of connectivity is achieved even
with FAMA.
⮚ As with conventional FDMA, the satellite accepts frequencies across the entire 36-MHz
channel, translates them to the 4-GHz band, and broadcasts the channel to all stations.
⮚ SCPC is attractive for remote areas where there are few user stations near each site.
⮚ Whereas FDMA is used as a trunk facility in the long-haul telecommunications system, SCPC
provides direct end-user service.
 ⮚ Although SCPC is more efficient bandwidth than FDMA, it does suffer from the inefficiency
of fixed assignment.
⮚ This is especially unsuitable in very remote areas, where it is typical thateach earth station
serves one or a very few user stations.
⮚ To achieve greater efficiency,DAMA is used.
⮚ With DAMA, the set of sub-channels in a channel is treated as a pool of available links.
⮚ To establish a full-duplex link between two earth stations,a pair of sub-channels is
dynamically assigned on demand.

🡺 The first commercially available DAMA SCPC system was SPADE (single channel per
carrier, pulse code modulation, multiple-access, demand-assignment equipment), introduced
in the early 1970s and currently available on INTELSATsatellites.

2.1.4 Explain capacity allocation time division

⮚ Although FDM techniques are still quite common in satellite transmission, TDMtechniques
are in increasingly widespread use.
⮚ The reasons include
• The continuing drop in the cost of digital components
• The advantages of digital techniques, including the use of error correction
• The increased efficiency of TDM due to the lack of intermodulation noise

⮚ As with FDM, all of the techniques to be discussed provide for multiple access and include
FAMA-TDMA and DAMA-TDMA.
⮚ FAMA-TDMA is the same as synchronous TDM.
⮚ Transmission is in the form of a repetitive sequence of frames, each of which is divided into a
number of timeslots.
⮚ Each slot position across the sequence of frames is dedicated to a particular transmitter. Frame
periods range from 100 µs to over 2 ms and consist of from 3 to over 100 slots.
⮚ Data rates range from 10 Mbps to over 100 Mbps.
 ⮚ Figure 9.13 depicts a typical frame format.
⮚ Typically, aframe begins with two reference bursts to define the beginning of the frame.
∙ Two Bursts are used, provided by two different earth stations, so that the system can continue
to function even if one reference station is lost due to malfunction.
⮚ Each reference burst begins with a carrier and bit timing recovery pattern
🡪 which is a unique pattern that allows all stations to synchronize to a master clock.
⮚ Each of the N stationsis assigned one or more slots in the frame. The station uses an assigned
slot to transmit bursts of data, consisting of a preamble and user information. The preamble
contains control and timing information, plus the identification of the destination station.
⮚ The Individual bursts are separated by guard times to ensure that there is no overlap.

FAMA-TDMA

▪ Figure 9.14 depicts the operation of FAMA-TDMA.

▪ Individual earth stations take turns using the uplink channel and may put a burst of data in the
assigned time slot.
▪ The satellite repeats all incoming transmissions, which are broadcast to all stations.
▪ Thus, all stations must know not only which time slot to use for transmission,but also which
time slot to use for reception.
▪ The satellite also repeats the reference burst, and all stations synchronize on the reception of
that burst.
▪ Each of the repetitive time slots is a channel and is independent of the other channels.
▪ Hence it can be used in any way that is required by the transmitting station.
▪ Ordinary TDMA is more efficient than ordinary FDMA because the guard times and control
bits of TDMA utilize less capacity than the guard bands of FDMA.
⮚ This is illustrated in Figure 9.15.
⮚ Note the dramatic drop in capacity of FDMA as the number of channels increase.
⮚ By contrast,TDMA drops much more slowly as the number of time slots (channels) increase.
⮚ The use of a long frame time also increases efficiency.
⮚ For comparison, an SCPC system provides a constant capacity of 800 channels whether its
bandwidth is divided among many or a few earth stations.

⮚ Even greater efficiencies can be achieved at the higher frequency bands (Ku andK bands).

⮚ At these frequencies, satellite transmission beams can be quite narrowly focused, allowing
multiple beams on the same frequency transmitted to different areas.
⮚ Thus a satellite can service a number of areas, each containing a number of earth stations.
⮚ Communication among the stations within a single area is accomplished with ordinary
FAMA-TDMA.
⮚ Communication among stations indifferent areas can be achieved if the satellite has the ability
to switch time slots from one beam to another. This is known as satellite switchedTDMA
(SS/TDMA).
❖ Figure 9.16 shows a simple SS/TDMA system serving two areas, each with two stations.
❖ As with ordinary TDMA, only one station at a time may transmit within an area.
❖ Thus, within area A, either station 1 or 2 may transmit in any given time slot.
❖ Similarly, either station 3 or station 4 may transmit in area B at any time. Stations From the
two areas do not interfere either through the use of polarized signals or different frequencies.
❖ At the satellite, data that are received are immediately retransmitted on a downlink frequency.
❖ Two separate downlink beams are used.
❖ The satellite contains a switch for interconnecting input beams and output beams.
❖ The connections through the switch may change over time.
❖ In the figure, downlink beam A repeats uplink beam A during periods 1 and 3 and repeats
uplink beam B during period 2.
❖ Thus any station in any area can send data to any other station in any area.
❖ For a satellite serving N areas, there are N TDM input streams.
❖ At any giventime, the switch is configured to route these uplink beams in a particular fashion
to the N downlink beams.
❖ Each configuration is referred to as a mode and N! different modes are required for full
connectivity.

🡺 Table 9.3 Shows the modes for a three area system.

🡺 For example, stations in area A can communicate with each other during modes 1 and 2,
 communicate with stations in area B during modes 3 and 5, and so on.
🡺 The satellite will change from mode to mode periodically.
🡺 At most, a mode change would occur once per slot time.
🡺 The mode pattern and duration are normally adjustable by ground command to meet changing
traffic requirements.

⮚ Finally, DAMA techniques are employed with TDMA satellite schemes.

⮚ TheSS/TDMA system is to some extent a DAMA system if the mode pattern can be changed
by ground command.
⮚ More commonly DAMA in the TDM context refers to multiple-access techniques for sharing
a single channel.
⮚ With such techniques, the ground stations typically cooperate to use the channel.

2.2 To Study Wireless System Operations and Standards

2.2.1 Explain cordless systems

Cordless systems provide users with mobility within a residence or small office by separating
the handset from the rest of the telephone (called the base station) and providing a simple analog or
digital wireless link.
1. Cordless systems can support multiple users from the same base station, which could include
either multiple telephone handsets or both voice and data devices (e.g., fax or printer).
2. Cordless systems can operate in a number of environments:
• Residential – a single base station can provide voice and data support enabling in
house communication as well as connection to public telephone network
• Office - A single base station can support a small office to provide service for a
number of telephone handsets and data devices. Multiple base stations in a cellular
configuration can support a larger office.
• Telepoint – a base station set up in a public place, such as an airport or shopping malls.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

A number of design considerations have driven the development of cordless

standards. lists the following:-
1. Modest range of handset from base station,up to about 200 m, so low-power designs are
used
2. The handset and the base station need to be inexpensive. This dictates the use of simple
technical approaches, such as in the area of speech coding and channel equalization.
3. Frequency flexibility is limited, because the user owns the base station as well as the
mobile portion and can install these in a variety of environments. Hence, the system
needs to be able to seek a low-interference channel wherever it is used.

⮚ DECT (digital enhanced cordless telecommunications) and PWT (personal wireless

telecommunications) are two standards in cordless systems.
 ⮚ These systems use an approach referred to as time division duplex (TDD).

Time Division Duplex (TDD)

🡺 In the technique of TDD, also known as time-compression multiplexing (TCM), data are
transmitted in one direction at a time, with transmission alternating between the two
directions.
🡪Data transmitted in one direction at a time, with transmission between the two directions
▪ Simple TDD
▪ TDMA TDD

Simple TDD

🡺 To achieve the desired subscriber data rate with simple TDD, the transmitter's bit stream is
divided into equal segments, compressed in time to a higher transmission rate, and
transmitted in bursts, which are expanded at the other end to the original rate.

🡺 Each side sends blocks of some fixed length, which takes time 𝑡𝑏.
🡺 The actual data rate on the channel must be greater than twice the data rate required by the two
end systems.
🡺 R = effective data rate
B = size of block in bits
Tp = propagation delay
Tb = burst transmission time
Tg = guard time

The effective number of bits transmitted per second,or effective data rate, is
TDMA TDD

🡺TDD was developed for use on wired subscriber system but also can use in wireless configuration.

🡺 Wireless TDD typically used with TDMA in which a number of users receive forward channel signals
in turn and then transmit reverse channel signals in turn, all on the same carrier frequency.
🡺 Advantages of TDMA/TDD:
▪ Improved ability to cope with fast fading : Pattern of fading changes as the frequency
changes. One way to cope with fading is to use two antennas at receiver.So if one antenna
experiences fading, the other will not.The receiver selects the strongest signal.
▪ Improved capacity allocation : For many data oriented applications, volume of traffic is
greater than the reverse connection.On TDD system, it is possible to allocate dynamically the
number of TDMA slots in each direction.So gets more slots on the forward channel when
needed. In FDMA, equal bandwidth is used for forward and reverse channels.

DECT Protocol Architecture

 🡺 Physical layer – data transmitted in TDMA-TDD frames over one of 10 RF carriers . The modulation
method is Gaussian - filtered FSK and data rate is 1.152Mbps.

🡺 Medium access control (MAC) layer – selects/ establishes/releases connections on physical

channels. It multiplexes information into the TDMA-TDD frame format. It supports three services:
∙ Broadcast :
∙ Connection oriented
∙ Connectionless
🡺 Data link control layer – provides for the reliable transmission of messages using traditional data link
control procedures including error control and automatic repeat request.
Services:
● Call control:Manages circuit switched calls, including connection setup and release.
● Supplementary services: Service independent of any cell that supports operations.
● Connection Message Services:This service will segment longer messages into smaller blocks
for transmission and reassemble at reception.
● Connection - oriented message service: Support connection oriented services.

Mobility management:

🡺 Handles functions necessary for the secure provision ofDECT services.

🡺 Mobility management is organized into seven groups of services:
1. Identity procedures: Used for the mobile unit to identify itself to the base station
 2. Authentication procedure: Establishes that the mobile unit is a valid network user.
3. Location procedure: Used in systems with multiple base stations to track the location of a mobile
unit
4. Access rights procedure: Establishes that the mobile unit has the right to gain access to a specific
type of local or global network
5. Key allocation procedure: Distributes encryption keys for protecting network control information
and user information
6. Parameter retrieval procedure: Used to exchange information about the parameters of the mobile
unit and network operation
7. Ciphering-related procedure: Encryption and decryption operationsAdaptive Differential Pulse
Code Modulation

DECT Frame Format

1. Preamble (16 bits) – alert receiver

2. Sync (16 bits) – enable receiver to synchronize on beginning of time slot 3. A
field (64 bits) – used for network control
A Field Logical Control Channels

a) Q channel – used to broadcast general system information from base station to all terminals b) P
channel – provides paging from the base station to terminals
c) M channel – used by terminal to exchange medium access control messages with base station d) N
channel – provides handshaking protocol
e) C channel – provides call management for active connections

4. B field (320 bits) – contains user data

🡺 B field transmits data in two modes
▪ Unprotected mode - used to transmit digitized voice
▪ Protected mode - transmits non-voice data traffic

5. X field (4 bits) – parity check bits

6. Guard (60 bits) – guard time, Tg

2.2.2 Describe Wireless Local Loop

🡺 WLL alternatives are narrowband,which offer a replacement for existing telephony services, and
broadband, which provide high-speed two-way voice and data service.

🡺 In telephone networks , the circuit between the subscriber’s equipment (telephone set) and the local
exchange is called local loop. Wireless local loop is the use of wireless communication links , which
provide high speed two way voice and data service.
🡺 Table 11.4, based on one in, compares WLL and other alternatives for fixed subscriber support.
❖ Figure 11.8 illustrates a simpleWLL configuration.

❖ A WLL provider services one or more cells.

❖ Each cell includes a base station antenna, mounted on top of a tall building or tower.
❖ Individual subscribers have a fixed antenna mounted on a building or pole that has an unobstructed
line of sight to the base station antenna.
❖ From the base station, there is a link, which may either be wired or wireless, to a switching center.
❖ The switching center is typically a telephone company local office, which provides connections to
the local and long-distance telephone networks.
❖ An Internet Service provider (ISP) may be collocated at the switch or connected to the switch by a
high-speed link.

🡺 Figure 11.8 shows what amounts to a two-level hierarchy.

🡺 More complex configurations have also been implemented, in which a base station may serve a
number of subordinate base station antennas, each of which supports a number of subscribers.

Advantages over a wired approach to subscriber loop support:-

. Cost Wireless systems are less expensive than wired systems. Although the electronics of the
wireless transmitter/receiver may be more expensive than those used for wired
communications, with WLL the cost of installing kilometers of cable, either
underground or on poles, is avoided, as well as the cost of maintaining the wired
infrastructure.

• Installation WLL systems typically can be installed rapidly. The key stumbling blocks are obtaining
time permission to use a given frequency band and finding a suitable elevated site for the
base station antennas. Once these hurdles are cleared, a WLL system can be installed in
a small fraction of the time required for a new wired system.
● Selective Radio units are installed only for those subscribers who want the service at a given time
installation with a wired system, cable is laid out in anticipation in a local area.

Propagation Considerations for WLL

❖ Most high-speed WLL schemes use millimeter wave frequencies (10 GHz to about 300 GHz)

• There are wide unused frequency bands available above 25 GHz

• At these high frequencies, wide channel bandwidths can be used, providing high data rates
• Small size transceivers and adaptive antenna arrays can be used
❖ Millimeter wave systems have some undesirable propagation characteristics - frequencies above 10
GHz, up to about 300 GHz, are considered to be in the millimeter wave region'? ❖ Free space loss
increases with the square of the frequency; losses are much higher in millimeter wave range
❖ Above 10 GHz, attenuation effects due to rainfall and atmospheric or gaseous absorption are large
❖ Multipath losses can be quite high

Fresnel Zone

🡺 The definition of Fresnel zones is based on the theory that any small element of space in the path of
an electromagnetic wave may be considered the source of secondary wavelet, and that the radiated
field can be built up by the superposition of all these wavelets.
🡺 On the basis of this theory, it can be shown that objects lying within a series of concentric circles
around the direct line of sight between two transceivers have constructive or destructive effects on
communication.
🡺 How much space around direct path between transmitter and receiver should be clear of obstacles?
🡺 Objects within a series of concentric circles around the line of sight between transceivers have
constructive/destructive effects on communication
🡺 Consider a point along the direct path between a transmitter and receiver, thatis, a distance S from the
transmitter and a distance D from the receiver, with the total distance along the path equal to S + D
(Figure 11.9).

🡺 Then the radius of the first Fresnel Zone

Atmospheric Absorption
❖ Radio waves at frequencies above 10 GHz are subject to molecular absorption
• Peak of water vapor absorption at 22 GHz
• Peak of oxygen absorption near 60 GHz
❖ However, the Figure shows the absorption effects at a particular temperature,relative humidity, and
atmospheric pressure.

❖ Although the shapes of these two curves remain the same, the actual values vary, especially with
temperature and relative humidity.
❖ Favorable windows for communication:
• From 28 GHz to 42 GHz
• From 75 GHz to 95 GHz

Table shows the effects of temperature and humidity.

Effect of Rain
❖ Attenuation due to rain
• Presence of raindrops can severely degrade the reliability and performance of
communication links
• The effect of rain depends on drop shape, drop size, rain rate, and frequency ❖
Estimated attenuation due to rain:

A = attenuation (dB/km)
R = rain rate (mm/hr)
a and b depend on drop sizes and frequency

Effects of Vegetation
❖ Trees near subscriber sites can lead to multipath fading
❖ Multipath effects from the tree canopy are diffraction and scattering
❖ Measurements in orchards found considerable attenuation values when the foliage is within 60% of
the first Fresnel zone
❖ Multipath effects are highly variable due to wind .

>> Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

OFDM , also called multicarrier modulation, uses multiple carrier signals at different
frequencies. In case of OFDM, all of the subchannels are dedicated to a single data structure.
Suppose we have data stream operating ar R bps and an available bandwidth of Nfb, centered 𝑓0.Data
stream is split into N substream at data rate of R/N bps and is transmitted on a separate subcarrier.
In OFDM lowest frequency subcarrier is 𝑓𝑏. All other subcarriers are integer multiples of base
frequency subcarrier 𝑓𝑏, namely 2𝑓𝑏,3𝑓𝑏,....OFDM uses advanced digital processing techniques to
distribute data over multiple carriers at precise frequencies. The relationship among subcarriers is
reflected as orthogonality. Ie, peaks of a subcarrier occur only when other subcarriers are at zero. OFDM
subcarriers can be tightly packed together because of minimal interference between adjacent subcarriers.
 The two approaches of most interest for the WLL application:-

1. local multipoint distribution service (LMDS)

∙ Appeals to larger companies with greater bandwidth demands
Advantages of LMD
✔ Relatively high data rates
✔ Capable of providing video, telephony, and data
✔ Relatively low cost in comparison with cable alternatives
Disadvantages
✔ Require a relatively large number of base stations to service a given area.
✔ LMDS’s short wavelength signals cannot pass around or penetrate objects like building
walls.
2. Multichannel multipoint distribution service (MMDS).
∙ Also referred to as wireless cable
∙ Used mainly by residential subscribers and small businesses
Advantages of MMDS
✔ MMDS signals have larger wavelengths and can travel farther without losing
significant power
✔ Equipment at lower frequencies is less expensive
✔ MMDS signals don't get blocked as easily by objects and are less susceptible to rain
absorption
Disadvantages
✔ Provides much less bandwidth than LMDS
✔ MMDS used in residential subscriber and small business, where LMDS used in larger
companies with larger bandwidth.
2.2.3 Explain IEEE 802.16 Broadband wireless access standards

The work on 802.16 in Table is the farthest along and is the one most likely to generate the most
industry interest, as it is targeted at available LMDS frequency bands.
>> IEEE 802.16 Architecture

System Reference Architecture

● An 802.16 wireless service provides a communication path between subscriber site (subscriber
device) and core network (network to which 802.16 provides access eg- telephone network,
internet)
● Three interfaces
Air interface: Interface between Base transceiver station (BTS) and subscriber’s transceiver
station (STS).
SNI( STS Network Interface)- Interface between STS & Subscriber network.
BNI (Base transceiver Station) - Interface between BTS & Core network.
● System reference model includes the optional use of repeater.Air interface allows repeaters,
reflectors to bypass obstruction and extend cell coverage.
● Medium Access Delay: Once a transceiver station is ready to transmit, the medium access
delay measures the amount of time that the station must wait before it can transmit.
● Transmit Delay: This is delay from SNi to BNI or BNI to SNI .It includes the MAC delay plus
 the processing at MAC layer for preparing transmission and at MAC layer for reception.
● End to End Delay: Total delay between a terminal in the subscriber network, to the ultimate
service beyond the core network.This includes the transit delay.

Protocol Architecture

🡺 Physical and transmission layer functions:

∙ Encoding/decoding of signals
∙ Preamble generation/removal
∙ Bit transmission/reception
🡺 Medium access control layer functions:
∙ On transmission, assemble data into a frame with address and error detection fields
∙ On reception, disassemble frame, and perform address recognition and error detection
∙ Govern access to the wireless transmission medium
🡺 Convergence layer functions:
∙ Encapsulate PDU framing of upper layers into native 802.16 MAC/PHY frames
∙ Map upper layer’s addresses into 802.16 addresses
∙ Translate upper layer QoS parameters into native 802.16 MAC format
∙ Adapt time dependencies of upper layer traffic into equivalent MAC service
In some cases such as audio and video , no convergence layer is needed and a stream of
digital data is presented to the transmission layer.
 Example of the protocol structure supported by convergence layer is handling of TCP/IP
based traffic.Higher level data are passed to LLC(Logical LinkControl), appends control information
as header, creating protocol data unit. LLC PDU is passed to the MAC layer, which appends control
information at the front and back of the packet forming the MAC frame.

IEEE 802.16.1 Services

• Digital audio/video multicast: Transports one-way digital audio/video streams to subscribers. The
principal example of this service is broadcast radio and video similar to digital broadcast cable TV
and digital satellite TV. A special case of this service is two-way video such as in teleconferencing.
In this latter case, delay requirements are stringent because of the interactivity involved.
• Digital telephony: Supports multiplexed digital telephony streams. This service is a classic WLL
service that provides a replacement for wired access to the public telephone network.
• ATM: Provides a communications link that supports the transfer ofATM cells as part of an overall
ATM network. The 802.16 link must support the variousQoS services defined for ATM.
• Internet protocol: Supports the transfer of IP datagrams. The 802.16 link must provide efficient,
timely service. In addition, a variety of QoS services are now defined for IP-based networks, and
802.16 should support these.
• Bridged LAN: Similar to the IP-based support. A bridge LAN service enables transfer of data
between two LANs with switching at the MAC layer.
• Back-haul: For cellular or digital wireless telephone networks. An 802.16 system may be a
convenient means to provide wireless trunks for wireless telephone base stations.
• Frame relay: Similar to ATM. Frame relay uses variable-length frames.

Bearer services grouped into 3

● Circuit based - Provide a circuit switching capability in which connections are set up to
subscribers across a core network.
● Variable length packet :IP and frame relay are examples of services that make use of variable
length PDUs.
 ● Fixed length cell/ packet : This service is for ATM.

IEEE 802.16 MAC Layer

Data transmitted over 802.16 air interface from or to a given subscriber are structured as used
in this context refers to the PDU that includes MAC protocol control information and higher level
data.

TDMA frames consist of a sequence of time slots dedicated to a given subscriber.A TDMA timeslot
may contain exactly one MAC frame , or multiple MAC frames and MAC frames are transmitted
over a logical channel.

Connections and service flow

The 802.16 MAC protocol is connection oriented. Ie, a logical connection is set up
between peer entities( MAC users) prior to exchange of data between those entities.

MAC frame includes connection ID( used by MAC protocol to deliver to MAC user)

There is one-to-one correspondence between connection ID and service flow.

FRAME FORMAT

The frame consists of three sections:-

1. Header - protocol control information

o Downlink header – used by the base station
o Uplink header – used by the subscriber to convey bandwidth management needs to
base station
2. Bandwidth request header – used by subscriber to request additional bandwidth
3. Payload – either higher-level data or a MAC control message
4. CRC – error-detecting code

MAC Management Messages

● Uplink and downlink channel descriptor : Transmit characteristics of physical channel

● Uplink and downlink access definition : Allocates access to the uplink and downlink channels.
 ● Ranging request and response : Used by subscribers to determine network delay and to request
power modulation adjustment.
● Registration request, response and acknowledge : The subscriber sends the request at
initialization time and contains various relevant parameter.The base station replies with
response and subscriber ACK it.
● Privacy key management request and response : To exchange information about encryption
keys.
● Dynamic service addition request, response and acknowledge : Send by subscriber to request a
new service flow.
● Dynamic service change request, response, and acknowledge : Send by subscriber or BS to
dynamically change parameters of existing service flow.
● Dynamic service deletion request and response : Send by subscriber or BS to delete service
flow.
● Multicast polling assignment request and response : Sent by subscriber to request inclusion in
multicast polling group.
● Downlink data grant type request : Sent by BS to subscriber to dictate to be modulation
method and FEC technique performance.
● ARQ acknowledgment : To ACK successful receipt of 1 or more packets from a peer MAC
entity.

IEEE 802.16 Physical Layer

Physical layer support a different structure for the point to multipoint downstream channels and
multipoint upstream upstream channels.
– Upstream Transmission
∙ Uses a DAMA-TDMA technique
∙ Error correction uses Reed-Solomon code
∙ Modulation scheme based on M-QAM

– Downstream Transmission

🡺 Continuous downstream mode (Mode A)

∙ For continuous transmission stream (audio, video)
∙ Simple TDM scheme is used for channel access
∙ Duplexing technique is frequency division duplex (FDD)
🡺 Burst downstream mode (Mode B)
∙ Targets burst transmission stream (IP-based traffic)
∙ DAMA-TDMA scheme is used for channel access
∙ Duplexing techniques are FDD with adaptive modulation, frequency shift division
duplexing (FSDD), time division duplexing (TDD)

IEEE 802.16a

● IEEE 802.16 operates in the 10 to 66 GHz frequency band and requires a line of sight antenna.
 ● IEEE 802.16a operates in 2 to 11 GHz and it does not require a line of sight antenna.It
supports 50km range and data rates over 70Mbps.
● 802.16a has a new physical layer and some modification to the MAC layer.
● 802.16a standard specifies that systems implement one of three interface specifications.
Wireless MAN -SCa: uses single carrier modulation format.
Wireless MAN - OFDM- This uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing with 256
point transform.
Wireless MAN- OFDMA - Uses orthogonal FDM with 2048 point transform.
● 802.16a upgrades MAC to provide Automatic Repeat Request.
● 802.16a support both TDD and FDD modes of operation.

2.3 To Understand Mobile IP and WAP

2.3.1 Explain operation of Mobile-IP

❖ In response to the increasing popularity of palm-top and other mobile computers, Mobile IP
was developed to enable computers to maintain Internet connectivity while moving from one
Internet attachment point to another.
❖ Although Mobile IP can work with wired connections, in which a computer is unplugged
from one physical attachment point and plugged into another, it is particularly suited to
wireless connections.
❖ The term mobile in this context implies that a user is connected to one or more applications
across the Internet, that the user's point of attachment changes dynamically, and that all
connections are automatically maintained despite the change.
❖ This is in contrast to a user, such as a business traveler, with a portable computer of some sort
who arrives at a destination and uses the computer's notebook to dial into an ISP (Internet
service provider).
❖ In this latter case, the user's Internet connection is terminated each time the user moves and a
new connection is initiated when the user dials back in.
❖ Each time an Internet connection is established, software at the point of attachment (typically
an ISP) is used to obtain a new, temporarily assigned IP address.
❖ This temporary IP address is used by the user's correspondent for each application-level
connection (e.g., FTP, Web connection).

Mobile IP Uses

🡺 Enable computers to maintain Internet connectivity while moving from one Internet
attachment point to another
🡺 Mobile – user's point of attachment changes dynamically and all connections are automatically
maintained despite the change
 🡺 Nomadic - user's Internet connection is terminated each time the user moves and a new
connection is initiated when the user dials back in
∙ New, temporary IP address is assigned

Operation of Mobile IP

🡺 Routers make use of the IP address in an IP datagram to perform routing.

🡺 In particular, the network portion of an IP address is used by routers to move a datagram
from the source computer to the network to which the target computer is attached.
🡺 Then the final router on the path, which is attached to the same network as the target
computer, uses the host portion of the IP address to deliver the IP datagram to the destination.
🡺 Further, this IP address is known to the next higher layer in the protocol architecture.
🡺 In particular, most applications over the Internet are supported by TCP connections.
🡺 When a TCP connection is set up, the TCP entity on each side of the connection knows the IP
address of the correspondent host.
🡺 When a TCP segment is handed down to the IP layer for delivery, TCP provides the IP
address, and IP creates an IP datagram with that IP address in the IP header and sends the
datagram out for routing and delivery. However, with a mobile host, the IP address may
change while one or more TCP connections are active.
Figure 12.1 shows in general terms how Mobile IP deals with the problem of dynamic IP
addresses

❖ A mobile node is assigned to a particular network, known as its home network. Its IP
address on that network, known as its home address, is static.
❖ When the mobile node moves its attachment one point to another network, that network is
considered a foreign network for this host.
❖ Once the mobile node is reattached, it makes its presence known by registering with a
network node, typically a router, on the foreign network known as a foreign agent.
❖ The mobile node then communicates with a similar agent on the user's home network, known
 as a home agent, giving the home agent the care-of address of the mobile node; the care-of
address identifies the foreign agent's location.
❖ Typically, one or more routers on a network will implement the roles of both home and
foreign agents.

When IP datagrams are exchanged over a connection between the mobilenode and another host (a
server in Figure 12.1), the following operations occur:
1. Server X transmits an IP datagram destined for mobile node A, with A's home address in the IP
header. The IP datagram is routed to A's home network.
2. At the home network, the incoming IP datagram is intercepted by the home agent. The home
agent encapsulates the entire datagram inside a new IPdatagram that has the A's care-of address in
the header, and retransmits the datagram. The use of an outer IP datagram with a different
destination IPaddress is known as tunneling. This IP datagram is routed to the foreign agent.
3. The foreign agent strips off the outer IP header, encapsulates the original IPdatagram in a
network-level PDU (e.g., a LAN LLC frame), and delivers the original datagram to A across the
foreign network.
4. When A sends IP traffic to X, it uses X's IP address. In our example, this is a fixed address; that
is, X is not a mobile node. Each IP datagram is sent by A to a router on the foreign network for
routing to X. Typically, this router is also the foreign agent.
5. The IP datagram from A to X travels directly across the Internet to X, usingX's IP address.

Operation of Mobile IP

🡺 Mobile node is assigned to a particular network – home network

🡺 IP address on home network is static – home address
🡺 Mobile node can move to another network – foreign network
🡺 Mobile node registers with network node on foreign network – foreign agent
🡺 Mobile node gives care-of address to agent on home network – home agent

Capabilities of Mobile IP

1. Discovery – mobile node uses discovery procedure to identify prospective home and
foreign agents
2. Registration – mobile node uses an authenticated registration procedure to inform home
agent of its care-of address
3. Tunneling – used to forward IP datagrams from a home address to a care-of address

1. Discovery

✔ Mobile node is responsible for ongoing discovery process

✔ Must determine if it is attached to its home network or a foreign network ✔ Transition from
home network to foreign network can occur at any time without notification to the network layer
 ✔ Mobile node listens for agent advertisement messages
✔ Compares network portion of the router's IP address with the network portion of home
address

Agent Solicitation

❖ Foreign agents are expected to issue agent advertisement messages periodically ❖ If a mobile
node needs agent information immediately, it can issue ICMP router solicitation message

Move Detection

❖ Mobile node may move from one network to another due to some handoff mechanism
without IP level being aware
• Agent discovery process is intended to enable the agent to detect such a move
❖ Algorithms to detect move:
o Use of lifetime field – mobile node uses lifetime field as a timer for agent
advertisements
o Use of network prefix – mobile node checks if any newly received agent advertisement
messages are on the same network as the node's current care-of address

Co-Located Addresses

🡺 If mobile node moves to a network that has no foreign agents, or all foreign agents are busy, it
can act as its own foreign agent
🡺 Mobile agent uses co-located care-of address
• IP address obtained by mobile node associated with mobile node's current network
interface
🡺 Means to acquire co-located address:
• Temporary IP address through an Internet service, such as DHCP
• May be owned by the mobile node as a long-term address for use while visiting a
given foreign network

Registration Process

❖ Mobile node sends registration request to foreign agent requesting forwarding service
❖ Foreign agent relays request to home agent
❖ Home agent accepts or denies request and sends registration reply to foreign agent
❖ Foreign agent relays reply to mobile node

2. Registration Operation Messages

❖ Registration request message

 • Fields = type, S, B, D, M, V, G, lifetime, home address, home agent, care-of
address, identification, extensions
❖ Registration reply message
• Fields = type, code, lifetime, home address, home agent, identification, extensions

Registration Procedure Security

🡺 Mobile IP designed to resist attacks

• Node pretending to be a foreign agent sends registration request to a home agent
to divert mobile node traffic to itself
• Agent replays old registration messages to cut mobile node from network 🡺 For message
authentication, registration request and reply contain authentication extension • Fields = type,
length, security parameter index (SPI), authenticator

Types of Authentication Extensions

✔ Mobile-home – provides for authentication of registration messages between mobile node

and home agent; must be present
✔ Mobile-foreign – may be present when a security association exists between mobile node and
foreign agent
✔ Foreign-home – may be present when a security association exists between foreign agent and
home agent

3. Tunneling

🡺 Home agent intercepts IP datagrams sent to mobile node's home address • Home agent
informs other nodes on home network that datagrams to mobile node should be
delivered to home agent
🡺 Datagrams forwarded to care-of address via tunneling
• Datagram encapsulated in outer IP datagram

Tunneling

❖ For example, suppose that R3 in Figure is acting as the home agent for a mobile node that is
attached to a foreign network elsewhere on the Internet.
❖ That is, there is a host H whose home network is LAN Z that is now attached to some foreign
network.
❖ If host D has traffic for H, it will generate an IP datagram with H's home address in the IP
destination address field.
❖ The IP module in D recognizes that this destination address is on LAN Z and so passes the
datagram down to the link layer with instructions to deliver it to a particular MAC-level
address on Z.
❖ Prior to this time, R3 has informed the IP layer at D that datagrams destined for that
particular address should be sent to R3.
 ❖ Thus, D inserts the MAC address of R3 in the destination MAC address field of the outgoing
MAC frame.
❖ Similarly, if an IP datagram with the mobile node's home address arrives at router R2, it
recognizes that the destination address is on LAN Z and will attempt to deliver the datagram
to a MAC-level address on Z.

❖ Again, R2 has previously been informed that the MAC-level address it needs corresponds to
R3.
❖ For traffic that is routed across the Internet and arrives at R3 from the Internet, R3 must
simply recognize that for this destination address, the datagram is to be captured and
forwarded.

Mobile IP Encapsulation Options

❖ IP-within-IP – entire IP datagram becomes payload in new IP datagram

• Original, inner IP header unchanged except TTL decremented by 1
• Outer header is a full IP header
❖ Minimal encapsulation – new header is inserted between original IP header and original IP
payload
• Original IP header modified to form new outer IP header
❖ Generic routing encapsulation (GRE) – developed prior to development of Mobile IP

Three types of authentication extensions are defined:

• Mobile-home: This extension must be present and provides for authentication of
the registration messages between the mobile node and the home agent.
• Mobile-foreign: The extension may be present when a security association exists between the
mobile node and the foreign agent. The foreign agent willstrip this extension off before relaying a
request message to the home agent and add this extension to a reply message coming from a home
agent.
• Foreign-home: The extension may be present when a security association exists
between the foreign agent and the home agent.
 2.3.2 Explain the architectural overview of Wireless Application Protocol
❖ The Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a universal, open standard developed by the
WAP Forum to provide mobile users of wireless phones and other wireless terminals such as
pagers and personal digital assistants (PDAs) access to telephone and information services,
including the Internet and the Web.
❖ WAP is designed to work with all wireless network technologies (e.g., GSM, CDMA,
andTDMA).
❖ WAP is based on existing Internet standards, such as IP, XML, HTML, and HTTP, as much as
possible.
❖ It also includes security facilities. Ericsson, Motorola, Nokia, and Phone.comestablished the
WAP Forum in 1997, which now has several hundred members.
❖ At the time of this writing, the current release of the WAP specification is version 2.0.
❖ Strongly affecting the use of mobile phones and terminals for data services are the significant
limitations of the devices and the networks that connect them.
❖ The Devices have limited processors, memory, and battery life.
❖ The user interface is also limited, and the displays small.
❖ The wireless networks are characterized by relatively low bandwidth, high latency, and
unpredictable availability and stability compared to wired connections.
❖ Moreover, all these features vary widely from terminal device to terminal device and from
network to network.
❖ Finally, mobile, wireless users have different expectations and needs from other information
 systems users.
❖ For Instance, mobile terminals must be extremely easy to use, much easier than workstations
and personal computers.
❖ WAP is designed to deal with these challenges.

Architectural Overview

• The WAP Programming Model is based on three elements: the client, the gateway,and the
original server (Figure).
• HTTP is used between the gateway and the original server to transfer content.
• The gateway acts as a proxy server for thewireless domain.
• Its processor(s) provide services that offload the limited capabilities of the hand-held, mobile,
wireless terminals.
• For example, the gateway providesDNS services, converts between WAP protocol stack and
the WWW stack (HTTPand TCP/IP), encodes information from the Web into a more
compact form that minimizes wireless communication, and, in the other direction, decodes the
compacted form into standard Web communication conventions.
• The gateway also coaches frequently requested information.
 ● Using WAP, a mobile user can browse web content on an ordinary web server. The web server
provides content in the form of HTML coded pages that are transmitted using the standard web
protocol stack. The HTML content is translated to WML content by the HTML filter. This
WML content is co-located with a WAP proxy or in a separate physical module. The proxy
converts the WML to binary WML and delivers it to a mobile user over a wireless network
using the WAP protocol stack.
● If the web server is capable of directly generating WML content, then the WML is delivered
using HTTP/TCP/IP to the proxy, which converts the WML to binary WML and then delivers it
to the mobile node using WAP protocols.

Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)

 • Open standard providing mobile users of wireless terminals access to telephony and
information services
• Wireless terminals include wireless phones, pagers and personal digital assistants (PDAs)
• Designed to work with all wireless network technologies such as GSM, CDMA, and TDMA
• Based on existing Internet standards such as IP, XML, HTML, and HTTP
• Includes security facilities
Wireless Markup Language (WML)

Features

WML was designed to describe content and format for presenting data on devices with limited
bandwidth, limited screen size and limited user input capability.
Important features:

❖ Text and image support – formatting and layout commands

❖ Deck/card organizational metaphor – WML documents subdivided into cards, which specify
one or more units of interaction
❖ Support for navigation among cards and decks – includes provisions for event handling; used
for navigation or executing scripts
 <wml> tag encloses deck
<card> tag encloses card
<p> enclose a paragraph

WMLScript

• Scripting language for defining script-type programs in a user device with limited processing
power and memory
• WMLScript capabilities:
▪ Check validity of user input before it’s sent
▪ Access device facilities and peripherals
▪ Interact with user without introducing round trips to origin server
• WMLScript features:
▪ JavaScript-based scripting language
▪ Procedural logic
▪ Event-based : invoke response on certain events
▪ Compiled implementation : WML scripts can be compiled down to byte code.
▪ Integrated into WAE : Allows to construct service using WML and WML script.
▪ Efficient library support:
Supports statements like for, break, if, if..else….

Wireless Application Environment (WAE)

 ⮚ WAE specifies an application framework for wireless devices
⮚ WAE elements:
✔ WAE User agents – software that executes in the wireless device
✔ Content generators – applications that produce standard content formats in response
to requests from user agents in the mobile terminal
✔ Standard content encoding – defined to allow a WAE user agent to navigate Web
content
✔ Wireless telephony applications (WTA) – collection of telephony-specific extensions
for call and feature control mechanisms

✔ The WAE specifies an application framework for wireless devices such as mobile telephones,
pagers, and PDAs.

✔ In essence, the WAE consists of tools and formats that are intended to ease the task of
developing applications and devices supportedbyWAP.

The major elements of the WAE model are as follows (Figure):-

1. WAE user agents: Software that executes in the user's wireless device and that provides
specific functionality (e.g., display content) to the end user.
2. Content generators: Applications (or services) on origin servers (e.g., CGIscripts) that
produce standard content formats in response to requests from user agents in the mobile
terminal. WAE does not specify any standard content generators but expects that there will be
a variety available running on typical HTTP origin servers commonly used inWWW today.
3. Standard content encoding: Defined to allow aWAE user agent (e.g., a browser)to
conveniently navigate Web content.
4. Wireless telephony applications (WTA): A collection of telephony-specific extensions for
call and feature control mechanisms that provide authors with advanced mobile network
services. Using WTA, applications developers can use the microbrowser to originate
telephone calls and to respond to events from the telephone network.

Wireless Session Protocol

⮚ Transaction-oriented protocol based on the concept of a request and a reply

⮚ Provides applications with interface for two session services:
▪ Connection-oriented session service – operates above reliable transport protocol
WTP
▪ Connectionless session service – operates above unreliable transport protocol WDP

⮚ In essence,WSP is based on HTTP with some additions and modifications to optimize its use
over wireless channels.
⮚ The principal limitations addressed are low data rate and susceptibility to loss of connection
 due to poor coverage or cell overloading.
⮚ WSP is a transaction-oriented protocol based on the concept of a request and reply.
⮚ Each WSP protocol data unit (PDU) consists of a body, which may containWML,
WMLScript, or images, and a header, which contains information about the data in the body and
about the transaction.
⮚ WSP also defines a server Push operation,in which the server sends unrequested content to a
client device.
⮚ This may be used for broadcast messages or for services, such as news headlines or stock
quotes,that may be tailored to each client device.

Connection-modeWSP provides the following services:

✔ Establish a reliable session from client to server and release

✔ Agree on common level of protocol functionality using capability negotiation
✔ Exchange content between client and server using compact encoding
✔ Suspend and resume a session
✔ Push content from server to client in an unsynchronized manner
WSP Transaction Types

✔ Session establishment – client WSP user requests session with server WSP user
✔ Session termination – client WSP user initiates termination
✔ Session suspend and resume – initiated with suspend and resume requests
✔ Transaction – exchange of data between a client and server
✔ Non-confirmed data push – used to send unsolicited information from server to client
✔ Confirmed data push – server receives delivery confirmation from client

Four parameters accompany the request:-

• Server address: The peer with which the session is to be established.

• Client address: The originator of the session.

• Client headers: Contain attribute information that can be used for application level parameters to
be communicated to the peer. This information is passed without modification by WSP and is not
processed by WSP.
• Requested capabilities: A set of capabilities for this session requested by the client; these are
listed in Table.
The request primitive includes the following parameters:
• Reason code: Cause of disconnection. If the cause is that the client is being redirected to contact a
new server address, the next two parameters must be present.
• Redirect security: Indicates whether or not the client may reuse the current secure session when
redirecting.
• Redirect addresses: Alternate addresses to be used to establish a session.
• Error headers and error body: If the termination is due to an error, these parameters may be
included to provide information to the server WSP user about the error.

The request contains the following parameters:-

• Client Transaction ID: Used to distinguish between pending

transactions • Method: Identifies the requested operation
• Request URI (uniform resource identifier): Specifies the entity to which the operation
applies • Request headers and body: Attribute information and data associated with the request
Wireless Transaction Protocol

⮚ Lightweight protocol suitable for "thin" clients and over low-bandwidth wireless links
⮚ WTP features
o Three classes of transaction service
o Optional user-to-user reliability: WTP user triggers confirmation of each received
message
o Optional out-of-band data on acknowledgments
o PDU concatenation and delayed acknowledgment to reduce the number of messages
 sent
o Asynchronous transactions

WTP Transaction Classes

🡺 Class 0: Unreliable invoke message with no result message
🡺 Class 1: Reliable invoke message with no result message
🡺 Class 2: Unreliable invoke message with one reliable result message

WTP PDU Types

❖ Invoke PDU – used to convey a request from an initiator to a responder

❖ ACK PDU – used to acknowledge an Invoke or Result PDU
❖ Result PDU – used to convey response of the server to the client
❖ Abort PDU – used to abort a transaction
❖ Segmented invoke PDU and segmented result PDU – used for segmentation and reassembly
❖ Negative acknowledgment PDU – used to indicate that some packets did not arrive

Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS)

Provides security services between mobile device (client) and WAP gateway.
WTLS provides the following features:

🡺 Data integrity – ensures that data sent between client and gateway are not modified, using
message authentication
🡺 Privacy – ensures that the data cannot be read by a third party, using encryption 🡺
Authentication – establishes authentication of the two parties, using digital certificates 🡺
Denial-of-service protection – detects and rejects messages that are replayed or not successfully
verified

WTLS Protocol Stack

🡺 WTLS consists of two layers of protocols

🡺 WTLS Record Protocol – provides basic security services to various higher-layer protocols
🡺 Three Higher-layer protocols:
∙ The Handshake Protocol
∙ The Change Cipher Spec Protocol
∙ The Alert Protocol
Phases of the Handshake Protocol Exchange

⮚ First phase – used to initiate a logical connection and establish security capabilities
⮚ Second phase – used for server authentication and key exchange
⮚ Third phase – used for client authentication and key exchange
⮚ Forth phase – completes the setting up of a secure connection
Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP)

∙ Used to adapt higher-layer WAP protocol to the communication mechanism used between
mobile node and WAP gateway
∙ WDP hides details of the various bearer networks from the other layers of WAP ∙
Adaptation may include:
✔ Partitioning data into segments of appropriate size for the bearer
✔ Interfacing with the bearer network
WDP Service

The WDP service is defined by two service primitives. The T-DUnitdataprimitive provides a non
confirmed service with the following parameters:
• Source address: Address of the device making a request to the WDP layer
• Source port: Application address associated with the source address
• Destination address: Destination address for the data submitted to WDP
• Destination port: Application address associated with the destination address • User data: User
data from the next higher layer, submitted to WDP for transmission to the destination port

WDP Protocol

● Used between mobile node and WAP gateway

● WDP hide details of various bearer network from other layer of WAP.
● Two services are T-D unit and T-D error

The following fields are necessary in a WDP PDU:

• Destination address & Destination Port

• Source address & Source Port
• user code/ error code

Wireless Control Message Protocol (WCMP)

✔ Performs the same support function for WDP as ICMP does for IP
✔ Used in environments that don’t provide IP bearer and don’t lend themselves to the use of
ICMP Used by wireless nodes and WAP gateways to report errors encountered in processing
WDP datagrams
✔ Can also be used for informational and diagnostic purposes
Repeatedly asked Question in Previous Years

1. Define satellite communication (2 marks)

2. Compare LEO, MEO, GEO (6 marks)
3. Explain capacity allocation - time division (6 marks)
4. Explain wireless local loop (6 marks)
5. DEscribe services provided by IEEE 802.16 standard (6)
6. Explain capacity allocation frequency division (6)
7. List the standard provided by IEEE 802.16 and it’s architecture (8)
8. Advantages and Disadvantages of LEO, MEO, GEO (6)
9. List different components of satellite communication (2)
10.Explain frequency bands for satellite communication (6)
11.* Discuss Mobile IP and it’s operation with diagram (9)
12.List advantages of WLLover wired subscriber loop (6)
13.Draw the block diagram of the Wireless Application Protocol and describe it.(6)
14.List and explain different ways of classifying satellite orbis.(6)
15.Describe difference between satellite based and terrestrial wireless communication (6)