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BIOPESTICIDES FROM MALAYSIAN FLORA – RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE

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 BIOPESTICIDES FROM MALAYSIAN FLORA – RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE
PEST MANAGEMENT

A. Sivapragasam1

ABSTRACT
Biopesticides from plants or botanical pesticides can be an attractive option, particularly with Malaysia’s
rich biodiversity. Besides the ubiquitous neem, Azadirachta indica, and its congeneric species, A.
excelsa, there are several other plant species which may prove useful as sources of botanical pesticides.
These include plants especially those belonging to families such as Meliaceae, Rutaceae, Solanaceae,
Asteraceae, Malvaceae, Compositae, Leguminosae, Labiatae and Canellaceae. These plants contain a
number of so-called secondary substances or phytochemicals, such as alkaloids, glycosides, tannins,
flavonoids, essential oils, saponins and organic acids. Useful plant species include: Aleurites trisperma,
Dioscorea piscatorum, Andrographis paniculata, Curcuma domestica, Acorus calamus, Ageratusm
conyzoides, Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Vitex negundo, Pogostemon cablu, Cymbogon nardus, Citronella
spp., Melaleuca alternifolia, Tinospora crispa and Scorodocarpus borneensis. Despite their potential,
only a handful of botanicals are currently available and employed in agriculture. Several factors need to
be addressed to alleviate this situation. Besides a concrete top-down driven policy to support the
development of botanical pesticides in the context of meeting the objectives of sustainable agriculture,
both fundamental and applied research should be undertaken especially in the areas of bioprospection,
identification and bioefficacy to identify new sources, and those that already show potential as good
pesticide sources should be pursued for commercial development. The paper also addresses the
challenges, the future outlook and strategies for the development of biopesticides from Malaysian flora.

INTRODUCTION
Pesticides from plants, or botanical pesticides, are becoming increasingly important as pest management
tools in various cropping systems in the tropics. They are part of the biopesticide arsenal against pests and
diseases. Generally, biopesticides provide a strategic option towards reaching the goals of sustainable pest
management – a goal that is becoming increasingly elusive with the current chemical pesticide-dominated
crop systems which are faced with the pesticide treadmill effect of escalating costs, resistance
development, and crop and environmental pollution. The increasing global interest in organic agriculture
is also a positive development promoting the increased use of biopesticides.

MALAYSIAN PLANTS AS SOURCES OF PESTICIDES

The Malaysian flora constitutes a substantial diversity of plant species with phytochemicals which
potentially could be exploited for various purposes (Ng et al., 1998). Generally, these flora contain a
virtually untapped reservoir of pesticides that can be used directly, or as templates for synthetic
pesticides. According to Ng (1999), there are many plants from diversified families which may prove
useful as sources of botanical pesticides. These include plants belonging especially to Families such as
Meliaceae, Rutaceae, Solanaceae, Asteraceae, Malvaceae, Compositae, Leguminosae, Labiatae and
Canellaceae. These plant species contain a number of so-called secondary substances or phytochemicals,
such as alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, flavenoids, essential oils, saponins and organic acids. Many of
these phytochemicals exhibit pesticidal effects, or act as anti-feedants, growth inhibitors and repellants
(Hedin et al., 1997; Koul, 1997). Specific examples of phytochemicals from plants commonly used as

1
In proceedings: S.L Tan (eds). National Seminar on New Crops and Bio-resources 2009, 15-16 December, 2009;
Pp 125-132.
insecticides are pyrethrums from Chryanthemum cinereriaefolium (Compositae), rotenoids from the
genera Derris, Lonchocarpus, Tephrosia and Mundulea, nicotinoids from Nicotiana species (Solanaceae),
and triterpenoids from Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae). There are also plants from lesser known families,
such as Aleurites trisperma (Euphorbiaceae), Dioscorea piscatorum (Dioscoreaceae), Diospyros argentea
(Ebenaceae), Garcinia spp. (Guttiferae), Guioa pubescens (Sapindaceae), Pogostemon cablin (Labiatae),
Scorodocarpus borneensis (Olacaceae), Styrax benzoin (Styracaceae) and Vitex trifolia (Verbenaceae).
Insect pests are the main target for research, and identified plant sources for molluscicides and fungicides
are relatively very few at the moment (Table 1). There are virtually no known plant sources for use as
herbicides and rodenticides.

BOTANICAL PESTICIDES IN USE

In Malaysia, the earliest use of botanical pesticides was reported by Ridley (1904) on the powdered dried
roots of jeringu (Acarus calamus) against termites in rubber. Later, extracts of Derris elliptica Benth
(tuba root), a source of fish poison, was found to be useful as an insecticide (Wood, 1912), specifically
against the bean fly, Agromyza phaseoli (Mathieu, 1920) and the cotton stainer, Dysdercus cingulatus
(Jack and Sands, 1922; Miller, 1935). Recent studies by Siti et al. (2009) show good toxicity of a
rotenone microemulsion formulation against the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella.
There are currently three plant species used as sources of botanical pesticides registered in
Malaysia. The majority comprise mainly of azadirachtin as the active ingredient (seven products;
examples: Neemix 4.5, Fortune Aza 3%, Neem Guard) from the neem tree, Azadirachta indica; one
oil product from garlic, Allium cepa (e.g. Bralic 12.5EC) and another from Citronella spp, (active
ingredient citronellal + citronellol; Bioz Insect Repellant stick).
It is interesting to note that although rotenone has been in use for a very long time, and is now
recommended for use in organic agriculture, it is yet to be used widely or commercialized in Malaysia.
One reason could be its eco-toxicological effects, particularly on aquatic organisms such as fish. Its safety
on humans and the persistence of rotenone used in food crops have also been questioned recently (Isman,
2006). Perhaps, the relatively recent successful extraction and purification of rotenone from D. elliptica
may stimulate more interest in this biopesticide (Khamis et al., 2002).
Another insecticide with a long history of use is nicotine which is an alkaloid obtained from the
foliage of the tobacco plant, Nicotiana tabacum and related species. It is also faced with a similar
predicament due to the high toxicity of pure nicotine to mammals and its rapid dermal absorption in
humans.
Neem, Azadirachta indica
The ubiquitous neem tree is a major source of pesticides in many countries in the tropics and sub-tropics.
About 500 species of insects, 44 nematodes, an almost equal number of fungi and a few bacteria are
susceptible to neem (Singh, 2002). In Malaysia, neem trees are found in patchy distribution throughout
the country. However, the highest number of trees and yields of are found in the northern drier regions,
and the lowest in the eastern part of the country. There are two flowering-fruiting seasons.
The pesticides from neem are derived mainly from extracts prepared from the seed and leaves.
Two types of botanical pesticides can be obtained from the seed, viz., neem oil and the seed residue or
neem seed cake which is obtained after removal of the oil. The oil is effective against a whole range of
insects, especially the soft-bodied types, mites and phytopathogens. The extracts of the seed residue
contain a complex of triterpenoids, the main one being azadirachtin. The minor analogs consist of
salannin, nimbin and their derivatives.
The earliest record of the use of neem, A. indica, in Malaysia was by Tan (1974) who reported on
its anti-feedant properties on the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella. Studies by Loke et al. (1990a)
showed that neem oil concentrations above 1.25% substantially deterred feeding by Plutella xylostella
larvae and significantly reduced egg hatch. Complementary studies on non-target effects of ethanolic
extracts of neem (>2.5%) by Loke et al. (1990b) also showed detrimental effects on the parasitoid,
Cotesia plutellae and concentrations above 3.0% exhibited phytotoxic symptoms on Chinese mustard and
cabbage. Some commercial formulations of neem from India were also tested by the Loke and colleagues
against pests of crucifers, and results were variable. Heng et al. (1994) showed that the 3% neem seed
kernel extract (NSKE) had the potential of controlling the agromyzid leafminer, Chromatomyia horticola
(Goureau) which infested sugar peas (Pisum sativum), without adversely affecting the inherent natural
enemy complex and yields when compared to the standard, abamectin.

PROMISING SOURCES OF BOTANICAL PESTICIDES

Sentang, Azadirachta excelsa (Jack)
Studies reveal that the extracts of the wood and other parts of the lowland forest timber species, A. excelsa
(Jack), known locally as sentang, also possess naturally active substances with biopesticidal and anti-
feedant properties (Ng, 1999). The young shoots of A. excelsa are eaten in salads and are believed to be
good for lowering blood pressure, while the decoction of the bark is taken for dysentery and diarrhoea.
The wood is used in general construction, furniture manufacture and carving. Based on all these
properties, this tree species has been promoted as a timber species for large-scale cultivation. Studies by
Ng on aqueous and methanol extracts of leaf, bark and wood of A. excelsa show that these extracts at
0.5% concentration and above produced significant anti-feedant activity (at least 50% less) on Paliga
damastesalis. However, inhibition was only moderate when Plutella xylostella and Spodoptera litura
were fed on sentang-treated cabbage leaves. All sentang extracts caused high mortality on P.
damastesalis, P. xylsotella and S. litura, suggesting that the active constituents of these extracts may
contain an active growth inhibitor. In contrast to neem, there are only a few reports on the active
principals of sentang extracts. The seed contain two growth-regulating compounds: azadirachtin (same as
neem, known as Azadirachtin A and B) and marrangin (azadirachtin L) which is a new bioactive
compound. Later, Isman et al. (1997) reported that sentang wood contains two novel compounds known
as azadirachtins M and N, which are unlike those in the seed of sentang or neem. Thus, the potency and
insecticidal properties of the active principals of sentang, are represented by marrangin and other
azadirachtin-like compounds (azadirachtin M and N). Generally, the bioactive compounds of sentang are
found to be better growth inhibitors whilst those of neem are excellent anti-feedants.
Sivapragasam et al. (2000) examined the effects of aqueous and methanolic wood extracts of A.
excelsa on P. xylostella and other vegetable pests. For P. xylostella, egg hatchability was not significantly
affected by both sentang extracts, irrespective of the concentration used, which ranged from 0.5 to 2.0%.
Dose-dependent larval mortality was observed for the methanolic extract-treated insects. In the field, the
cabbage plants treated with 2% methanolic extract reduced larval numbers of P. xylostella and H. undalis.
However, the numbers of flea beetles, Phyllotreta sp., and aphids were higher on these plants. There was
also reduced oviposition by P. xylostella when the methanolic extract was used. More recently,
Sivapragasam and Roff (2002) reported that extracts of A. excelsa had repellant effects on adult flea
beetles infesting Chinese mustard in the field. Sentang leaves are currently being studied for their
effectiveness in managing Haemonchus contotus worms in small ruminants (Abd. Shukor, 2009).
Plant Essential Oils
These are produced from several botanical sources such as the tea tree, Melaleuca alternifolia, and lemon
grass, Cymbopogon nardus, and are mainly used as insect repellents. A commercially available source is
from garlic, Allium cepa, which has a complex mixture of phytochemicals such as allicin, rutin and
benzyl-isothiocyanate. Generally, essential oils have a broad spectrum effect as insecticides.
Sivapragasam and Roff (2002) reported that 1% oil of the tea tree had repellant effects on adult flea
beetles (Phyllotreta sp.) infesting Chinese mustard in the field. However, their extended use is limited due
to their volatility and limited persistence under field conditions. A combination of neem and essential oil
extracts (e.g. neem oil and natural pine extracts in Bioblitz88®) was shown to be effective against key
pests of chilli such as aphids and mites, but not against thrips, if used alternately in weekly treatments
(Jamaludin, 2002). Studies to evaluate plant volatiles from Pelargonium radula (jeremin, geranium) and
Cymbopogon sp. as potential biopesticides against major insect pests are been conducted in MARDI
(M.A. Mohd. Shukri , Strategic Resources Research Centre, MARDI, pers. comm., 2009).
Andrographis paniculata Nees
This is a common tropical medicinal plant with an active compound identified as 14-
deoxyandrographolide which has non-specific bioactivity. According to Hermawan et al. (1997), hexane
extracts of this plant have anti-feedant activity against insects, especially against the ubiquitous
diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.), and the rice green leafhopper, Nephottetix cincticeps. It has
also nematicidal action and an anti-oviposition effect against the azuki bean weevil, Callosobruchus
chinensis, and the diamondback moth.
Other Sources
Other plant sources that have been suggested in scientific literature to be promising include Curcuma
domestica, Acorus calamus, Ageratusm conyzoides, Oxalis deppei, Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Coleus
anboinicus, Vitex negundo and V. trifolia (Legundi), Pogostemon cablu, Ocimum sanctum, Tinospora
crispa and Scorodocarpus borneensis. Crude leaf extracts of the medicinal plant, Blumea balsamifera (L.)
DC (sembong), have recently been found to be antifungal in nature against Phomopsis sp., an important
pathogenic fungi (Sepiah, 2002).
Some examples of pests and diseases and the Malaysian sources of botanical pesticides which are
effective against them are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Examples of Malaysian target pests and pathogens and the sources of botanical
pesticides
Target pest/pathogen
Insects
Diamondback moth, Plutella
xylostella (L.)
Flea beetle, Phyllotreta sp.
Crocidolomia binotalis
Spodoptera litura
Leafminer, Chromatomyia
horticola
Oulema pectoralis
Palida damastesalis
Aphis craccivora Koch
Diseases
Phomopsis sp.
Molluscs
Golden apple snail, Pomacea
canaliculata Lamarck
Plant sources
Azadirachta indica, A. excelsa;
rotenone
A. indica, A. excelsa, Melaleuca
alternifolia; garlic oils
A. excelsa
A. excelsa
A. indica
Lantana sp.
A. excelsa
Azadirachta indica
Blumea balsamifera
Tea (Camellia sinensis) seed
cake, Century plant (Agave
angustifolia), Yellow furcraea
(Furcraea selloa var. marginata),
Yellow Flame (Peltophorum
pterocarpum)
References
Loke et al. (1990a),
Sivapragasam et al. (2000), Siti
et al. (2009)
Sivapragasam et al. (2000),
Sivapragasam and Roff (2002)
Ng et al. (2003)
Ng (1999)
Heng et al. (1994)
Hamidah (2002)
Ng (1999)
Rita and Sharmini (2003)
Sepiah et al. (2002)
Suryanto et al. (1999), Teo,
(2002)
CHALLENGES TO DEVELOPMENT
Despite the vast amounts of bioresources and their great potential for use in sustainable agriculture,
biopesticide development, commercialization and use in developing countries including Malaysia have
yet to take off. As indicated above, as of March 2009, there were only nine botanical pesticides registered
under the Pesticide Board from a total list of about 3,019 pesticides registered. The majority of the
botanicals registered locally comprise azadirachtin as the active ingredient (in seven products), followed
by one each of garlic oil and citronellal + citronellol. Thus, with the exception of the neem-based
products, which are imported, botanical pesticide options are dire.
Isman (1997) identified three main barriers to the commercialization of botanical pesticides. They
are:
(1) Sustainability of the botanical resource. For example, despite the potential uses of neem as a
biopesticide, it has not caught on well locally as the available products are from imported
materials. Amongst the reasons for this are: (i) the availability of neem seed for biopesticide
production due to their seasonality and the requirement of a drier climate for optimal flowering
and fruiting which preclude expansion of the industry. In this context, the basic cultural and
agronomic factors also need to be understood to facilitate optimal production and harvesting of
mature fruit; and (ii) variability in terms of efficacy under field conditions, probably due to non-
standardization of the formulations.
(2) Standardization of chemically complex extracts, and
(3) Regulatory approval. In Malaysia, approval of botanical pesticides still follows the normal route
as conventional pesticides despite their posing generally minimal risks as advocated in developed
countries.
There are also limitations in use such as the slow action of many botanicals and a lack of residual action.
Overriding each of these are cost considerations.
Harris and Dent (2000), based on a survey, generally attributed the obstacles in the biopesticide
development process in developing countries to a lack of expertise, low funding mainly from the public
sector, and a lack of involvement of multi-disciplinary expertise needed to develop a biopesticide from
start to finish. They believe that by removing these constraints, successful development and application of
biopesticides can be achieved. Sivapragasam and Ahmad (2002) noted that Malaysia’s R&D scenario for
biopesticides, (botanical pesticides included) with the exception of neem-based products, is skewed
towards the early phases of the laboratory-to-market continuum – focussing mostly on laboratory R&D,
and perhaps a few regulated field trials. There is little or no engagement in the formulation, industrial
mass production, marketing, commercialization and the socio-economic aspects of biopesticide
development. Simply put, the majority of local research is still in Phase 1 (Discovery phase), out of the
four phases of the biopesticide development process as proposed by the International Biopesticide
Consortium for Development. Even within Phase 1, the process of isolating, identifying and evaluating
insecticidal properties of the highly diverse active ingredients are often met with difficulties. In addition,
at the operational side, a few key aspects need also to be underscored – as stated by Isman (1997). These
include: (i) standardization and quality control – as exemplified by the quality and efficacy of commercial
neem products in the market; (ii) the need for competency development to understand and handle
botanical pesticides which being organic in nature pose problems of product stability; and (iii) the
realization and acceptance that biopesticides should be targeted for medium- and long-term control effects
rather than short-term as can be expected from conventional pesticides. If the purpose is to reduce
selection pressure and/or reduce the pesticide load on the crop, perhaps the strategy of alternation between
botanicals and conventional pesticides should be advocated as suggested by studies done by Jamaludin
(2002).

FUTURE OUTLOOK AND STRATEGIES

Ng (1999) noted that “the prospects of developing new insecticides from local plant sources are excellent
because this area of investigation is still in its infancy’. It was suggested that an interdisciplinary
approach is required which utilizes a systematic screening programme coupled with the ethnobotanical
knowledge of the peoples of Malaysia. The standard strategy for bioinsecticidal prospecting is described
by Ng (1999). In Malaysia, research is currently focused on searching for new bioactive compounds that
can be readily used as botanical extracts. However, the current scenario towards the commercialization of
‘home-grown’ product(s) may not be realized unless the necessary drivers of the system are in place. The
model proposed by Dent and Lomer (1999), which has the attributes of engaging multi-national, multi-
institute, multi-disciplinary expertise, should probably be adhered to for the successful development and
utilization of biopesticides. For this to be successful, concerted and coordinated efforts by various R&D
agencies are therefore needed.
There is intensive competition and a process of consolidation among the few major players in the
crop protection industry. The current scenario of resistance development in pests and extensive regulatory
requirements has raised the hurdles for the introduction of new active ingredients. In this context, natural
products still offer unmatched structural variety, especially when new environmental niches are being
explored (Tombo, 1999). The development and use of local resources for developing botanical pesticides
could be the strategic option towards meeting the needs of pest management and sustainable agriculture
of developing economies, such as in Malaysia. Being one of the mega biodiversity centres of the world,
our country is in a unique position to contribute to the discovery of new biopesticides. There is also merit
in developing specific natural pesticides to alleviate the increasing costs and dependence on imported
fossil fuel-based synthetic pesticides. More importantly, this would encourage the nurturing of local
industries in this sector which will result in novel innovations from local flora. Reflecting upon the hope
of the former Minister of Science, Technology and Environment, Malaysia, Dato’ Seri Law Hieng Ding,
in his opening address to delegates during the Third International Conference on Biopesticides held in
2002 in Kuala Lumpur “that Malaysia will one day be the hub of research and production of
biopesticides in the world”, the question remains, where are we now? Additionally, are we committed
enough to take it to the next level?

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author expresses sincere gratitude to the Director General of MARDI for giving permission to present
this paper at the Conference, and appreciates the support of the Director of the Rice and Industrial Crops
Research Centre and staff of MARDI for their support in the various activities related to botanical
pesticides. The comments by the editor and reviewers of this paper are duly appreciated.

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