1.United States of America v. Karl Brandt, et al.

.The Medical Case, U.S.A. vs. Karl Brandt, et al. (also known as the Doctors' Trial), was prosecuted in 1946-
47 against twenty-three doctors and administrators accused of organizing and participating crimes against
humanity in the form of medical experiments and medical procedures inflicted on prisoners and civilians.
The specific crimes charged included more than twelve series of medical experiments concerning the
effects of and treatments for high altitude conditions, freezing, malaria, poison gas, sulfanilamide, bone,
muscle, and nerve regeneration, bone transplantation, saltwater consumption, epidemic jaundice,
sterilization, typhus, poisons, and incendiary bombs. During the post World War II era and immediately
after its foundation, the World Medical Association (WMA) showed concern over the state of medical
ethics in general and all over the world, taking the responsibility for setting ethical guidelines for the world
physicians. The details of the Nazi Doctors' Trial clearly demonstrated the need for reform, and for a re-
affirmed set of guidelines regarding both human rights and the rights of patients.

2. Tuskegee study
During a research project conducted by the U.S. Public Health Service, 600 low-income African-American
males, 400 of whom were infected with syphilis, were monitored for 40 years. Free medical examinations
were given; however, participants were not told about their disease. Even though a proven cure
(penicillin) became available in the 1950s, the study continued until 1972 with participants being denied
treatment. Many participants died of syphilis during the study. The study was stopped in 1973 by the U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare only after its existence was publicized and it became a
political embarrassment. The National Research Act created the National Commission for the Protection
of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, which was charged to identify the basic ethical
principles. The Commission drafted the Belmont Report, a foundational document for the ethics of
humAfter the U.S Public Health Service's (USPHS) Syphilis Study at Tuskegee, the government changed its
research practices.

3.Elixir Sulfanilamide
Elixir sulfanilamide was an improperly prepared sulfonamide antibiotic that caused mass poisoning in the
United States in 1937. It is believed to have killed more than 100 people. The public outcry caused by this
incident and other similar disasters led to the passing of the 1938 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act,
which significantly increased the Food and Drug Administration's powers to regulate drugs.

4. Declaration of Helsinki 4th revision 1996

The Declaration of Helsinki is a set of ethical principles regarding human experimentation developed
originally in 1964 for the medical community by the World Medical Association (WMA). It is widely
regarded as the cornerstone document on human research ethics. Declaration of Helsinki 4th revision
1996

was one of the most significant revisions because it added the phrase "This does not exclude the use of
inert placebo in studies where no proven diagnostic or therapeutic method exists" to Article II.3 ("In any
medical study, every patient--including those of a control group, if any—should be assured of the best
proven diagnostic and therapeutic method.").
5. Directive 2001/20/EC of 4 April 2001
This directive sets out basic principles for conducting clinical trials of medicinal products. Its aim is to
ensure the quality of clinical trials by respecting human rights and human dignity. The trial subjects are
protected. On the one hand, a clinical trial may only be carried out if the risks to the subject are in
proportion to the potential benefits of the medical research. On the other hand, the right of the subject
to physical and mental integrity must be respected, as well as the right to privacy. The medical care given
to the subjects and medical decisions made on their behalf are the responsibility of an appropriately
qualified physician. Trial subjects are to be provided with a contact point, where further information can
be obtained.

6. TeGenero trial (TGN1412)

After a drug is confirmed as safe and efficacious in preclinical studies, it is tested in healthy human
volunteers for first in man trials. In 2006, a phase I clinical study was conducted for a CD28 superagonist
antibody TGN1412 in six human volunteers. After very first infusion of a dose 500 times smaller than that
found safe in animal studies, all six human volunteers faced life-threatening conditions involving
multiorgan failure for which they were moved to intensive care unit. In the light of events, the Gordon
Duff`s( professor of molecular medicine at Sheffield University )report makes 22 recommendations for
pre-phase I, “first-to-human” trials using new drugs or drugs that alter the immune system. It calls for
independent expert advice to be sought before such high risk studies are allowed. It also calls on firms,
universities, and hospitals to pool information from unpublished or abandoned trials that may provide
clues about adverse reactions to new drugs. The report also recommends that when drugs are tested in
humans for the first time they be given to one volunteer at a time, in case there are rapid ill effects. Some
drugs should also be given slowly, by infusion instead of a one-off injection, the report adds.

REFERENCES:
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_Helsinki
2. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/LSU/?uri=celex:32001L0020
3. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2964774/
4. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0192623309332986
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theralizumab
6. https://nuremberg.law.harvard.edu/nmt_1_intro