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BACHELOR OF COMMERCE IN
SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 2
MODULE GUIDE
Copyright © 2022
REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL
All rights reserved; no part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any
means, including photocopying machines, without the written permission of the
publisher.
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1:
Organisational Theory ................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 2:
Motivation ...................................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 3:
Groups and Teams........................................................................................ 47
CHAPTER 4:
Management Decision-Making ...................................................................... 59
CHAPTER 5:
Diversity Management................................................................................... 71
CHAPTER 6:
Conflict Management .................................................................................... 84
CHAPTER 7:
Organisational Culture................................................................................... 92
CHAPTER 8:
Communication, Negotiation and Political Behaviour in Organisations ....... 108
CHAPTER 9:
People Management ................................................................................... 129
1. Introduction
2. Module Overview
This module should be studied using the recommended and prescribed textbook/s
and the relevant sections of this module. You must read about the topic that you
intend to study in the appropriate section before you start reading the textbook/s in
detail. Ensure that you make your own notes as you work through both the
textbook/s and this module. You will find a list of objectives and outcomes at the
beginning of each section. These outline the main points that you need to
understand when you have completed the section/s. The purpose of this guide is to
help you study. It is important for you to work through all the tasks and self-
assessment exercises as they provide guidelines for examination purposes.
6. Navigational Icons
Think Point
When you see this icon, you should think about and reflect on the
issues/challenges/themes presented.
Tasks
When you see this icon, you will know that you are required to perform
a task to gauge how well you remember or understand what you have
read or how good you are at applying what you have learnt.
Definitions
This icon will alert you to a specific definition related to the topic
under discussion.
Case Studies
Case studies are often used to illustrate a concept within the setting
of a real-life scenario. Answer the questions that follow to ensure
that you have a proper understanding of what has been discussed.
CHAPTER 1:
Organisational Theory
Chapter Outcomes
1.1. Introduction
Organisational designs and structures allow for swift decision making demanded by the
volatility of dynamic market and business environments. Once management has devised
a plan to achieve the organisation’s goals, human and other resources – such as
money, machines, raw materials and information or knowledge – must be combined in
the best possible way to achieve these goals. In addition, management must design
jobs, assign tasks, duties and responsibilities to people, coordinate activities and
establish/ lines of communication and reporting. This is referred to as organising. This
chapter provides an overview of various concepts including organising, the importance
of organising, departmentalisation, and organisational structures.
Jones and George (2007:243) define organisational structure as the formal system of
task and job reporting relationships that determines how employees use resources to
achieve organisational goals. The organisational structure of a business therefore
indicates the work to be done and the connections between various positions and
tasks (du Toit, Erasmus and Strydom, 2007:16).
Oraganisational
environment
DESIGN OF AN
Strategy ORGANISATIONAL Technology
STRUCTURE
Human
Resource
Management
The first step in organisational design is job design, the process by which managers
decide how to divide into specific jobs in terms of the tasks that must be performed.
Job design is the determination of an employee’s responsibilities in an organisation
and the compilation of a job specification. The result of the job design process is a
division of labour among employees.
The next organising decision, once tasks are allocated to jobs, is how to group jobs
together to best match the needs of the organisation’s environment, strategy,
technology, and human resources.
This is the most basic type of design (Badenhorst-Weiss et. Al, 2019). A function is a
group of people, working together, who possess similar skills or use the same kind of
knowledge, tools, or techniques to perform their jobs. Manufacturing, sales, and
research and development are often organised into functional departments. A functional
structure is an organisational structure composed of all the departments that
Departments are designed so that all activities concerned with the manufacturing of
a product or group of products are put together in sections, where all specialists
associated with the product are grouped together in product sections (Badenhorst-
Weiss et. al, 2019).
This is a structure that manufactures and sells its goods in different geographical
regions; this structure gives autonomy to area managements, in order to facilitate
decentralised decision-making and adjustment to local environments.
This structure is important because no organisational structure will meet all the
organisational needs of a particular business. As illustrated below, horizontal, and
vertical authority lines occur in the same structure (Badenhorst-Weiss et. al, 2019).
Advantages Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
The assignment of tasks to sections and members of staff also entails the
assignment of responsibility and authority to each post in the organisational
structure. Responsibility is a particular obligation or commitment on the part of staff
to carry out tasks in accordance with instructions they have received.
Authority is the right to command or give orders. Authority is power that has been
legitimised by the organisation. Delegation of authority is the passing of formal
authority. Delegation can be viewed as the main source of authority.
1.4. Coordination
The primary reason for coordination is that departments and groups are
interdependent.
Du Toit, Erasmus and Strydom (2007: 179) maintain that organising is carried out in
a context where many different factors need to be taken into account. They identify
five factors:
technology media e.g. email and or Internet applications like Skype, Instant
Messenger, and GoToMeeting,” (Ksenija, 2016: 35-36).
There are many reasons that organisations become virtual. According to Ksenija
(2016), these include:
Commuting may be challenging for employees, and more people will start skipping it
entirely so that they can be more productive and flexible in their work patterns
(William, 2021). However, there are others who would like to return to their
workplaces, citing better peer interactions and face-to-face solves. This may lead to
several organisations adopting a hybrid model (William, 2021).
Enhanced Cybersecurity
The need for sprawling physical office spaces is no longer a requirement. Fully remote
based organisations without headquarters or organisational offices will become a reality.
A growing trend is that many companies will plan a strategy to have specific days for
meetings and collaboration and other days for remote work (William, 2021).
Although many organisations are working remotely, the work schedule has remained
the same as before. This might be restrictive for the employees, as many must
balance out domestic tasks as well as work commitments. As a result, more
companies must assess the need for traditional work times. Others will provide
flexibility for their employees as long as the work is completed (William, 2021).
The increase in job automation has catalysed the demand for retraining and skill-upping.
Reports show that only 16% of the new people hired today possess adequate skills for
the current job (William, 2021). The most in-demand skills are artificial intelligence,
machine learning, cloud computing, cybersecurity amongst a few.
1.6. Conclusion
Effective organisational structure and design are crucial for the effective and efficient
management of any business. When managers develop or change an organisation’s
structure, they are engaged in organisational design. Organisational design involves
determining the organisational structure for an entire organisation in order to
implement the strategies and plans embodied in its goals. Organisational design
involves difficult choices about how to control – that is, to coordinate organisational
tasks and motivate the people who perform them to maximise an organisation’s
ability to create value.
Self-Assessment Questions
CHAPTER 2:
Motivation
Chapter Outcomes
2.1. Introduction
Employee motivation is central to enhanced productivity, quality, customer satisfaction
and overall organisational excellence. Different people are motivated by different things
at work, and it is the task of the manager to determine what motivates each person to
increase productivity. When striving to motivate employees, it is important to remember
that people differ and that they are all motivated by different variables.
• A force within people which drives them to work towards achieving certain
goals (example personal needs).
• External forces which influence people to behave in a certain way (example
organisational reward systems) the job of a manager in the workplace is to
get things done through employees. To do this the manager should be able to
motivate employees.
To understand motivation, one must understand human nature itself. Human nature
can be very simple, yet very complex too. An understanding and appreciation of this
is a prerequisite to effective employee motivation in the workplace and therefore
effective management and leadership.
Employees can function at one of 3 basic levels, that is, the minimum level, expected
level and maximum level:
What this means is that employees who do less than what is required, deliver poor
quality of work, are disciplined more often, and make more errors.
Employees that operate at expected levels, do nothing more or nothing less than just
what is required. Employees who operate at maximum level, are willing to go the
extra mile, apply their skills where needed, bend over backwards for their
organisation and put in extra effort to achieve goals.
The first part of the definition deals with arousal. This has to do with the drive, or
energy behind people’s actions. For example, people may be guided by their interest
in making a good impression on others, doing interesting work, being successful at
what they do, and so on. Their interest in fulfilling these motives stimulate them to
engage in behaviours designed to fulfil them. But what will people do to satisfy their
motives? Motivation is also concerned with the choices people make and the
direction their behaviours take.
The final part of the definition deals with maintaining behaviour. How long will people
persist at attempting to meet their goal? To give up in advance of goal attainment
means not to satisfy the need that stimulated behaviours in the first place. Obviously,
people who do not persist at meeting their goals (e.g., Salespeople who give up
before reaching their quotas) cannot be said to be highly motivated.
To summarise, motivation requires all three components: the arousal, direction, and
maintenance of goal directed behaviour. Common to all definitions pointed out above
is that motivation is a force that stimulates and directs behaviour, which is
meaningful to the individual.
Motivation can be described as goal directed behaviour. People are motivated when
they expect that the course of action is likely to lead to the attainment of a goal and a
valued reward. Some individuals need to be motivated to a greater or lesser extent.
High levels of motivation can be achieved by providing incentives and rewards.
Motivation can be described as intentional and directional.
Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation arises as a result of internal forces. It emerges through personal
enjoyment and educational achievement that is derived from doing something might
enjoy (Ganta, 2014). Examples include autonomy, mastery, accomplishment,
responsibility, and accountability.
Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation is triggered by external forces. This means that motivation arises
out of factors that are outside the individual. Examples of extrinsic motivators include
Goals are then established which it is believed will satisfy these needs and wants
and a behaviour pathway is selected which is expected to achieve the goal. If the
goal is achieved, the need will be satisfied, this will lead to the reduction of tension,
and the behaviour is likely to be repeated the next time a similar need arises.
The following are some guidelines that managers should adopt to ensure that their
subordinates are motivated:
• Get to know employees well: No two people are alike. Managers should be
well informed and have a good knowledge of their employee’s characteristics
such as their subordinate’s skills, job knowledge, values, qualifications, and
many other characteristics as possible so that they can make well-informed
decisions about these employees.
• Understand the needs of subordinates: Communication with subordinates
should be occur on a personal basis - one to one. (Manager and the
employee).
The more a manager knows about what the employees need in the
workplace, the greater the chance that these needs will be satisfied, and this
will in turn make it easier to create an environment in which they can become
motivated to perform well.
• Be pro-active in creating an environment in which people can motivate
themselves: That is by getting rid of aspects in their work environment which
will prevent them from performing well, such as poor equipment, cumbersome
administrative systems etc.
• Managers should assist subordinates to overcome problems that will
prevent them from performing well: Subordinates should be rewarded
appropriately using both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.
• Managers should demonstrate their own commitment: Become a role
model and lead by example.
• Employees should be treated fairly: With regard to pay, benefits, workload,
and discipline.
• Encourage employees to achieve their goals: Focus on the positive
aspects of their performance.
• Subordinates should be given regular, objective feedback on their
performance: This means that their performance has to be measured in
some way.
Other Motivators
Other forms of motivators include:
• Healthy collegial relationships.
• Appropriate compensation levels.
• Health-related benefits.
• Funding for further studies.
• Flexible working hours.
• A healthy work-life balance.
• Flat organisational structure.
• Feedback.
• Non-financial rewards such as respect, recognition, acknowledgement,
individualised attention, and achievement of goals.
• Job security.
• Autonomy.
• Travel opportunities.
• Custom made incentives such as technological rewards in the form of the
latest smart devices and digital products.
2.6. De-motivation
Some signs that would indicate that employees are de-motivated would-be low
performance levels, grievances, disputes, absenteeism, labour turnover and strikes.
He also found that in organisations where there are too many rules, policies and
procedures prevent people from performing well. The same happens when there are
unpleasant working conditions, and low or unfair pay structures.
2.6.1 Equity
Equity is the fairness and justice of people in give and take relationships. There are
three main types of equity which affect employee motivation: Internal equity, External
equity, and Procedural equity.
Internal equity refers to the extent to which employees within an organisation are
treated fairly in terms of the compensation they receive (pay and benefits) the type of
work they are allocated, the way they are disciplined, and the way in which
managers and supervisors relate to them.
An example of this would be: If eight employees are salesmen, all doing the same
job equally well but are being paid very different rates of pay, the employees who are
being paid the lower rate will be extremely disappointed.
If a supervisor generally favours one employee above the others for reasons other
than that person’s performance this will be regarded as unfair and would probably
cause dissatisfaction.
People who are not confident about their ability to do their work, will not strive to
achieve high levels of performance.
2.6.3 Trust
People will not perform well for long periods if they do not trust their superiors,
especially regarding the rewards that they should receive. Trust could be easily
broken, for instance, if managers promise certain rewards, for example, a promotion
or a salary increase, but break this promise and not give employees what they were
promised
This is a positive reaction to the blockage of a desired goal, and can take two main
forms:
Problem solving this is the removal of the barrier, for example repairing a damaged
machine.
2.7.2 Frustration
What is motivation? Why do people behave in the manner that they do? Why do
certain people refrain from doing certain things? Can managers in a predictable and
a systematic way influence people to act in the way they want them to?
The basis of this theory is the belief that an unsatisfied need creates tension and a
state of dis-equilibrium. To restore the balance, a goal that will satisfy the need is
identified, and a behaviour pathway that will lead to the achievement of the goal is
selected. All behaviour is therefore motivated by unsatisfied needs. Need theories
Not all needs are equally important for a person at any one time- some may provide
a much more powerful drive towards a goal than others, depending on the
individual’s background and present situation.
The needs theory was developed originally by Maslow (1954), who postulated the
concept of a hierarchy of needs which he believed was fundamental to personality.
The most famous classification of needs is the one formulated by Maslow (1954).
Maslow identified five categories of needs which apply to people in general. These
needs are organised in levels from the most basic needs to the more sophisticated
needs (Robbins, 2003). The levels of needs are:
• Physiological needs: The need for oxygen, food, shelter, water, sex, and
other bodily needs.
• Safety needs: The need for protection against danger and the deprivation of
physiological needs.
• Belongingness needs (social): The need for love affection and acceptance
as belonging to a group.
• Esteem needs: The need to have a stable, firmly base, high evaluation of
oneself and to have the respect of others.
• Self-actualisation needs (self-fulfilment): The drive to become what one is
capable of becoming, includes growth, achieving one’s potential, self-
fulfilment. (Badenhorst-Weiss et. al, 2019).
Maslow’s theory maintains that an individual will seek to satisfy his/her lower need
before attempting to satisfy his/her higher need. For example, an individual will seek
to satisfy his/her physiological needs (e.g., through acquiring a job which provides
money for food, water, and shelter) before he/she attempts to satisfy his/her safety
needs (e.g., Through obtaining job security and safe working conditions).
Alderfer identifies three categories of needs (Badenhorst-Weiss et. al, 2019) which
an individual seeks to satisfy:
o Existence needs: These needs relate to our basic material existence needs
(similar to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs).
o Relatedness needs: These entail the need to establish and maintain
relations with others, (similar to Maslow’s affiliation/social needs and the
external aspects of Maslow’s esteem needs).
o Growth needs: This grouping of needs relates to our inherent desire for
personal development. Growth needs are similar to the esteem and self-
actualisation needs identified by Maslow.
As with Maslow’s theory, the contribution which Alderfer makes to assist managers is
the recognition that individual employees are attempting to satisfy different needs at
work.
Goal setting is one of the key aspects of motivation. It is important that managers ensure
that employees are working towards goals which will help to improve their performance.
This will result in improved organisational performance. The starting point in the goal
setting process should therefore be the setting of organisational goals.
In doing this, critical questions need to be asked and answered such as: What is our
main line of business? What do we want to achieve? Who are our customers? Which
area of the market are we trying to capture? In other words, a strategic plan should
be established which all the employees can understand and commit to.
Research shows that the setting of goals affects an employee’s motivation and
performance. Kreitner and Kinicki (2001) identify four motivational mechanisms of
goal setting:
Step three: Specify the specific standard to be reached. The degree of performance
that should be achieved.
Step seven: Determine coordination requirements and ensure that the goals of other
people are not conflicting.
Other important contingency factors associated with goal setting theory are: The more
difficult the goal the higher the performance. For simple tasks, difficult and specific goals
lead to higher performance. Feedback enhances the achievement of specific
and difficult goals (Kreitner and Kinicki, 2001); In other words, people will perform
better when they receive continuous feedback on how well they are progressing
towards the goal.
Equity theory is a model of motivation which explains how “people strive for fairness
and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships” (Kreitner and Kinicki,
2001).
Equity theory argues that employees make comparisons about their job inputs
(education, experience, effort, competence, etc.) and outputs (salary, salary increases,
recognition, etc.) with the inputs and outputs of other employees (Robbins, 2003). When
employees notice inequities, they react in one of the following ways:
• Change their inputs (e.g., through not exerting so much effort) (Badenhorst
Weiss et. al, 2019).
• Leave the field (e.g., resign from the job) (Robbins, 2001).
Avoid unemployment
Companies that attempt to save money by reducing employees’ salaries, may find
that employees react in many different ways, for example employees may steal, save
a few minutes of their workdays or otherwise withhold production. Employees may
also embark on a strike (partial or concerted refusal to do work).
Avoid overpayment
Some employees work hard and go the extra mile in an organisation, managers
might think paying people more than they deserve would be a useful motivational
technique. This does not work because one employee is overpaid, and the rest are
underpaid as it results in a decrease in productivity by other employees.
Give people a voice in the decisions that affect them. When people have an
opportunity to voice their opinions, they feel that the decision has been made fairly.
The equity theory has a number of implications for managers. These may be noted
as follows:
The Motivation Process Expectancy Theory (adapted from Jones and George, 2000)
His model is based on three key variables:
1. Valence.
2. Instrumentality.
3. Expectancy.
This theory is founded on the idea that people prefer certain outcomes from their
behaviour to others. They anticipate feelings of satisfaction, should the preferred
outcome be achieved. Expectancy theory argues that the following three factors are
important to an employee’s motivation:
Expectancy: Is the belief as to the level of performance which will result from an
individual’s effort (input); in other words, how likely is it that the performance goal will
be reached.
Instrumentality: Refers to the belief that a certain level of performance will result in
the attainment of outcomes. In other words, will various outcomes be received if the
performance goal is reached?
Valence: The value of the outcome to the individual. In other words, how desirable
or undesirable are these outcomes?
Managers should assist employees in their performance goals through coaching and
support, and in so doing increase expectancy (effort-performance relationship).
Expectancy theory employees will not be motivated to attend HRD programmes and
try to learn from them unless they believe that:
1) Their efforts will result in learning the new skills or information presented in
the programme.
2) Attending the programme and learning new skills will increase their job
performance.
2.9. Conclusion
In conclusion, motivation carries a high level of strategic value. Theories and modern
approaches to employee motivation are key in creating a productive and healthy
workforce. This will yield better results in terms of quality, communication, customer
satisfaction and overall organisational performance.
Self-Assessment Questions
When it comes to motivating their employees, it can be said without question that
Google stands out from the rest. Google was named the 2014 “Best Company to
Work For” by the Great Place to Work Institute and Fortune Magazine. The
organisation topped the list for the fifth time. True, in its short lifespan, Google has
acquired for itself a huge and bright workforce (over 50,000 employees spread
throughout the world) that serves millions of people all over the globe. However,
what is even more exemplary is how Google heavily pampers its employees while
still being able to extract one-of-a-kind and outstanding ideas and products from
them.
(Luenendonk, 2019)
1. Evaluate the validity of the extract above by discussing the various ways that
Google motivates their staff. Conduct your own desktop research to support
your answer.
2. Identify and discuss the motivation theories that are applicable to an
organisation such as Google.
3. Suggest the various modern means of employee motivation in fast paced
business environments riddled with uncertainties.
CHAPTER 3:
Groups and Teams
Chapter Outcomes
3.1. Introduction
This chapter will examine the role and features of Groups and Teams within the
organisation by considering the following:
3.2. Groups
A Group refers to two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come
together to achieve goals (Badenhorst-Weiss et. al, 2019). A team is a special kind
of group, but not all groups are teams.
The motivation for individuals to form groups within organisations is based on:
• Group members’ needs (such as the need for social interaction or self-
realisation).
• Proximity and attraction.
• Group goals which may appeal to a particular individual.
• Economics (where the efficiency and effectiveness which the group enables
provides for greater satisfaction of economic needs).
• Status. Belonging to the top management group or to a work union has its
own status.
• Groups represent power because group action can very often achieve more
than the individual can.
• Security to the individual. By joining the group there is “safety in numbers”
(Smit and de Cronjé, 2002:320).
One of the main advantages of using groups is the opportunity to obtain a type of
synergy: People working in a group can produce more or higher-quality outputs than
would have been produced if each person had worked separately. Factors that
contribute to synergy include the ability of group members to bounce ideas off one
another, to correct another’s mistake, to bring in diverse knowledge base to discuss
problems and to accomplish tasks that are to vast form an individual to achieve. To
take advantage of the potential for synergy, managers need to make sure groups are
composed of members who have complementary skills and knowledge relevant to
the groups work (Jones and George, 2020).
Being responsive to customers can be difficult to achieve given the various constraints.
In manufacturing organisations, customers' needs and desires for new and improved
products must be balanced against engineering constraints, production costs and
feasibilities, government safety regulations, and marketing challenges. Cross-functional
teams can provide a wide variety of skills and expertise found at different levels in an
organisation's hierarchy. In a cross-functional team, the expertise and knowledge in
different organisational departments are brought together in the skills and knowledge of
the team members (Jones and George, 2020).
Smit and de Cronjé (2002:320-2) identify both formal and informal groups which exist
within organisations.
Friendship Groups: Which are composed of employees who enjoy each other’s
company and socialise together (Jones, et al, 1998) A social group is one of the
most common types of informal groups, usually consisting of between 3 and 12
members who frequently participate together in activities and share feelings. The
sense of loyalty between members may be greater than towards their employer
(Hellriegel et al., 2008:333).
Interest Groups: Which comprise employees who seek to achieve a common goal
within the organisation for which they work (for example, a childcare interest group
which seeks to achieve the establishment of a childcare facility within the
organisation) (Jones, et al, 1998). The emphasis on the interest group is on the
needs of the group itself. The reason for its existence is the shared interests of the
members (Smit and de Cronjé, 2002:321)
Status: Refers to “prestige grading, position, or rank within a group” (Robbins and
Coulter, 2003:402). The status of group members can result from a number of
factors, such as, level of expertise and/or seniority.
Roles: A role refers to the “set of expected behaviour patterns of an individual” (Robbins
and Coulter, 2003:400). Individuals within a particular g r o u p are expected to behave in
a manner which is appropriate to their role. For example, a task group’s leader should
ensure that he/she adequately performs the planning, leading organising and controlling
tasks associated with his/her role. Each member in a group fulfils a role, and each role
carries a role expectation – the way other people believe a person should act in a given
situation (Smit and de Cronjé, 2002:330).
Group Norms: Group norms emerge from interactions between group members and
specify standards of behaviour and work expected in the group (Smit and de Cronjé,
2002:330). Norms can be formal, such as in this editorial section each person
completes at least 8 pages per day; or informal, such as, “On Friday afternoons we
all eat lunch together.”
Leadership: Good leadership, where the group’s leader provides direction and
motivates his/her subordinates, is necessary for the group to be effective.
Leadership in a group is a critical factor in both formal and informal groups (Smit and
de Cronjé, 2002:329).
Cohesiveness: Refers to the “degree to which members are attracted to each other
and motivated to stay in the group” (Robbins and Coulter, 2003:403).
Studies have found that in groups where performance norms exist, the greater a
group’s cohesiveness, the greater its productivity. Various strategies can be
employed to enhance group cohesiveness, such as reducing the size of the group
and increasing the time which group members spend with each other (Robbins and
Coulter, 2003:404).
Group Size: The size of a group can impact on the group’s overall performance. Indeed,
it has been found that smaller groups complete tasks more quickly than larger
groups, although larger groups have been found to be more effective than smaller
groups in problem solving (Robbins and Coulter, 2003:403).
How groups function and, ultimately, their effectiveness hinge on group characteristics
and processes is known collectively as group dynamics (Jones and George, 2020).
Group Size
The number of members in a group can be an important determinant of members'
motivation and commitment and group performance. There are several advantages
to keeping a group relatively small compared with members of large groups,
members of small groups tend to:
1) Interact more with each other and find it easier to coordinate their efforts.
2) Be more motivated, satisfied, and committed.
3) Find it easier to share information.
4) Be better able to see the importance of their personal contributions for group
success.
A disadvantage of small rather than large groups is that members of small groups have
fewer resources available to accomplish their goals. Large groups with 10 or more
members also offer some advantages. They have more resources at their disposal to
achieve group goals than small groups do. These resources include the knowledge,
experience, skills, and abilities of group members as well as their actual time and effort.
The disadvantages of large groups include the problems of communication and
coordination and the lower levels of motivation, satisfaction, and commitment that
members of large groups sometimes experience (Jones and George, 2020).
Group Tasks
The appropriate size of a high-performing group is affected by the kind of tasks the
group is to perform. Task interdependence, the degree to which the work performed
by one member of a group influences the work performed by other members. As task
interdependence increases, group members need to interact more frequently and
intensely with one another, and their efforts must be more closely coordinated if they
are to perform at a high level (Jones and George, 2020).
Pooled task interdependence exists when group members make separate and
independent contributions to group performance; overall group performance is the
sum of the performance of the individual members. Motivation in groups with pooled
Sequential task interdependence exists when group members must perform specific
tasks in a predetermined order; certain tasks have to be performed before others, and
what one worker does affect the work of others. With sequential interdependence, it is
difficult to identify individual performance, because one group member's performance
depends on how well others perform their tasks (Jones and George, 2020).
Reciprocal task interdependence exists when the work performed by each group
member is fully dependent on the work performed by other group members (Jones
and George, 2020).
Group Roles
A group role is a set of behaviours and tasks that a member of a group is expected
to perform because of his or her position in the group. Members of cross-functional
teams are expected to perform roles relevant to their special areas of expertise.
Managers should clearly describe expected roles to group members when they are
assigned to a group.
teams also pick their own team leaders. When group members create their own roles,
managers should be available to group members in an advisory capacity, helping them
effectively settle conflicts and disagreements (Jones and George, 2020).
In the first stage, forming, members try to get to know each other and reach a
common understanding of what the group is trying to accomplish and how group
members should behave. During this stage, managers should strive to make each
member feel that he or she is a valued part of the group.
In the second stage, storming, group members experience conflict and disagreements
because some members do not wish to submit to the demands of others. Disputes may
arise over who should lead the group. Managers need to keep an eye on groups at this
stage to make sure conflict does not get out of hand (Jones and George, 2020).
During the third stage, norming, close ties between group members begin to
develop, and feelings of friendship and camaraderie emerge. Group members arrive
at a consensus about what goals they should seek to achieve and how group
members should behave toward one another.
In the fourth stage, performing, the real work of the group is accomplished.
Managers overseeing self- managed work teams must empower team members and
make sure teams are given enough responsibility and autonomy at the performing
stage (Jones and George, 2020).
The last stage, adjourning, applies only to groups that are eventually disbanded,
such as task forces. During adjourning, a group is dispersed. Managers should have
a flexible approach to group development and should keep attuned to the different
needs and requirements of groups at the various stages (Jones and George, 2020).
“Groupthink” occurs when individual group members do not express their own views,
where the group’s consensus differs from their own thinking on a problem. Group
shift occurs when group members take a less risky (more conservative) approach
than the decision that individual members would make on their own.
High-performing work teams can be defined as groups that consistently satisfy the
needs of customers, employees, investors, and other stakeholders and that
frequently outperform other teams that produce similar products or services.
Creating such high performance begins with three key strategies:
Work teams are formal groups made up of interdependent individuals who are
responsible for the attainment of a goal (Robbins and Coulter, 2003:411).
The following types of teams can be identified (Badenhorst-Weiss et. al, 2019):
Problem Solving Teams: Which are composed of employees from the same work
environment. They meet for a couple of hours a week to discuss and solve problems
particular to their work-environment.
Virtual Teams: Are groups of individuals who collaborate, through various forms of
information technology, on one or more projects, while being in different locations in
a country or around the world. Virtual teams primarily work in any place, at any time,
and – increasingly– across organisational boundaries, because members may be
from different organisations.
Relevant Skills: The team is composed of highly skilled individuals who work well
together. In other words, the team possesses both technical and interpersonal skills
(Robbins and Coulter, 2003:414). Smit and de Cronjé, (2002:335) maintain that team
members should be selected on the basis that their skills should be complementary to
each other. This means that their skills should be varied, not duplicated, in the team.
Mutual Trust: Effective teams have a high mutual trust between members, believing
in the character and integrity of each other.
Negotiation Skills: Effective teams tend to be flexible and are continually adjusting
in who does what. This flexibility requires team members to possess negotiating
skills. Problems and relationships are regularly changing, and members need to be
able to confront and reconcile differences (Robbins and Coulter, 2003:415).
Internal and External Support: The team should have a sound infrastructure. This
includes proper training, a clear reasonable evaluation system, an incentive program
that recognises and rewards team activities and a supportive human resource
system (Robbins and Coulter,2003:416).
3.15 Conclusion
The value of groups and teamwork should not be understated. Groups and high-
performance teams are beneficial to organisations, especially in an ever evolving
internal and external environment plagued by constant change. High performance
teams are a must in terms of quick responses to dynamic contexts.
Self-Assessment Questions
1. Discuss the various types of teams that would be effective in complex business
environments.
2. As a business practitioner, discuss the characteristics of high-performance
teams.
3. Discuss the process of group development in businesses.
4. Evaluate the significance of groups in organisations.
CHAPTER 4:
Management Decision-Making
Chapter Outcome s
• Analyse, discuss and apply the concept of decision making and its
relevance to business practice and operations.
• Explain the varying and uncertain conditions under which decisions are
made.
• Describe and apply the models of decision-making that are appropriate in
context of dynamic business environments.
• Differentiate between non-programmed and programmed decisions within
organisations.
• Assess the significance of group decision making in business management.
4.1. Introduction
can have a major impact, not only on the management system itself, but also on the
career of the manager who makes them. Other decisions are fairly insignificant,
affecting only a small number of organisation members, costing little to carry out and
producing only a short-term effect on the organisation. Furthermore, decision making
as the central aspect of the planning function is the process of identifying and
choosing alternative courses of action in a manner appropriate to the demands of the
situation. This implies that alternative courses of action must be weighed and
weeded out. In developing goals, or in planning for the future, managers at all levels
of the organisation are confronted with decisions to make. In a decentralised
organisation, most members of the organisation participate in decision making. In a
centralised organisation, one person makes the most important decisions.
Importance of Decision-Making
Innovative decision making is crucial for organisational success (Oliveira et al., 2015
cited in Asikhia, Ogunode, Samson, Oluwatoyin, 2021). As organisations continue to
focus on and embrace the centrality of creativity, research, and development in order
to maintain competitiveness, making productive decisions based on such efforts
have become more challenging (Asikhia et al, 2021).
Example:
A company confronted with sales not rising as projected. This company may be forced
to decide whether to expand operations nationally and maybe even internationally. All
viable options will have to be considered before deciding, which is a daunting task.
The decision should consider the mission of the organisation, possible changes in
the external and internal environment and many other factors.
Although decision making has never been an easy process, it has become especially
challenging for today’s managers. The very speed of change forces managers to
make more and more decisions at a faster pace. Thus, decisions can be categorised
according to how much time a manager must spend in making them and the
organisational functions on which they focus.
Programmed decisions are routine and repetitive, and the organisation typically
develops specific ways to handle them. A programmed decision might involve
determining how products will be arranged on the shelves of supermarkets. For this
kind of routine, repetitive problem, standard- arrangement decisions are typically
made according to established management guidelines. At the heart of the
programmed decision procedures are decision rules.
A decision rule identifies the situation in which a decision is required and specifies how
the decision will be made. Decision rules permits managers to make routine decisions
quickly without having to go through comprehensive problem solving repeatedly.
Nonprogrammed decisions are typically one-shot decisions that are usually less
structured than programmed decisions. An example of the type of non- programmed
decision is whether this supermarket should stock many brands of products. The
manager making this decision must consider whether the new products will merely
stabilise products sales by competing with existing products carried in store or
actually increase various product sales by offering a desired brand of the product to
customers who has never bought that specific product in that store before.
•STRUCTURED
PROGRAMMED •REPETITIVE
DECISIONS •ORGANISATIONAL, OPERATIONAL, RESEARCH
BASED
•UNSTRUCTURED
NON-
•NON-REPETITIVE
PROGRAMMED
DECISIONS •PERSONAL, STRATEGIC, CRISIS, PROBLEM-
SOLVING
After identifying the type of decision and the conditions under which the decision is
made, the decision maker must select the best possible solution. In most decision
situations, managers must go through a number of stages that help them think
through the problem and develop alternative solutions
The flow diagram below summarises each step in the normal progression that leads
to an optimal decision. These steps are more applicable to non-programmed
decisions than programmed decisions.
1. Define and
2. Set goals 3. Research
diagnose the 4. Compare
problem for and
alternative evaluate
solutions solutions
6. Implemen 5. Choose
7. Follow up
t the solution among
and control selected alternative
solutions
Certainty:
Uncertainty:
Despite the fact that life is filled with uncertainties, managers are continually asked to
make the best decision they can in spite of the uncertainties about both the present
and future circumstances. There is, however, a negative correlation between
uncertainty and the decision maker’s confidence in a decision. In other words, the
more uncertain a manager is about the principal factors in a decision, the less
confident he will be about the successful outcome of that decision. Thus, the key lies
not in eliminating uncertainty, because it cannot be eliminated, but rather in learning
Risk:
A condition of risk exists when a decision must be made on the basis of incomplete but
reliable factual information. Under these conditions, the available options and the
potential benefits or costs associated with them are known and the probability that the
given event will occur. Therefore, the primary characteristic of the risk condition is that
decision makers have only enough information about the outcome of each alternative to
estimate how probable an outcome will be. Thus, the risk lies between complete
certainty and complete uncertainty. The risk condition is a broad one in which degrees of
risk can be associated with decisions. The lower the quality of information about the
outcome of an alternative, the closer the situation is to complete uncertainty and the
higher is the risk in choosing that alternative. Most decisions made in an organisation,
however, have some amount of risk involved in them.
• The rational model, where the manager selects the best possible solution.
Thinking flexibly:
It was mentioned earlier that decision makers were defined as individuals or groups
that actually make a decision-that is, choose a decision alternative from those
available. The focus will now shift towards groups as decision makers.
Decisions made by a group are not necessarily better than the ones made by
individuals working alone. Groups when making decisions are subjected to social
processes such as the level of communication skills, dominance by a specific group
member and so forth. The two key topics under discussion will be the advantages
and disadvantages of using groups to make decisions and the best processes for
making group decisions.
There are three best processes or methods for making/ improving group decision
making:
Brainstorming:
This method stimulates creative solutions to problems. With this method, group
participants informally generate as many ideas as possible without evaluation by
others. This method promotes contributions from members who are shy, have
divergent ideas or have low status with the group. Group members are encouraged
to build on, but not criticise ideas produced by others. Certo (2003:159) defines
brainstorming as, “A group decision making process in which negative feedback on
any suggested alternative by any group member is forbidden until all members have
presented alternatives that they perceive as valuable.”
This is another useful process for helping groups make decisions. As a structured
group decision making technique, it restricts discussion or interpersonal
communication during the decision-making process. Group members are physically
present but operate independently. This process is designed to ensure that each
group member has equal participation in making the group decision.
• Step 1: Each group member writes down individual ideas on the decision or
problem being discussed.
• Step 2: Each member presents individual ideas orally. The ideas are usually
written on a board for all other members to see and to refer to.
• Step 3: After all members present their ideas, the entire group discusses these
ideas simultaneously. Discussion tends to be unstructured and spontaneous.
This technique is appropriate for situations in which a dominant person affects groups.
Delphi technique:
Decisions are made by experts in different geographical areas. This method does
not require the presence of the participants. The Delphi technique involves
circulating questionnaires on a specific problem among group members, sharing the
questionnaire results with them and then continuing to recirculate and refine
individual’s responses until a consensus regarding the problem is reached.
There are both advantages and disadvantages to both group and individual decision
making. Group decision making can be advantageous in that groups:
4.6. Conclusion
Managers and employees make decisions daily using a process that contains the
basic elements of decision making. Every time managers engage in planning,
organising, directing, or controlling organisational activities, they make a stream of
decisions. Decision making is the process by which managers respond to the
opportunities and threats that confront them by analysing the options and making
determinations, or decisions, about specific organisational goals and courses of
action.
Self-Assessment Questions
1. “When you have a tough business problem to solve, you likely bring it to a group.
After all, more minds are better than one, right? Not necessarily. Larger pools
of knowledge are by no means a guarantee of better outcomes. Because of an
over-reliance on hierarchy, an instinct to prevent dissent, and a desire to
preserve harmony, many groups fall into groupthink.” (Emmerling and Rooders,
2020).
Critically evaluate the statement above. Support your argument with valid
reasons.
3. Discuss the various other complexities associated with decision making for
managers.
CHAPTER 5:
Diversity Management
Chapter Outcomes
5.1 Introduction
Diversity, “Refers to characteristics of individuals that shape their identities and the
experiences they have in society. Diversity is the degree of basic human differences
among a given population. Major areas of diversity are gender, race, ethnicity,
religion, social class, physical ability, sexual orientation, and age,” (Certo 1993:74).
Understanding diversity is essential for managers today because managing diversity
will undoubtedly constitute a large portion of the management agenda well into the
21st century.
The Society for Human Resource Management cited in Fried and Fottler, (2015:
124) defines diversity as, “The collective mixture of differences and similarities that
includes, for example, individual and organisational characteristics, values, beliefs,
experiences, backgrounds, preferences, and behaviours. The organisation goes on
to define inclusion as, “The achievement of a work environment in which all
individuals are treated fairly and respectfully, have equal access to opportunities and
resources, and can contribute fully to the organisation’s success.”
Workforce diversity refers to the mix of people from various backgrounds in the
labour force. Two important aspects of workforce diversity are demographic
differences and cultural differences (Hellreigel et al, 2008:387).
• Majority.
• Minority.
Majority group-refers to that group of people in the organisation who hold most of the
positions that command decision making power, control of resources and information
and access to system rewards. It must be noted that the majority is not always the
group with a numerical majority.
Minority group-refers to that group of people in the organisation who are smaller in
number or who lack critical power, resources, acceptance, and social status. It must
also be noted that the minority group is not always lesser in number than the majority
group.
Our natural tendency is to judge other groups less favourably than our own. This
tendency is the source of ethnocentrism, the belief that one’s own group, culture,
country, or customs are superior to others. Two related dynamics are:
Older workers present some specific challenges for managers. Stereotypes and
prejudices link age with senility, incompetence, and lack of worth in the labour
market. It is the manager’s responsibility to value older workers for their contributions
to the organisation and to see to it that they are treated fairly. This requires an
understanding of and sensitivity to the physiological and psychological changes that
older workers experience. People with disabilities are subject to the same negative
dynamics that plague women, minorities, and older workers.
5.4.3. Discrimination:
When verbalised or acted upon, these negative dynamics can cause discomfort and
stress for the judged individual. In some cases, there is outright discrimination.
Discrimination is the act of treating an issue, person, or behaviour unjustly or
inequitably on the basis of stereotypes and prejudices. Discrimination occurs when
stereotypes are acted upon in ways that affect hiring, pay or promotion practices.
Other challenges facing minorities include the pressure to conform to the
organisation’s culture, high penalties for mistakes and tokenism. Tokenism refers to
being one of a very few members of a group in an organisation.
Nieman and Bennet (2008: 305) contend that the above problems can result in
friction, conflict and even violence in the workplace and that there is consequently a
need for proactive diversity management. These problems can impact negatively on
the competitive position of an organisation.
A diverse workforce poses a number of unique challenges for managers that could
jeopardise the competitiveness of the organisation if they are not effectively handled.
Included among these are the following:
5.6. Pluralism:
when managers are capable of guiding the organisation toward achieving pluralism.
Approaches or strategies to achieve effective workforce diversity has been classified
into 5 major categories:
1. “Golden Rule”
Approach-to diversity relies on the biblical dictate “do unto others as you would
have them do unto you.” The major strength of this approach is that it
emphasises individual morality. Its major flaw, however, is that individuals apply
the golden rule from their own particular frame of reference without knowing the
cultural expectations, traditions and preferences of the other person.
2. Assimilation Approach
3. “Righting-the-Wrongs”
4. Culture-Specific Approach
5. Multicultural Approach
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Consider the steps managers can take to change attitudes and values and promote
the effective management of diversity (Jones and George, 2020):
Efforts to improve the way managers and subordinates interact with each other
and improve their ability to interact with different kinds of people. Communication
with diverse employees is important.
5) Encourage Flexibility
Managers and subordinates must be open to different approaches and ways of doing
things. They must be patient and flexible to understand diverse perspectives.
Provide a forum for people to discuss differing attitudes values and experiences.
Group exercises, role-playing, training videos and diversity related experiences
can help members develop skills they require to work effectively in organisations
(Jones and George, 2020)
Supporting, mentoring, and providing diverse employees with the skills required
to move up ladder in the workplace is important (George, et al, 2019).
5.9 Conclusion
This chapter has explored the key areas related to managing diversity. In order to
acquire the benefits of diversity in business, one must ensure that adequate and
relevant diversity management approaches are implemented.
Self-Assessment Questions
Our Statement
At Daimler we value the diversity of our workforce. For our global business, we make
the most of different experiences, skills, and perspectives. Our workforce reflects the
diversity of our customers, suppliers, investors, and our general environment.
Celebrating our differences. We respect and value the diversity of our employees.
We encourage them to contribute this diversity to the company.
Our three fields of action, Best Mix, Working Culture and Customer Access, are at
the foundation for a corporate culture in which diversity can unfold.
Best Mix: We form mixed teams – based on equal opportunity and non-
discrimination. Because diverse perspectives make us successful.
Customer Access: We understand and value our customers in their individuality. Our
goal: Enabling people to experience mobility that fits to them and their life.
Questions:
1. Read the article above and discuss the ways in which Mercedes Benz aims to
promote diversity.
2. After a careful analysis of the article above, discuss the various ways diversity
approaches adopted at Mercedes-Benz is beneficial to the organisation.
3. Critically discuss some of the diversity related challenges managers may
experience at Mercedes Benz.
4. Discuss the social implications of diversity.
CHAPTER 6:
Conflict Management
Chapter Outcome
6.1. Introduction
As a group performs its assigned tasks, disagreements inevitably arise. When the
term conflict is encountered, it refers to perceived incompatible differences resulting
in some form of interference or opposition. Whether the differences are real or not is
irrelevant. If people in a group perceive that differences exist, then there is conflict.
Organisational conflict arises when the goals, interests, or values of different individuals
or groups are incompatible, and those individuals or groups block or thwart one
another's effort to achieve their objectives. Conflict is an inevitable given the wide range
of goals for the different stakeholders in the organisation. The current business
Three different views of conflict have arisen over the years as Robbins (2003:384)
states: Philosophies of Conflict (Cook and Hunsaker, 2003:431):
Unitarist perspective
This is the traditional view that sees conflict as undesirable, destructive and to be
avoided at all costs.
Philosophies of Conflict:
• Pluralist perspective:
An organisation is seen as a collection of different groups, all with their
legitimate aims to pursue, and therefore a degree of conflict is normal.
• Radical perspective:
Organisational conflict reflects the conflict in the wider society between
owners and workers.
• Interactionist perspective:
Conflict is neither good nor bad but simply inevitable.
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BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 2
Interpersonal Conflict
Interpersonal conflict is conflict between individual members of an organisation,
occurring because of differences in their goals or values.
Intragroup Conflict
Intragroup conflict arises within a group, team, or department. Managers of
departments usually play a key role in managing intergroup conflicts. Sometimes
intergroup conflict occurs between founders of companies and their families and
supporters on the one hand, and the top managers who run them on the other.
Interorganisational Conflict
Interorganisational conflict arises across organisations, when managers in one
organisation feel that another organisation is not behaving ethically and is threatening
the wellbeing of certain stakeholder groups. Interorganisational conflict also can occur
between government agencies and corporations (George, et al. 2019).
Some conflicts are seen as supporting the goals of the work group and improving its
performance; these are functional conflicts of a constructive nature. However, other
conflicts are destructive and prevent a group from achieving its goals, these are
termed dysfunctional conflicts. There are three types of conflict that arise when
comparing functional and dysfunctional conflict
Firstly, a manager needs to do is determine the stage the conflict is in. Thereafter,
the source of conflict must be established. Next, the manager must examine the
consequences and performance outcomes. Finally, the manager needs to decide
which conflict style orientation and specific strategies can be applied most
productively to manage the conflict.
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BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 2
Organisations are made up of interacting individuals and groups with varying needs,
objectives, values, and perspectives that naturally lead to the emergence of conflict.
When conflict occurs, it can either stimulate new positive changes or result in
negative consequences.
There is no one conflict-handling intention that will always be the best. Managers
must select an intention appropriate for the situation
Use collaboration:
• To find an integrative solution when both sets of concerns are too important to
be compromised.
• When the objective is to learn.
• To merge insights from people with different perspectives.
• To gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a consensus.
• To work through feelings that have interfered with a relationship.
Use accommodation:
• When you find that you’re wrong and to allow a better position to be heard.
• To learn and show reasonableness.
• When issues are more important to others.
• To satisfy others and maintain cooperation.
• To build social credits for later issues.
• To minimise loss when outmatched and losing.
• When harmony and stability are especially important.
• To allow people to develop by learning from mistakes.
Use compromise:
• When goals are important but not worth the effort of potential disruption of
more assertive approaches.
• When opponents of equal power are committed to mutually exclusive goals.
• To achieve temporary settlements to complex issues.
• To arrive at expedient solutions under time pressure.
• As a backup when collaboration or competition is unsuccessful.
Overlapping Authority
When two or more managers, departments, or functions claim authority for the same
activities or tasks, conflict is likely.
Task Interdependencies
Task interdependence occurs when member of a group or a group fails to finish a
task that another member or group depends on, causing the waiting worker or group
to fall behind. This creates conflict in the group because other group members were
dependent on the late member's contributions to complete the work. Whenever
individuals, groups, teams, or departments are interdependent, the potential for
conflict exists.
6.7. Conclusion
This chapter has explored the area of conflict and conflict management. It is vital for
leaders to ensure that sources of conflict are detected and managed in the
appropriate manner.
Self-Assessment Questions
CHAPTER 7:
Organisational Culture
Chapter Outcomes
7.1. Introduction
Cultures of organisations that provide essentially the same goods and services can
be very different. Organisations that have a strong culture try to perpetuate that
culture by selecting individuals who already share the culture.
Organisations which are committed to, diversity, (where individuals from all cultural
backgrounds are viewed and treated as full organisational members and participate
fully within the organisation), should strive to appreciate one another’s differences,
and behave in ways that encourage active participation and acceptance of all
members in achieving the organisations goals (Desimone, 2002).
• Mullins (2003) points out that a popular and simple way of defining
organisational culture is, “how things are done around here.”
• Atkinson (cited in Mullins, 2003) asserts that organisational culture reflects,
“The underlying assumptions about the way work is performed; what is
acceptable and not acceptable and what behaviour and actions are
encouraged and discouraged.”
• Schein (cited in Kreitner and Kinicki, 2001) argues that organisational
culture is, “The set of shared, taken-for-granted implicit assumptions that a
group holds and that determines how it perceives, thinks about, and reacts
to its various environments.”
• Robbins (2003) maintains that organisational culture refers to, “A system
of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organisation
from other organisations.”
Research has suggested that there are seven primary dimensions which comprise
the essence of an organisation’s culture. These are the degree to which the
organisation’s approach provides for:
Attention to detail
The degree to which employees are expected to exhibit precision, analysis, and
attention to detail.
Outcome orientation
The degree to which management focuses on results or outcomes rather than on the
techniques and processes used to achieve those outcomes.
People orientation
The degree to which management decisions take into consideration the effect of
outcomes on people within the organisation.
Team Orientation
The degree to which work activities are organised around teams rather than
individuals.
Aggressiveness
The degree to which people are aggressive and competitive rather than easy going.
Stability
The degree to which organisational activities emphasise maintaining the status quo
in contrast to growth.
Culture serves to clarify and reinforce standards of behaviour. While this is essential
for newcomers, culture guides employ words and deeds, making it clear what they
should do or say in a given situation. However, when there is a strong, overarching
culture, people feel that they are part of that larger, well-defined whole and involved
in the entire organisations work. Bigger than any one individual’s interest, culture
reminds people about what their organisation is all about (Greenberg, 2000).
people are conscious that certain behaviours are accepted, and others would
never be visible.
The founders of the organisation have a major impact on the early culture of the
organisation. They create the organisation’s early culture through:
Selection:
Where during the selection and recruitment process not only an applicant’s
knowledge and competencies are assessed, but the potential of his/her values to ‘fit’
with the organisation’s culture is considered as well (Robbins, 2003).
Socialisation:
Refers to, “The process by which newcomers learn an organisation’s values and
norms and acquire the work behaviours necessary to perform jobs effectively,”
Robbins (2001) states that the most critical time for socialisation is when the
employee first enters the organisation.
1. Pre-arrival stage-which involves the learning and perceptions about work and
the organisation, prior to entry into the organisation.
2. Encounter stage-which involves the employee in assessing whether his/her
perception, developed in the pre-arrival stage, are congruent with the reality of
the work and organisation. Thus, should there be incongruence, the employee
Stories
Provide for the maintenance of organisational culture in that they provide accounts of
the organisation’s history and significant events, which in turn serve as indicators
and reinforces of the organisation’s norms and values.
Rituals
These are the, “Repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce the key
values of the organisation, which goals are most important, which people are
important, and which are expendable,” (Robbins, 2003: 524).
Examples include the annual Christmas office party and annual award ceremonies.
Material Symbols
Such as the size of offices, the nature of the office furnishings, the cars which
management and employees drive and employee dress, also serve to maintain
organisational culture (Robbins, 2003).
For example, some companies use impressive buildings to convey the organisations
strengths and significance as a large, stable place. Other companies rely on slogans
to symbolise their values. These slogans change all the time.
Language
Many organisations and units within organisations use language as a way to identify
members of a culture or sub-culture. By learning this language, members attest to
their acceptance of the culture and, in so doing, help to preserve it.
The kitchen personnel in large hotels use terminology foreign to people who work in
other areas of a hotel.
But once assimilated, this terminology acts as a common denominator that unites
members of a given culture or subculture.
The article below by Kohll (2018) provides ways in which eemployers can build a
positive corporate culture at their workplace:
Grow off your current culture: Building a positive corporate culture doesn’t mean
employers should completely scrap everything their company currently stands for.
Rather than expecting employees to do a complete 180, employers should work on
enhancing the current culture they have. Ask employees what they do and don’t like
about their current culture and work environment. Leaders should use these
suggestions to help create a positive corporate culture that’s appropriate for their
workforce.
Provide meaning: Meaning and purpose are more important in the workplace now
than ever. A majority of employees crave meaning and purpose in their work.
Without it, job satisfaction takes a major hit. And a company certainly can’t build a
culture without any meaning behind its work. Create a mission statement and core
values and communicate these to employees. Give employees specific examples of
how their roles positively impact the company and its clients.
Create goals: No organisation can have corporate culture without clear goals in
place. Employers should gather with their team to create goals and objectives that
everyone can work towards. Creating a company goal brings employees together
and gives everyone something specific to work towards – other than a pay check.
Listen: Being a good listener is one of the easiest ways employers can start to build
a positive culture. According to research gathered by CultureIQ, 86% of employees
at companies with strong cultures feel their senior leadership listens to employees,
as compared to 70% of employees at companies without strong culture. Listen to
employees, and make sure they feel their voices are heard and valued.
One of the most important roles a leader has is creating a positive culture. Be sure to
cultivate a positive culture that enhances the talent, diversity, and happiness of your
workforce. Building a unique, positive culture is one of the best – and simplest –
ways to get your employees to invest their talent and future with your company.
Hofstede in Cook and Hunsaker (2001) argued that national culture results in the
national mental pre-programming of the nation’s values, which in turn impacts on
organisational culture. The results of his extensive research provide a cultural
framework which identifies five dimensions of culture:
Power Distance which refers to the degree to which, “People expect inequality in
social institutions,” (Kreitner and Kinicki, 2001: 118).
Uncertainty Avoidance which refers to the degree to which people are willing and
able to tolerate risk and uncertainty (Jones and George, 2007).
Masculinity vs. Femininity which looks at the degree to which the society upholds
masculine traits (such as assertiveness and competitiveness) as opposed to
feminine traits (such as caring and a people orientation).
Long term vs. short term orientation which refers to the degree to which people
persist in their attempts to achieve long term goals as opposed to a focus on
happiness in the present (Jones and George, 2007).
The results of Hofstede’s research showed, for example, that the cultures within
companies within the United States are high on individualism, moderate on power
distance, and low in long term orientation. On the other hand, Japan has a culture
which is high on masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation
(Kreitner and Kinicki, 2001).
Schein (1996) asserts that the operator culture is the most difficult to describe. This
culture provides for attention to be given to the tasks of the organisation and is
essentially, “Based on human interaction, and most line units learn that high levels of
communication, trust, and teamwork are essential to getting the work done
efficiently,” (Schein, 1996:13).
The engineering culture is based on the assumption that, “The ideal world is one of
elegant machines and processes working in perfect precision and harmony within
human intervention,” (Schein, 1996). One of the key themes in this culture is, “The
preoccupation of designing humans out of systems rather than into them,” (Schein,
1996). The engineering culture therefore promotes efficient and reliable operations.
The executive culture is one with a financial, individualistic, and hierarchical focus.
This culture also places much emphasis on the task and control (Schein,1996). This
culture, “Has in common with the engineering culture a predilection to see people as
impersonal resources that generate problems rather than solutions,” (Schein,1996).
In essence, the executive culture promotes the minimisation of costs and the
maximisation of profits.
Schein (1996) identifies that when an organisation is presented with change, these
three cultures often collide. In order to achieve alignment among the three cultures,
mutual understanding between them needs to be established through cross-cultural
dialogues.
Power culture: Depends on a central power source with influence from the central
figure throughout the organisation. A power culture is prominent in small
entrepreneurial organisations that depend on trust, empathy, and personal
communications. Control is enforced from the centre by key individuals (Mullins,
2016).
Role culture: May be viewed as a bureaucracy and works by logic and rationality.
Role culture relies on the strength of strong organisational ‘pillars’. The work of, and
interaction between, the pillars is controlled by procedures and rules (Mullins, 2016).
Person culture: Has at its centre, an emphasis on the individual. Any structure
exists to serve the individuals within it. To illustrate, when a group of people decide
that it is in their own interests to share office space or equipment, then the
organisation would have a person culture. Other examples include groups of
barristers, architects, doctors, or consultants. Individuals are said to have almost
complete autonomy (Mullins, 2016).
A contemporary challenge that managers face, is when new employees who because of
race gender ethnic or other differences are not like the majority of the organisations
members creates what we call diversity. Management wants new employees to accept
the organisations core cultural values. Otherwise, these employees are unlikely to fit in
or be accepted. At the same time, management wants to openly acknowledge and
demonstrate support for the differences that these employees bring to the workplace.
Organisations hire diverse individuals because of the alternative strengths these people
bring to the workplace, yet these diverse behaviours and strengths are likely to diminish
in strong cultures as people attempt to fit in. The challenge for managers is to balance
two conflicting goals - get employees to accept the organisations dominant values and
encourage the acceptance of differences.
Culture helps to account for variations among organisations and managers, both
nationally and internationally. It helps to explain why different groups of people
perceive things in their own way and perform things differently from other groups or
organisations. Culture can help reduce complexity and uncertainty.
Barrier to change: Where the current culture of the organisation promotes shared
values that are not consistent with those which are necessary for the organisation to
continue to survive.
Barrier to diversity: While management may recruit diverse employees for the
purposes of harnessing the benefits of diversity, the achievement of these potential
benefits may be negated by a strong organisational culture which places mush
pressure on employees to conform.
Barrier to acquisitions and mergers: While acquisitions and mergers can provide
for the achievement of final product and financial synergy, experience has shown
that cultural incompatibility is a powerful force which can undermine the success of
the acquisition or merger.
7.9. Conclusion
This chapter explored the concept of organisational culture in businesses, its value,
and barriers. It is essential for culture to be created and maintained in order to
welcome employee satisfaction, growth, development and overall enhanced
organisational performance.
Self-Assessment Questions
The work culture at Apple has caught the eye of many organisations. How they
make the necessary provisions for their employees and keep them satisfied has
contributed to the success of this prestigious company. So, what makes Apple's
company culture so admirable?
Company culture involves the values of the organisation by which all internal
activities are run. Healthy company culture helps to increase employee retention
and turnover rate. The HR department must ensure that the company culture is
well established and fit the mission and visions of the company.
Inside Apple, company culture is shaped to provide the best environment for
management and success. This article will find out what Inside Apple's company
culture is and why it works like magic.
Questions:
1. Through your own online research, discuss the key characteristics of Apple’s
organisational culture.
2. Discuss various other types of organisational culture.
3. Assess the value of Apple’s cultures towards their performance.
4. As a business development coach, advise Apple on the ways in which they can
create and maintain an effective organisational culture.
CHAPTER 8:
Communication, Negotiation and Political
Behaviour in Organisations
Chapter Outcomes
8.1. Introduction
When all members of an organisation can communicate effectively with one another
and with people outside the organisation, the organisation is much more likely to
perform highly and gain a competitive advantage. When managers and other
members of an organisation are ineffective communicators, organisational
performance suffers, and any competitive advantage the organisation might have is
likely to be lost. Poor communication can be dangerous and even lead to tragic and
unnecessary loss of human life (Jones and George, 2020).
The components of the communication process include the following, as per Shonubi
and Akintaro, (2016: 1908):
Message: This refers to ideas, thoughts, needs, emotions etc. put into a symbol,
figure, sign, etc. It is the actual physical product being encoded by the source.
Channel: This refers to how a message is conveyed. The sender must ensure that
the appropriate channel is used to transmit message.
Receiver: The receiver refers to the person the message is aimed at. That is, the
recipient(s) of the transmitted information.
Decoding: “Decoding is a process that occurs at the reception level where impulses,
figures and symbols are interpreted and translated into meaningful information.
Effective communication can only occur when both the encoder (sender) and
decoder(receiver) attach the same or at least similar meanings to the symbols that
make up the message.” (Shonubi and Akintaro, 2016: 1908).
Noise: Noise refers to any factor that hinders, disturbs, and interferes with
communication whether from the side of sender, the message channel, or the
receiver (Shonubi and Akintaro, 2016: 1908). “Noise can occur either internally
(wrong encoding, transmission, interruption etc.) or externally (confined
environment).” (Shonubi and Akintaro, 2016: 1908).
Feedback: “Feedback assures the encoder that the message was received and
understood. Receivers reply to the sender ends the communication process
mechanism.” (Shonubi and Akintaro, 2016: 1908).
Physical:
• Concrete environment in which communication occurs.
• E.g., an office or boardroom.
• Conditions such as temperature or tidiness.
Social:
• Nature of relationships between those involved in the communication.
Historical:
• Previous communication encounters.
• History of a country or group from the historical context.
• E.g., punctuality issues associated with the leader.
Psychological
• Mental state within which participants exist.
• Feelings and emotions.
Cultural:
• Set of beliefs, values and norms shared by a group of people.
• May include the culture of an organisation.
Thus, given that communication is central to the work of the manager, it is imperative
that managers strive to constantly improve their communication abilities.
Managers are involved in intrapersonal communication (to and with themselves) and
interpersonal communication (to and with other individuals) (Smit & Cronjé, 2002).
Managers are also instrumental in promoting organisational communication, i.e.,
communication between departments and units within the organisation.
• Formal Communication
• Informal Communication
Horizontal communication: Does not follow the chain of command but provides for
communication between employees on the same level of the hierarchy. This
communication serves essentially to improve departmental coordination (Smit and
de Cronjé, 2002).
The common barriers that are part of the communication are as follows:
Perceptual Barriers: Arise due to differences of opinion between two people. Such
differences do generate a requirement for effective communication which is not
always healthy for the functioning of the organisation (Kapur, 2018).
Emotional Barriers: During certain points in time, there are people who do not develop
interest in communicating with their others due to the feelings of fear, mistrust, anger or
annoyance. This may be referred to as emotional barriers (Kapur, 2018).
A person’s linguistic style refers to his/her particular way of speaking and includes
tone of voice, speed, volume, pauses, directness and indirectness, choice of words,
questions and jokes. Managers should develop an understanding of the dynamics of
linguistic styles so that they may develop an, “Understanding that different people
have different ways of saying what they mean [which] will make it possible to take
advantage of the talents of people with a broad range of linguistic styles,” (Tannen,
1995: 148).
8.8. Negotiation
Negotiation can be defined as a process in which two or more parties who have
different preferences must make a joint decision and come to an agreement, typically
using a bargaining strategy.
• Research: Find out as much as possible about the other party with whom you
will be negotiating. Learn about their interests and goals, their strategies, and
their behaviour. This will help you to predict their response to your offers, and
to create solutions in their interests.
• Begin with a positive overture: Making concessions from the outset creates
a positive overture and leads to reciprocation and leads to agreement.
Effective managers engage in politics to gain support for and implement needed
changes. Managers often face resistance from those who disagree with their goals
and what they are trying to accomplish for the organisation. Engaging in
organisational politics can help managers overcome this resistance and achieve their
goals. When managers act in self-interest for their own benefit, organisational politics
are viewed negatively (Jones and George, 2020).
When people get together in groups, power will be exerted. When employees in
organisations convert their power into action, they become engaged in politics.
Political behaviour can be defined as those activities that are not required as part of
one’s formal role in the organisation, but that influence the distribution of advantages
or disadvantages within the organisation.
Political behaviour entails people gaining and exercising power to obtain a specific
outcome. It is a vague term that plays a decisive role in the behaviour of leaders and
managers.
Probably the most important factor leading to politics within organisations is the
realisation that most of the ‘facts’ that are used to allocate the limited resources are
open to interpretation. What, for example, is good performance?
Because most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambiguity where facts are
rarely objective, people within organisations will use whatever influence they can to
taint the facts to support their goals and interests.
Researchers have identified certain personality traits, and other factors, likely to
contribute to political behaviour. Employees who are high self-monitors, possess an
internal locus of control, and have a high need for power, are more likely to engage
in political behaviour.
The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues, exhibits higher levels of social
conformity, and is more likely to be skilled in political behaviour. Individuals with an
internal locus of control because they believe they can control their environment, are
more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their
own favour.
Organisational factors
The less trust there is in an organisation, the higher the level of political behaviour
and the more likely that the political behaviour will be of the illegitimate kind.
Role ambiguity means that the prescribed behaviours of employees are not clear,
hence there are fewer limits to the scope and functions of the political behaviour.
The more that organisations use subjective performance criteria, emphasise a single
outcome measure, or allow significant time to pass between action and appraisal,
the greater the likelihood that an employee can get away with political behaviour.
The more that the organisational culture emphasises a ‘zero-sum’ or ‘win- lose’
approach to reward allocation, the more likely that employees will engage in political
behaviour. These approaches are a type of ‘I win therefore you must lose’
philosophy.
Inducement
This occurs when a manager offers or promises something to someone in exchange
for support. It is often found in the form of ‘putting in a good word.’
Persuasion
This aspect plays on the emotions of the subordinate and may include guilt of fear.
Creation of an obligation
One manager may support another and create an obligation on the part of the
second manager in the future. It is commonly found in the form of calling in favours.
Coercion
This behaviour borders on the use of violence to get one’s way. A manager may
withhold, or threaten to withhold, rewards or resources to force compliance.
Avoiding Action
Over-conforming: One strictly interprets one’s responsibility by rigidly adhering to
rules, policies, and precedents, thus avoiding the need to consider the nuances of
each individual case.
Passing the buck: One transfers responsibility for the completion of a task or
decision to someone else.
Stalling: This tactic requires one to appear more, or less, supportive publicly, while
doing little or nothing privately.
Avoiding blame
Buffing: This describes the practice of rigorously documenting activity to project an
image of competence and thoroughness.
Playing safe: One avoids situations that may reflect badly on oneself and includes
taking on projects only if they have a high probability of success, or having risky
decisions approved by senior managers, and taking neutral positions in conflicts.
The use of defensive behaviour in the short run will promote an individual’s self-
interest. But in the long run, it more often than not becomes a liability. The defensive
behaviour often becomes chronic or even pathological. People who rely on defensive
behaviour find that, eventually, it is the only way they know how to behave. At that
point, they lose the trust and support of their peers and superiors.
Controlling Uncertainty
Managers who can control and reduce uncertainty for other managers, teams, and
departments as well as the organisation are likely to see their power increase.
Managers of labour unions gain power when they can eliminate uncertainty over job
security for workers. Top managers gain power when they are knowledgeable about
global demand for an organisation's products. Managers who can control uncertainty
are likely to be in demand and sought after by other organisations.
Generating Resources
Managers who can generate resources to be effective e.g., input resources such as
raw materials, skilled workers, and financial capital, technical resources such as
machinery and computers, and knowledge resources such as marketing, information
technology, or engineering expertise are very effective and will find that their
organisational power increases (Jones and George, 2020).
Building Alliances
When managers build alliances, they develop mutually beneficial relationships with
people both inside and outside the organisation. The parties to an alliance support
one another because doing so is in their best interests, and all parties benefit from
the alliance. Alliances can help managers achieve their goals and implement needed
changes in organisations because they increase managers levels of power (Jones
and George, 2020).
8.17. Conclusion
Communication, negotiation, and political behaviour in business formed the focal areas
of this chapter. It is crucial for organisations to adopt the relevant strategies concerning
the above in order to maintain efficiency and quality. This will result in customer
satisfaction, healthier internal relations, and enhanced performance overall.
Self-Assessment Questions
CHAPTER 9:
People Management
Chapter Outcome
9.1. Introduction
People may be viewed as the best assets of an organisation. However, they are not
always are given the attention that they deserve or need from their line managers.
The attitude of managers should set an example for all the subordinates (Dutta and
Chaudhry, 2021).
People management is a term used to describe the business function of taking care
of an organisation’s employees. Further, people management systems collate
various elements of people information. This includes contract and salary, time, and
skills in a single, secure system of record (Sage, 2022). People management is also
known as human resources (HR) management.
Many global leaders are said to bear effective people management skills since they
do understand the importance of the asset known as human resource.
For example, Jeff Weiner, CEO of LinkedIn Group emphasises the value of
compassionate management. He states that it is vital to understand their problems
instead of just expecting irrational sacrifice and resilience. Similarly, Richard
Branson, CEO of Virgin Group, stresses the importance of leaders simply being
caring. Arianna Huntington, former CEO of the Huffington Post, stresses the
importance of ensuring employee’s well-being in order to keep them productive.
Arianna had a system in place to ensure complete work-life balance so as to prevent
any kind of burnout (Dutta and Chaudhry, 2021).
Sundar Pichai, CEO of Google, another example of a leader that emphasised helping
others grow and succeed. He argued the on the significance of trusting people and
helping them prosper. If they are successful with their own goals then it is not only their
win, but also a win for the organisation. the common thread between global
• Ensuring that each employee clearly understands their role and responsibilities.
• Ensuring that the company’s expectations of each employee are aligned with
the resources (including time) in order to successfully fulfil this expectation.
• Clear lines of communication.
• Being a good listener.
• Encourage staff to engage in problem-solving and overcome challenges.
• Conflict management.
• Oversee employees' professional development.
• Promote knowledge-sharing and brainstorming.
Importantly, a good people manager must first understand the need of his own people
before he starts to outline his own ideas- thus, be a good listener (Dutta and Chaudhry,
2021). A good people manager should empathise and put himself in his people’s shoes.
Effective synergy is dependent on communication (Dutta and Chaudhry, 2021).
Mentoring: Every people manager should be well equipped to mentor or guide his team
members in an efficiency manner. However, even though guidance is required from the
seniors, keep in mind that freedom along with guidance is beneficial towards needs of
employees. People managers should mentor employees/teams in a way that
allows people to associate with his thoughts, ideas, and style of thinking. This fosters
a good mindset required for the job (Dutta and Chaudhry, 2021).
However, one must note that while extra wages/cash provides a short-term
motivation, it is often not long before the staff member goes back once again to the
phase of under-performance or demotivation. Thus, managers must understand
other incentives that make a difference to an individual. In some cases, salaries
along with recognition or training and development may promote employee
motivation (Dutta and Chaudhry, 2021).
Along with delegation, people must also get a sense of ownership. Thus, the
members of a team will develop confidence due to ownership resulting in proper
delegation of work (Dutta and Chaudhry, 2021).
Attrition Management: The importance in the need to hirer good employees cannot
be overstated. The new generation at workforce are mostly job hoppers (Dutta and
Chaudhry, 2021). As a result of this, a high rate of attrition occurs and the challenge
of retaining the talented force is increasing daily. This is said to be the case of almost
every industry currently. People managers must therefore take actions proactively.
Continuous training of existing team members and coaching them on the relevant
areas will play a key role in these challenging times (Dutta and Chaudhry, 2021).
Generation Xers:
Generation Xers refer to those born between 1965 and 1980 (Maiers, 2017;
Chandler, 2015; Stutzer, 2019), and have benefited from relative political and
economic stability (Maiers, 2017).
Generation Y:
Martin and Otteman (2016) outline the following as millennial employment interests:
portability of retirement benefits due to their desire to switch jobs or careers; reject
conformance to rigid policies, challenge workplace norms, expect rewards; desire
fun, flexible, and latest technology.
Millennials:
A millennial is referred to as a person born between the years 1980 -2000 (Chandler,
2015). Millennials are said to be the most educated generation and the global
workforce will consist of 75% of them by 2025 (Maiers, 2017). Millennials may be
useful in mentoring baby boomers and this ideology must be seen as a
steppingstone to develop personnel as well as close the generational skills gap. In
addition, this promotes fresh and innovative thinking (Crosley, 2018).
Generation Z:
Those who are born between 1994 and 2004 are considered to be part of
Generation Z. They are sometimes referred to as the iGeneration. Similar to
Generation Y, Generation Z are very collaborative and creative. Generation Z prefers
a flat organisation to a hierarchy at work and enjoy multi-tasking. However, there is
concern that they may not perform well in public speaking, which is vital as a
business skill set (Giunta, 2017).
Thus, it is key to managers and researchers to identify and understand the issues
related to generation differences and the impact of these topics on organisational
performance. This will improve the capabilities of employees (Reza and Sarraf, 2019).
Each generation carries a set of values, views on power, expectations from leaders
and the workplace, attitudes toward work and a particular communication style
(Gursoy et al., 2008 cited in Reza and Sarraf, 2019).
In order to manage different generations, leaders and managers who must adapt
themselves to the environment and utilise the characteristics of each generation
group to meet the needs of the organisation. Employees must be seen as human
beings with different interests and tastes (Reza and Sarraf, 2019).
Managers must find ways to attract potential employees from different generations.
In order to execute this, they must pay attention to the fact that different generations
use different hiring channels and may be attracted by different brands of employers.
Also, different generations usually have different tastes than instruction. A generation
in traditional classrooms, with a professor, prefers paper-based education, as
opposed to others who emphasise development in general, and prefer independent
learning, often with the use of Computer-based or Internet-based education (Reza
and Sarraf, 2019).
Thus, it may be stated that the presence of employees from different generations at
all levels of the organisation has differences and similarities of generations in order
to exploit their diversity, creativity and energy. (Reza and Sarraf, 2019). This alludes
to the need to focus on the generational diversity factor in a wide range of workforce
characteristics.
The aim of human resources management (HRM) systems is to promote high levels
of performance and commitment from individuals and teams (Fried and Fottler,
2015). Performance management involves collecting performance information and
using that information to conduct formal and informal improvement efforts (Fried and
Fottler, 2015).
Performance management may also be viewed as a set of tools and practices that
are utilised to set performance goals with employees, measure individual
performance, design strategies, monitor employee progress toward achieving goals,
and provide feedback (Fried and Fottler, 2015).
HPWS has various desirable outcomes for employees including enhanced job
performance and organisational citizenship behaviour, increased organisational
commitment and job satisfaction (Zhang et al., 2018).
Performance Planning
The first part of the performance management process begins with the planning
element so as to create an effective system. The process of planning for the
performance management process is outlined below:
The supervisor and employee meet to share information regarding strategic goals
and their achievement (Nel et al., 2017). This step involves how the organisation’s
strategic goals must be adopted and adapted by the department as well as the
individual (Nel et al., 2017: 282).
Department goals must be adapted and aligned with goals of the employee in order
to instil some aspects of intrinsic motivation (Nel et al., 2017: 282).
The manager and employee agree on specific times for formal checks to be made on
progress towards meeting the established goals. A document containing key points
of their discussion and agreement, indicating their different roles and responsibilities
with respect to goal achievement must be developed and signed by both parties.
(Nel et al., 2017: 282).
During this stage, the manager conducts interim checks on progress, explores
causes of poor performance and provides coaching and mentoring to the employee.
The employee is engaged with by the manager in an informal way in order to
observe and obtain feedback on the level of their performance. It is vital that
performance problems are identified early in the process and corrective action be
taken before greater losses are incurred (Nel et al., 2017: 283). Informal day-to-day
performance checks are more important than an annual performance review.
Immediate supervisor or manager: This is the most common method used as the
immediate supervisor knows the employee the best and has the opportunity to
observe actual daily performance of the employee (Nel et al., 2017).
Peers: When managers are not available, peer or collegial evaluations may be
performed.
360° Feedback
It is critical for managers and supervisors to maintain measurements and keep records
of performance throughout the review period. Employees are also responsible for
ensuring documentation of their performance throughout the year (Nel et al., 2017).
The appraisal interview should be evaluative and developmental. Cascio (2006, cited
in Nel et. al, 2017) proposes a framework of activities that may be followed by the
person who will be conducting the feedback interview. Such activities should
commence before, during and after the interview.
Performance Planning
Performance Measurement
& Evaluation
Many organisations no longer use annual reviews or have improved it with software
that generates regular employee feedback (Nel et al., 2017).
The three ways in which technology can be used to simplify and optimise employee
and team performance are listed below:
9.6. Conclusion
Self-Assessment Questions
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