Curriculum Integration in Contemporary Teaching Practice

Curriculum Integration in
Contemporary Teaching
Practice:
Emerging Research and
Opportunities
Susannah Brown
Florida Atlantic University, USA
Rina Bousalis
Florida Atlantic University, USA
A volume in the Advances in Early

Childhood and K-12 Education
(AECKE) Book Series
Published in the United States of America by
IGI Global
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Brown, Susannah, 1968- author. | Bousalis, Rina, 1959- author.

Title: Curriculum integration in contemporary teaching practice : emerging
research and opportunities / by Susannah Brown and Rina Bousalis.
Description: Hershey, PA : Information Science Reference, 2018. | Includes
bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017026840| ISBN 9781522540656 (hardcover) | ISBN
9781522540663 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Education, Elementary--Curricula--United States. | Education,
Secondary--Curricula--United States. | Interdisciplinary approach in
education--United States.
Classification: LCC LB1570 .B836 2018 | DDC 375/.001--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.
loc.gov/2017026840
This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Early Childhood and K-12
Education (AECKE) (ISSN: 2329-5929; eISSN: 2329-5937)
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ISSN:2329-5929
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Titles in this Series
For a list of additional titles in this series, please visit:
https://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-early-childhood-education/76699
Digital Initiatives for Literacy Development in Elementary Classrooms Emerging Research ...
Sally Ann Brown (Georgia Southern University, USA)
Information Science Reference • ©2018 • 181pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522532125) • US $175.00
Managing Self-Directed Learning in Primary School Education Emerging Research ...

Penny Van Deur (Flinders University, Australia)
Advanced Concept Maps in STEM Education Emerging Research and Opportunities

Michael Tang (University of Colorado Denver, USA) and Arunprakash T. Karunanithi
(University of Colorado Denver, USA)
Challenges Associated with Cross-Cultural and At-Risk Student Engagement

Richard K. Gordon (California State University, USA) Taichi Akutsu (Seisa University,
Japan & Shujitsu University, Japan) J. Cynthia McDermott (Antioch University, USA) and
Jose W. Lalas (University of Redlands, USA)
Supporting the Education of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Yefim Kats (Chestnut Hill College, USA)
Optimizing K-12 Education through Online and Blended Learning

Nathaniel Ostashewski (Athabasca University, Canada) Jennifer Howell (Curtin University,
Australia) and Martha Cleveland-Innes (Athabasca University, Canada)
Revolutionizing K-12 Blended Learning through the i²Flex Classroom Model

Maria D. Avgerinou (American Community Schools (ACS) Athens, Greece) and Stefanos
P. Gialamas (American Community Schools (ACS) Athens, Greece)
For an enitre list of titles in this series, please visit:

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Table of Contents
Preface................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgment.................................................................................................. xi
Chapter 1
Interdisciplinary K-12 Teaching and Learning: Rationale......................................1
Chapter 2
Teaching and Learning Theories for an Interdisciplinary Curriculum.................28
Chapter 3
Best Practices in K-12 Social Studies Integration.................................................49
Chapter 4
Best Practices in K-12 Arts Integration: Curricular Connections.........................95
Chapter 5
Interdisciplinary Curriculum in K-12 Schools: Current Practices in the .
Field....................................................................................................................125
Chapter 6
New Perspectives: Moving Forward in K-12 Education.....................................144
Related Readings............................................................................................... 169
About the Authors............................................................................................. 190
Index................................................................................................................... 191
vi
Preface
Dear Readers:
Welcome to Curriculum Integration in Contemporary Teaching Practice:
Emerging Research and Opportunities! We are excited to share the research
and practice of designing and implementing an interdisciplinary curriculum
with you. Our vision for writing a book about curriculum integration is to
provide support for K-12 teachers to meet the needs, interests and strengths
of all students. Our interdisciplinary curriculum approach is unique in that
it connects the arts and social studies to learning in the STEM (science,
technology, engineering, and math) model including reading throughout
content areas. It is our belief that teaching and learning practices that
interconnect and value all subject areas benefit K-12 students by supporting
creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration. As you read
our book, consider how you can design and teach using the STREAMSS
(science, technology, reading, engineering, art, math, and social studies)
approach to impact your students’ learning and deepen their comprehension
of the world.
Thank you for reading our book.
PURPOSE
The purpose of writing Curriculum Integration in Contemporary Teaching

Practice: Emerging Research and Opportunities is to provide pre-service,
novice, and veteran teachers with a comprehensive approach in the planning
and implementing of a multidisciplinary curriculum. A solid foundation of
research supports the rationale explaining the value of an integrated instruction
in K-12 classrooms. Set upon this foundation is the STREAMSS approach, an
all-inclusive curriculum method of design that could offer teachers effective
Preface
K-12 strategies, practices, and models of instruction, and assist educators in

planning meaningful learning experiences that meet the needs and strengths
of K-12 students.
A UNIQUE APPROACH TO TEACHING AND LEARNING
Curriculum Integration in Contemporary Teaching Practice: Emerging

Research and Opportunities is unique in several ways: the chapters discuss
how STREAMSS, the subjects of science, technology, reading/writing
(language arts), engineering, the arts, mathematics, and social studies, could
be combined to deliver an across-the-board study of concepts and lessons, and
assist teachers in engaging students in various subjects, particularly those with
diverse needs and learning styles. Curriculum that utilizes the STREAMSS
approach provides K-12 students the best of both worlds: the STREAMSS
model meets state standards’ content requirements while offering an in-depth
and multi-subject learning experience. Through this multidisciplinary method,
students could gain deeper comprehension of concepts, skills, and practices.
Additionally, the various disciplines could be valued equally since each content
area includes important knowledge that adds meaning to students’ lives.
FEATURED CHAPTERS
Chapter 1, “Interdisciplinary K-12 Teaching and Learning: Rationale,” begins

by addressing the question “Why integrate curriculum?” and explains how an
interdisciplinary curriculum could help students gain a deeper comprehension
of what is being studied and make meaningful connections between classroom
content and life experiences. The chapter encourages teachers to redesign the
K-12 curriculum to include interdisciplinary learning, recognize the catalysts
for interdisciplinary learning, and distinguish the connections between
authentic disciplinary concepts and learning goals.
Chapter 2, “Teaching and Learning Theories for an Interdisciplinary
Curriculum,” discusses how historical and contemporary theorists have
influenced the philosophy of education. Featured theorists featured include
John Dewey, Lev Vygotsky, Paulo Freire, Sonia Nieto, Nel Noddings, Emile
Durkheim, Adam Smith, Howard Gardner, and Maxine Greene and their
groundbreaking theories that focus on the central beliefs that teaching and
vii
Preface
learning should include real-world instruction, a connection to students’

present and future lives, and opportunities for students to interact, form
relationships, and communicate.
Chapter 3, “Best Practices in K-12 Social Studies Integration,” focuses on
social studies, the study of historical people, places, and events, geographical
physical and cultural landscapes, governmental structures of power and policy,
and economic systems of control. As science, technology, engineering, and
math derived from the observations and thoughts of ancient people who
questioned humans’ and Earth’s existence, and art and writing from earlier
humans’ desire to document ideas, it is important to infuse social studies
into all subjects for students to recognize how social studies is embedded
and interconnected with STREAMSS.
Chapter 4, “Best Practices in K-12 Arts Integration: Curricular Connections,”
brings attention to how the integration of art is a necessary part of the
STREAMSS curriculum model. Art allows K-12 students to communicate
their thoughts and emotions through arts criticism, arts history, aesthetics, and
arts production and performance. Since the goal of arts learning is to better
understand the self and others through artistic expression, the arts provide
opportunities for students to imagine, invent, create, think independently and
critically, solve real world problems, and creatively work for a better future.
Moreover, arts strategies for students could encourage reflection, analysis, and
synthesis of new and existing knowledge, and manifest social, philosophical,
psychological, historical, and cultural expression.
Chapter 5, “Interdisciplinary Curriculum in K-12 Schools: Current Practices
in the Field,” acknowledges the notion that creating a multidisciplinary
curriculum may be challenging for some teachers due to grade levels, subjects
taught, time allowed or devoted per subject or course, class size, and the
emphasis on high stakes testing. However, by integrating field trips and
guest speakers into the curriculum, collaborating with teacher colleagues,
connecting with parents and community members, and exploring available
resources online, all teachers have the potential to create a STREAMSS lesson.
Chapter 6, “New Perspectives: Moving Forward in K-12 Education,”
promotes the belief that teachers who go beyond the traditional way of teaching
and enter the twenty-first century world of holistic-subject teaching have the
ability to plan more meaningful activities and better understand students’
learning styles, backgrounds, and interests. Since academic subjects, topics,
and concepts have the tendency to be interrelated, lessons can be expanded
to new horizons. Reflection, a relevant part of teacher preparation, self-
viii
Preface
improvement, and continued professional development, and case studies

offer educators the opportunity to analyze and discuss teacher scenarios and
consider possible solutions to the situations featured in the case studies.
Susannah: As an art educator for twenty-seven years, I have had the opportunity
to work with diverse students of all ages. My joy throughout my career has
been to see my students’ eyes brighten during creative art production. Their
excitement bubbles over and they begin to verbalize pent-up emotions
and thoughts once they realize that this is the opportunity for them to
explore unbounded creativity. I welcome the discourse and value their
ideas as it is through them that I achieve my greatest accomplishments.
Helping my students to better understand the role the arts have in life is
my professional goal. The opportunity to write this book to help new and
experienced teachers to gain a deeper understanding of interdisciplinary
curriculum and the depth of learning has been a blessing. It has been
a gift to work with my colleague and friend, Dr. Rina Bousalis on this
project with more to come in the future. As always, I wish to thank my
family, especially my loving and supportive husband and wonderful
son, whose patience is never ending with my constant and sometimes
impulsive creative ideas. Without their support I would not have the
opportunity to be the teacher, artist, wife, mother, and woman that I
am today.
Rina: Having been an elementary and high school teacher, I have seen
both ends of the educational spectrum and know subpar teaching to
elementary students can negatively influence students all the way through
high school. Understanding the challenges teachers face in effectively
planning lessons and teaching amidst time constraints, high stakes
testing, and teacher accountability, I am thankful to have been able to
write this book to express the importance of transforming a traditional
mode of teaching into an interdisciplinary model, share my experiences
in the K-12 classroom, and assist my present-day pre-service teachers
who will soon leave my nest and fly away knowing the best possible
methods in teaching. I would like to thank my parents, my greatest
teachers, who immigrated to the United States with no English language
skills and only an elementary-grade education. Their life experiences
of witnessing wars, political and cultural turmoil, and natural disasters
have nurtured my passion for social studies and encouraged me to believe
that through education, an institution they so strongly value and wish
they had a chance to attain, I can to make the world a better place. I
ix
Preface
would also like to thank my daughters who always encourage me to go

forward with any project or idea that my mind creates and who always
take the time to listen; although shortly expressed, the depth of gratitude
to my children cannot be fathomed. My deepest thanks, however, go
out to Dr. Susannah Brown, my colleague and friend, who has given
me opportunities to create work together on educational topics that we
both believe in and wish to advocate to the world.
NOTE
The authors of this book, Dr. Susannah Brown and Dr. Rina Bousalis, have
worked as equal contributors on all aspects of research and writing this work.
x
xi
Acknowledgment
We would like to thank the IGI for allowing us to create a book that offers
both novice and veteran teachers a revolutionary way to transform their
curriculum while meeting local, state, and national standard requirements,
and most importantly, the needs of our twenty-first century students. We
extend our thanks to all who have worked to make this publication possible.
We especially value Jan Travers and Maria Rohde for their kind disposition
and timely communication in answering questions during the writing of this
book. Our experience with IGI has been pleasant and we greatly appreciate
the opportunity to have had them serve as our publisher.
1
Chapter 1
Interdisciplinary K-12
Teaching and Learning:
Rationale
ABSTRACT
Educators understand the value of designing curriculum to meet the needs of
diverse students (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). Often an approach to creating
and implementing learning experiences is initiated through school reform
(Stegman, 2014). Theories, best practices and standards lead teachers to
create effective curriculum (Keene & Zimmerman, 2007). In this chapter, the
authors address the question, Why integrate curriculum? An integrated or
interdisciplinary curriculum includes lessons based upon themes, problems,
or projects that are student initiated. Through interdisciplinary learning,
students make meaningful connections between the content knowledge,
skills and practices in multiple disciplines with life experiences, gaining a
deeper comprehension of what is studied. Meaning making is critical to the
interdisciplinary process and involves knowledge transfer between disciplines
(Post, Ellis, Humphreys, & Buggey, 1997). The intent of the authors of this
text is to encourage teachers to redesign the K-12 curriculum to include
interdisciplinary learning.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-4065-6.ch001
Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Interdisciplinary K-12 Teaching and Learning
INTRODUCTION
Interdisciplinary K-12 teaching and learning involves purposeful planning

for the engagement of students in meaningful and connected experiences.
The planning process includes grade-level appropriate and standards-based
strategies that focus on content area instruction. Understanding what students
should know and be able to demonstrate is a part of curriculum planning.
Therefore, recognizing catalysts for interdisciplinary learning and the
connections between authentic disciplinary learning goals is central to this
approach to curriculum design (Drake & Burns, 2004).
The objectives of this chapter are:
• Define interdisciplinary K-12 teaching and learning.

• Identify selected teaching and learning benefits of interdisciplinary
curriculum.
• Recognize the issues of interdisciplinary curriculum and instruction.
• Examine the rationale in support for interdisciplinary pedagogy.
An element of the interdisciplinary approach is the connection to standards

at the national, state or local levels (Drake & Burns, 2004). An interdisciplinary
approach to teaching emphasizes students’ learning connected to real world
experiences through the incorporation of interrelated concepts, processes and
skills. Both teachers and students work together to discover connections among
content learning; share cultural, personal and social experiences; acquire in-
depth understanding of interrelated issues; and apply successful strategies that
benefit their lives. Although connections are made through interdisciplinary
teaching and learning, teachers should match pedagogy with best practices
in each separate discipline (Jacobs, 1984). For example, in a science lesson
students learn through laboratory experiments, which is an effective teaching
and learning strategy for the science discipline. In the visual arts curriculum,
students may illustrate ideas in a sketchbook. Student artists practice skills
and techniques under the guidance of the visual art teacher and demonstrate
competency while completing each page of their sketchbooks. Each discipline
involves specific content that is discrete or unique to its field. The inherent
value of each discipline should be respected and taught accordingly through
age appropriate strategies.
Often interdisciplinary curriculum teams are formed at schools consisting
of teachers in various disciplines and possibly across grade levels (i.e., Grades
2
3, 4, and 5 may form an intermediate elementary team). Curriculum teams

should also consider input from disciplinary specialists, community members
and curriculum supervisors from the school district. Each member of the
curriculum team provides key information that ensure the integrity of an
interdisciplinary curriculum. With the support of interdisciplinary curriculum
teams, teachers effectively organized learning experiences to scaffold based
upon prior knowledge, student needs and disciplinary standards (Fogarty,
1991). Scaffolding lessons allows for students to connect what they know
to what they are learning and beyond to next steps in the inquiry process
(Vygotsky, 1978). The interdisciplinary curriculum team members also ensure
that disciplines are taught with integrity and include evidenced based research.
If a teacher were planning an interdisciplinary curriculum connecting learning
in science and visual arts, he or she may work with the visual art teacher
and use a visual art sketchbook as an observation guide complete with notes
and illustrations about a topic that provides crossover concepts such as, the
human body (studied in both visual art and science courses). The illustrated
sketchbook becomes an innovative assessment linking content knowledge to
disciplinary practices that capture students’ interests and utilizes individual
background knowledge and experiences (schema).
Interdisciplinary learning promotes knowledge transfer by connecting to
students’ schemata promoting meaningful and deeper comprehension and
leading to stronger curricular connections. The transfer of knowledge between
disciplines is multi-dimensional and this transfer relates concepts through
various cognitive connections (Drake & Burns, 2004). Students make these
cognitive connections purposefully through an interdisciplinary curriculum.
Students should be expressing what they know in multiple ways (e.g., visual,
verbal, kinesthetic, and interpersonal) to focus on their strengths and support
their needs. These ways of knowing are often catalysts for interdisciplinary
curriculum (Gardner, 1999). For example, in a high school English course,
students who are reading Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet may write
and perform a modern version of a scene complete with costumes and stage
design. This theatrical project would integrate visual arts (costumes and
stage sets), English (writing and speaking), drama (acting and performing),
and social studies (historical and contemporary analysis of culture). The
interdisciplinary approach to teaching and learning brings content to life and
engages students in innovative ways. Even the fundamental nature of life is
interdisciplinary as our world is linked through experiences in all aspects of
learning (Post, Ellis, Humphreys, & Buggey, 1997). Throughout this text,
3
the authors support the pedagogical approach of interdisciplinary learning

and provide best practices for K-12 teaching and learning. The intent is to
refocus the K-12 curriculum to include interdisciplinary learning.
THE RATIONALE FOR K-12 INTERDISCIPLINARY

TEACHING AND LEARNING
Common questions about interdisciplinary learning include:
• Why should K-12 teachers integrate curriculum?

• How should K-12 teachers integrate? and
• What disciplines are most effectively integrated in the curriculum?
Although teachers have many other questions when designing innovative

curriculum, these are central to the rationale of interdisciplinary learning
(Fogarty, 1991). Understanding the concept of interdisciplinary learning
is a first step for teachers when planning curriculum using this approach.
Interdisciplinary curriculum includes foundational models based upon
themes, problems, projects, questions, or inquiry that are student initiated.
Throughout an interdisciplinary approach, students make connections between
the content knowledge, skills and practices in multiple disciplines with life
experiences and use these links to gain a deeper understanding of study topics,
which may lead to unique solutions of real-world problems (Drake, 1998).
Most importantly, students make meaning or understand what is learned in
order to transfer knowledge through application in new situations, settings
or contexts (Gardner, 1999).
The ability to transfer our knowledge and skill effectively involves the capacity
to take what we know and use it creatively, flexibly, fluently, in different
settings of problems, on our own. Transferability is not mere plugging in of
previously learned knowledge and skill. Understanding is “going beyond
the information given.” We can create new knowledge and arrive at further
understandings if we have learned with understanding some key ideas and
strategies. (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005, p. 40)
Active engagement in meaningful lessons that include multiple forms of

knowledge representation allows students to connect learning in exciting and
4
innovative ways. These concepts lie at the heart of interdisciplinary teaching

and learning (Jacobs, 1989).
Issues, Controversies, and Problems
There are many teacher concerns about designing and implementing new
curriculum including: time and effort, disciplinary integrity, lack of content
knowledge, teacher isolation, and high stakes testing environment. In the
United States, teachers are often given a ready-made or designed curriculum
and must utilize the lessons in their classrooms without a rationale beyond the
fact that the designed curriculum is required by the state or school district.
Therefore, teachers who are required to use a designed curriculum become
consumers rather than creators of curriculum. If teachers are not allowed
to be active participants in selecting and creating curriculum, often the
teaching and learning occurring in the classroom becomes stagnant. They
may feel forced to teach specific lessons on selected topics using required
strategies. Shifting towards a teacher designed curriculum that is tailor
made for a specific group of learners allows teachers to become creators of
curriculum (Ravitch, 1985). According to Daniel Pink (2009) people who
are “creators…reap society’s richest rewards and share its greatest joys” (p.
1). Why not allow teachers to benefit from becoming creators? Switching
the responsibility of curriculum design to teachers creates a paradigm shift
in schools by focusing on best practices. Collaborative groups of teachers
may form learning communities that guide pedagogy while supporting all
students. School reform that engages all stakeholders can be empowering for
teachers and students alike. Also, collaboration in curriculum planning may
alleviate other teacher concerns such as, lack of disciplinary knowledge and
teacher isolation. Together teachers can design curriculum that connects their
collective strengths in a variety of disciplines (Jacobs, 1989).
Knowledge Fragmentation
School reform efforts often call for an end to the fragmentation of knowledge
such as, compartmentalization, wherein content areas (i.e., Mathematics,
Language Arts, Science, Social Studies, and the Arts) are taught discretely
during different times of the school day and removed from interdisciplinary
learning (Krug & Cohen-Evron, 2000). Students participating in a discrete
subject type of educational schedule are often taught using a skill and drill
5
pedagogy, where correct answers are repeated without real world applications.
By hindering a student’s naturally inquiring mind throughout the elementary
grades in order for basics skills to be taught, the students are unprepared for
self-directed learning often required in advanced high school courses. When
facts and skills are taught isolated from application and innovation, students
often lose interest in learning and repress the valuable instinct of imagining,
questioning, creating, and reflecting (Drake & Burns, 2004).
Teacher Isolation
A characteristic or result of compartmentalization involves teacher isolation.

Most teachers in the United States spend the day with students in a closed
environment, the classroom, with brief daily professional contact. Thus, the
teacher is required to learn on his or her own, usually through trial and error
as well as self-reflection. A possible problem with relying on self-reflection
as an isolated form of evaluation is that often teachers may not be aware
of their inadequacies or understand how to solve the teaching and learning
issues (Eisner, 1992). Another aspect of teacher isolation includes the
misconception that seeking advice from colleagues would imply an admission
of incompetence. The fear of incompetence is related to teacher attitudes that
integration is not possible because of lack of experience or training in the
content areas that are to be connected. Teachers may mistakenly perceive
that if they are missing content knowledge and pedagogical experience, then
they are not able to design or implement an interdisciplinary curriculum
(Jacobs, 1989).
Marginalization and Devaluing of Disciplines
Aspects that may impede curriculum planning include the marginalization and
devaluing of specific content disciplines. Marginalization negates the concept
that each discipline has a valuable body of knowledge for study and practice and
can prevent interdisciplinary collaborations. Attitudes and dispositions against
interdisciplinary curriculum and collaboration weaken the school culture and
community (Drake & Burns, 2004). Teachers of marginalized disciplines
such as, visual art and social studies, often feel devalued in a school culture
that focuses on what is known as the core curriculum (English, Mathematics,
and Science). For example, many school cultures expect the social studies
teacher to be an athletic coach after school and a coaching position provides
6
the real value for the teaching position. Many visual art teachers travel from
room to room throughout a school (art on the cart) rather than be assigned a
permanent classroom. Some school cultures relegate teachers whose classes
are electives within the curriculum to the outskirts of the school community.
Devaluing specific content areas is a serious concern in today’s high stakes
testing environment. Often curriculum that supports what is evaluated on a
standardized test required at the local, state and national level is deemed to
be a more important part of the school day. Teaching to the test has become a
reality for many schools as teacher evaluations and school ratings of success
are more closely tied to the results of high stakes testing. A focus on testing
has led to a general feeling for teachers and students of being not in control
of learning across schools (Ravitch, 1985).
High Stakes Testing
Proponents of high stakes standardized testing advocate raising standards

because this process will dramatize weaknesses in schools and motivate
improvement, or suffer the consequences, such as failing students denied
promotion and graduation, and a threatened state takeover of the school,
which in turn makes the case for vouchers and privatization of education
through charter schools. On the other hand, critics of high stakes standardized
testing claim that the standards and tests that supposedly measure student
achievement are unfair, biased, and misleading. Critics argue that standardized
tests measure the regurgitation of facts rather than the application of knowledge
to real world applications (Goldberg, 2004). Another part of the argument
claims that raising standards and testing measures punishes select minority
groups, socio-economic groups, and non-English speaking or limited English
speaking students (English Language Learners, ELLs; Horn, 2010).
Learning Not Related to Students’ Lives
Although critics and proponents of school reform accountability differ on

many points, both groups concentrate on changes in schooling as critical
when improving student achievement. By focusing on changing schools and
instruction, often the relationship between students’ lives and their success in
schools is overlooked. Attending school is one part of the students’ emotional,
social and cultural world that is shaped by engaging in the complexities of
community, family and self-identity. Rather than closing schools’ gates to the
7
respective community, schools need to embrace communities by involving

all willing members in the students’ lives to address learning achievement.
Working together not only builds personal relationships, but also identifies
problems and provide solutions from multiple perspectives, values all voices
involved, and evaluates important goals and demands that reflect a school’s
and community’s visions (Jacobs, 1989).
The Challenge of Time
Another issue that impedes interdisciplinary curriculum is time. Teachers

explain that there is not enough time in the school day to include all subjects
and therefore must select specific content areas and topics that are covered
each day. Usually this explanation of limited time stems from implementing
a required curriculum associated with required assessments and regulated
expectations of student achievement (Fogarty, 1991). In Robert Sabol’s (2010)
study of the impact on No Child Left Behind legislation on art education,
he found that 36% of participants decreased art instruction because of the
demands in teaching language arts and mathematics. The decrease in K-12
instruction of marginalized subjects such as, the arts and social studies results
from the increasing demands of high stakes testing and a focus on reading,
writing and mathematics achievement gains.
The restriction of time may also generate from the threat of the unknown
or perceived risk of a loss to discipline-specific understanding. Sometimes a
sense of loss of power or control creates a defensive attitude towards any new
curriculum design including an interdisciplinary curriculum. Teachers may
find the easier and perceived safer path to be keeping status quo and teaching
the way he or she has been teaching for many years. Moving beyond what is
comfortable and learning new pedagogy involves some risks through a trial
and error process. Students who are accustomed to a lecture and notetaking
format or a passive reception of knowledge with minimal application may at
first be unmotivated to participate in the active engagement required of an
interdisciplinary curriculum. Once the value of interdisciplinary learning is
understood, a paradigm shift occurs in the classroom for teachers and students
(Fogarty, 1991). According to Carol Dweck (2006), having a growth mindset
benefits both teachers and students. Changing pedagogy is hard work and
takes time and effort on the part of the teacher and student. “Great teachers
believe in the growth of the intellect and talent, and they are fascinated with
the process of learning” (Dweck, 2006, p. 194). During the learning process
8
failure may occur, especially when trying new approaches. A growth mindset
allows a person to pick up and try again, providing a commitment to success.
The challenge of time affects the school schedule and daily life, but should not
be used as an excuse to dismiss effective teaching and meaningful learning
(Drake & Burns, 2004). The focus on compartmentalization and fragmenting
of the school day into discrete disciplines to be taught at specific scheduled
times also promotes the sense that there is not enough time. The commitment
of time is always a concern when designing and implementing curriculum,
but the results of student learning should outweigh the initial investment of
time (Drake, 1998).
The issues and concerns surrounding interdisciplinary curriculum are
varied depending upon teacher attitudes, abilities, training, and willingness
to be a part of designing process. These concerns are reflected in the school
community and administrative support or lack thereof for an interdisciplinary
approach to curriculum design. Shifting the concern to student achievement,
standardized testing and assessment come into play as a concern that
interdisciplinary planning and implementation may stray away from required
outcomes. Also, a fear of the unknown or doubt of being qualified to teach in
different disciplines may stem from a perceived loss of power. There are many
challenges to designing and implementing an interdisciplinary curriculum,
but solutions require teachers to cultivate change and be willing to creatively
meet all student needs (Drake & Burns, 2004).
SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The need for school reform is constant. The ever-changing conditions in our
global society often require citizens to be creative and critical problem solvers
that make well-reasoned decisions that can be effectively communicated
through a variety of media. As a result of these needs, student achievement
in all disciplines should be improved. Often standards within each discipline
are designed to improve teaching and learning based upon research of
student achievement. Therefore, standards are used as guides in curriculum
development. As standards are continually updated, school districts may also
develop curriculum guides describing possible teaching methods, materials,
and other resources. Specific lessons plans are usually written by the teacher,
but can be a part of the district curriculum guide, which may relate classroom
learning to state and national standards (Drake & Burns, 2004). The benefits
of an interdisciplinary curriculum are described in this section and include:
9
teacher professional development and collaboration, connected knowledge with

real world applications, engaged student learning and motivation, knowledge
transfer between disciplines, and discipline integrity. An interdisciplinary
model is discussed to further connect theory and practice and assist teachers
when designing integrated curriculum. In order for effective change to occur
in schools, teachers must be actively involved in all aspects of the process
(Jacobs, 1989).
Professional Development to Increase

Student Achievement
As school reform initiatives continue, student achievement is expected to

improve a curriculum and teaching changes to better meet student needs.
Part of school reform involves teachers learning how to meet student needs,
which can be accomplished through professional development. Curriculum
and professional development are part of school reform, and further, an
interdisciplinary approach can be at the center of school reform, focusing on
improving the quality of teaching and increasing student achievement (Fogarty,
1991). It is the authors’ belief that school reform should also concentrate
on activating and inspiring students to discover the joys of learning, using
interdisciplinary curriculum as a means to achieve this goal while emphasizing
the uniqueness of each student, the wonders of life, and the satisfaction of
accomplishment. Students connect learning in various disciplines, which
provides a more cohesive curriculum that values multiple dimensions of
expression, meaning and knowing. By connecting all forms of knowing, an
interdisciplinary curriculum is more comprehensive, cohesive, engaging,
humanistic, and linked to culture (Drake, 1998).
As mentioned previously, professional development for teachers impacts
classroom instruction and student learning. Restructuring through school
reform depends upon changes in teaching practice. Specifically, teachers,
one by one through a process of adaptation, must make changes in what
and how they teach. The task of school reform initiated change involves
motivation, readiness, trust, and commitment from those who will implement
the change. Also, teachers are more likely to implement reform initiative if
the goals are valuable and feasible (Drake & Burns, 2004). Change is fostered
by a positive school climate with leadership that has a strong investment in
reform and is supportive of teachers, along with meaningful professional
development programs. Since school reform ultimately deals with people, the
10
emotional side of change should not be ignored. Norms, values and beliefs
all come into play through a process that changes the way teacher think and
act. Supporting effective teaching is an important part of the commitment
which fosters sustained change (Ravitch, 1985). Interdisciplinary curriculum
as part of school reform should address these concerns for change through
professional development programs focusing on teaching and learning needs
of all involved in the process.
Connecting Knowledge and Valuing All Disciplines
School reform efforts often include an end to fragmentation of knowledge or

compartmentalization of disciplines. This separation of disciplinary learning,
wherein content areas are taught discretely during different times of the school
day, disrupts the learning continuum for most students. An interdisciplinary
approach can help students and teachers reconnect learning across all content
areas and further deepening understanding and expression of knowledge.
Through collaborative planning and implementation of an interdisciplinary
curriculum, teachers can avoid isolation and instead embrace communication
and cooperation. Planning can be multidirectional and dynamic between
teachers of a variety of disciplines thus dispelling the hierarchical view that
values only contents areas related to the core curriculum. When teachers learn
from each other, they quickly realize the value and depth of knowledge each
has to contribute to an interdisciplinary approach (Fogarty, 1991). Politics and
worthiness can fall away removing devaluing attitudes based upon a categorical
system. Educators need to continually examine and re-evaluate the impact
of social systems such as, multi-culturalism, gender, age, ability, and social
status on teaching and learning (Ravitch, 1985). Interdisciplinary approaches
can break these barriers for teachers once recognized thus addressing the
aspect of knowledge fragmentation. An interdisciplinary approach relates
subject areas to meaningful learning. Students become active participants in
learning and are encouraged to find their own questions and answers through
an inquiry based curriculum that connects multiple disciplines. Greater student
comprehension is gained through an interdisciplinary approach to teaching
and learning (Drake, 1998).
According to Elliot Eisner (1994) there are three curricula that schools
teach. The explicit, implicit, and null curricula are responsible for forming the
basis of education at all schools. The explicit curriculum, meta-curriculum
is the public official curriculum that is expected from schools. Certain
11
educational goals are usually present such as, the ability to read, write and
compute. Each discipline also has specific learning goals, some of which
may be discrete but many may be interconnected. The implicit curriculum or
hidden curriculum relates to the social structure in the school through which
the students learn. Social skills and taught through the functioning process
of schooling. Behaviors such as, self-discipline, motivation, self-esteem,
and polite interaction are all addressed in the day to day activities of the
classroom. School is a cultural system which teaches the important lessons
through classroom/school rules and expectations. Public schools are viewed
in the United States as the central agency for social change and promoting
democratic equity. The null curriculum or what is not taught, also affects
student learning (Eisner, 1994). “The absence of a set of considerations or
perspectives or the inability to use certain processes for appraising a context
biases the evidence one is able to take into account” (Eisner, 1994, p. 97).
What is and is not chosen to be taught reflects the quality of life a student
may lead. Teachers should be aware of all three types of curricula taught in
their schools and utilize information to expand the explicit curriculum and
connect to the implicit curriculum (Eisner, 1994). By teaching all subjects
through an interdisciplinary approach, students can gain and use higher
order thinking skills that will promote creative cognitive growth and social
development (Drake, 1998).
Knowledge Transfer
Another aspect of interdisciplinary curriculum is knowledge transfer. By

applying new information and skills immediately after learning, the student
better comprehends and the new concept become a part of the learner’s
experiences. The transfer of knowledge from one context to another in included
in comprehension. The student must have the ability to relate or transfer
knowledge from one experience to another, adapting and applying the learning
skills to solve new problems. Through an interdisciplinary curriculum, students
relate and apply new concepts to other areas of study which increases interest,
motivation to learn and promotes deeper understanding. Multiple modes
of learning and expression such as, visual, kinesthetic, musical, and verbal
increase comprehension and may lead to a greater incidence of knowledge
transfer (Gardner, 1999). Knowledge transfer is embedded in the inquiry
process. The inquiry process basically involves a question about a subject,
research on how to answer the question, reflection upon what was learned,
12
and based upon the answer that was or was not found, the raising of more
questions. The cyclical process of inquiry goes beyond finding answers and
into defining an independent thinker who recognizes the rationale and future
implications of a study (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005).
For the purposes of this text, the authors propose a multi-dimensional
model of knowledge transfer in which learning in all disciplines are interrelated
through various cognitive capacities (Burton, Horowitz, & Abeles, 2000).
In support of the multi-dimensional model of knowledge transfer, cognitive
qualities such as:
Elaborative and creative thinking, fluency, originality, focused perception, and

imagination, group together to form constellations in pedagogical contexts
which demand the ability to take multiple perspectives, layer relationships, and
construct and express meaning. (Burton, Horowitz, & Abeles, 2000, p. 252)
These characteristics are considered higher order competencies and usually

combined with attitudinal characteristics such as motivation, perseverance,
risk taking, and responsibility. All of these characteristics are reflected in
twenty-first century learning. Enhancing communication, comprehension in
all disciplines and critical thinking are connected through an interdisciplinary
curriculum.
In further support of a multi-dimensional model of knowledge transfer,
research by Howard Gardner (1999) creates a more inclusive picture of how
the human mind makes connections and associations, knowledge transfer,
through the multiple intelligences theory. In Gardner’s theory learning in one
discipline can travel back and forth between other disciplines as evident by a
range of intelligences that are activated to represent knowledge. For example,
when writing a poet uses linguistic intelligence and spatial intelligence if the
poem uses imagery as inspiration. Often poet also incorporate interpersonal
intelligence in order to analyze emotions. More than one intelligence is
operating during the writing process and these intelligences connect or relate
information in order to create a more meaningful poem. Thus, the multiple
intelligences model of knowledge transfer is also multi-dimensional and
multidirectional (Gardner, 1999).
STEM to STEAM
Beginning with the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and

Mathematics) initiative, educators quickly transformed classrooms to include
13
arts education, which added the A in STEM to become STEAM. The body of
research pertaining to curriculum integration is growing as teachers become
interested in active engagement of children through initiatives such as, STEAM
(Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Math; Rhode Island School
of Design, 2015). Policymakers took notice of the educational initiative and
developed the Congressional STEAM Caucus in 2013 which demonstrates
the importance of integrating the arts into the curriculum.
A bipartisan team of members of Congress launched the Congressional STEAM

Caucus. The STEAM Caucus ‘aims to change the vocabulary of education to
recognize the benefits of both the arts and science and how these intersections
will benefit our country’s future generations.’ Caucus members will work
to increase awareness of the importance of STEAM education and explore
new strategies to advocate for STEAM programs. STEAM is an acronym for
Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts and Math. (Congressional STEAM
Caucus, 2013)
The Congressional STEAM Caucus (2013) initiative revealed that a focus

on STEM alone does not meet all students’ needs. The arts can become the
center of learning and the diversity of knowledge expression to promote
higher order creative thinking. A collaborative curriculum design allows for
flexibility in planning and implementation of concepts within all disciplines.
STEAM transforms what and how content is taught by adding aesthetic
values, creative expression, symbolic language, cultural connections, and
critical analysis.
In further support of curriculum integration focusing on the arts within the
school curriculum, the President’s Committee on the Arts and Humanities
(2011) published a report, Reinvesting in Arts Education: Winning America’s
Future through Creative Schools. In this report, the committee describes
how arts integration supports student learning, self-expression, and active
engagement across the curriculum. The following recommendations are
from the President’s Committee on the Arts and Humanities (2011) report:
1. Build collaboration between different approaches;

2. Develop the field of arts integration;
3. Expand in-school opportunities for teaching artists;
4. Utilize federal and state policies to reinforce the place of arts in K-12
education;
14
5. Widen the focus of evidence gathering about arts education (President’s

Committee on the Arts and Humanities, 2011).
According to Julia Marshall (2005) in support of interdisciplinary

curriculum, the arts connect:
Other areas of inquiry in a substantive, integrative way not only reveals the
foundations of each discipline, but also makes for sound pedagogy because
it: (a) is congruent with the way the mind works-how we think and learn; (b)
highlights and promotes learning, especially learning for understanding and
transfer; and (c) catalyzes creativity. We find a strong theoretical rationale
for these claims in constructivist theories of learning and some of the new
thinking in cognitive science that addresses learning and creativity. (p. 229)
Marshall (2005) challenged educators to more fully integrate the arts in

the whole curriculum and STEAM was designed in answer to the call for
interdisciplinary curriculum. Educators began to collaborate and design
curriculum that not only included artistic concepts and expression, but
connected artistic practices with similar practices in other disciplines.
Collaborative STEAM teams were formed in schools and the once distinct
boundaries between disciplines became permeable membranes that shared
concepts, processes, and outcomes. Shifting creative paradigms of thinking
STEAM educators included creative production, imaginative design, sign/
symbol creation and interpretation, critical reflection, and cultural analysis.
As STEAM educators learned the benefits of collaboration the acceptance
of an interdisciplinary curriculum expanded and forming a basis for research
and practice.
Jonathan Kozol (2005) explains, “Numbers do not tell us all we need to
know about our children” (p. 130). Kozol (2005) explains that:
Dramatic gains in elementary schools where principals have readjusted

their entire schooldays and school calendars, forfeiting recess, canceling or
cutting back on all the so-called frills (art, music, even social sciences, as
we have seen) in order to comply with state demands- those students, now
in secondary school, are sitting in subject-matter classes where they cannot
comprehend the texts and cannot set down their ideas in sentences expected
of most fourth and fifth grade students in the suburbs. (p. 281)
15
It is true that many elementary schools around the nation have cut the arts
and social studies out of the curriculum. According to Kozol (2005) there is
no advantage to removing the arts and social studies from schools as these
content areas are important to the whole curriculum. Kozol’s (2005) reminder
of the crucial role the arts and social studies play in education supports
the rationale of interdisciplinary learning. While the achievement gap is
widening, the common answer is cut the frills and emphasize more reading
and mathematics. Researchers (Kozol, 2005; Sabol, 2010) find that by cutting
the arts and humanities from the curriculum, students are at a disadvantage,
which intensifies achievement gaps in secondary schools.
STEAM to STREAM
Educators responded to the STEAM initiative by acknowledging that reading

skills are an important part of an integrated approach and the STEAM initiative
became STREAM (R=Reading; Root-Bernstein & Root-Bernstein, 2011).
Reading across the curriculum is crucial to students’ academic success.
Understanding the content in each discipline often begins with vocabulary
development which leads to reading comprehension. Being literate in our
society involves the interpretation of many forms of communication. The four
language arts (reading, writing, speaking, and listening) have been expanded
to include the concepts of viewing and visually representing due to the many
forms of communication in the twenty-first century (Kasten, Kristo, &
McClure, 2005). People still view regular printed materials such as, books,
newspapers, and magazines, but increasingly more viewing involves many
forms of media or new literacies such as, film, internet websites, and blogs
while using a variety of electronic devices. Visually representing involves
producing something other than typical written or spoken language, usually
through the visual arts, drama, dance, music, or electronic media (Gentry,
2010).
The passion that forms the STEAM initiative includes the arts. In
the STEAM approach, creativity drives learning and can be linked to
comprehension and motivation to read, write and perform, which becomes the
STREAM approach. Adding reading (R) to the interdisciplinary curriculum
approach adds depth to the curriculum as reading is an essential part of all
disciplines. Students who are engaged learn and remember more. Applying
literacy strategies with non-text examples first, allows students to use
multiple modalities when creatively expressing their understandings. Reading
16
comprehension may be difficult for some students. Teaching first through

the arts allows for practice and application of comprehension skills that can
be used when reading text. Often students are interested in the images before
reading the text and begin to make predictions based upon illustrations.
Students can apply their comprehension skills of visual images during the
process of describing and discussing text (fiction and non-fiction). Many
struggling students need help to scaffold their experiences with images to
the text environment which increases comprehension (Klein & Stuart, 2013;
Keene & Zimmerman, 2007). Stegman (2014) states that “If students are
to be successful in a global community, teachers must integrate and teach
new literacies” (p. 32). By aligning the Common Core State Standards for
reading, writing, speaking, and listening with active engagement activities,
teachers will increase inquiry based learning and use of new literacies. For
example, reading standards can be linked to internet workshops, scavenger
hunts, and online reciprocal teaching. Writing standards can be connected
to spoof websites, fake and real news reports, blogging, and using the
SEARCH technique. The SEARCH technique involves: S=set a purpose for
searching; E= Employ effective search strategies; A=analyze search-engine
results; R=read critically and synthesize information; C=cite resources; and
H=evaluate how successful their search was (Henry, 2006). Speaking and
listening standards can be linked to Power Point, Prezi, iMovie, YouTube,
PicCollage, Voice Thread, and other computer programs/software that are
available for use during presentations (Stegman, 2014).
One example of the close connection between reading and the arts includes
The DaVinci Club, an after-school program in a Title 1 culturally diverse
Florida elementary school in which 22 students explored literature and the
arts. In this program fourth and fifth grade students volunteered to join the
club. Students read a variety of books and spend time talking about what
they read. Students met for 90 minutes twice a week and spent the first 20
minutes reading independently. After reading, the students spent 20 minutes
in group discussion of what was read and 50 minutes on creative projects.
The books are self-selected by the children, but throughout the program the
teachers encourage higher levels of text difficulty and reading non-fiction
and fiction books. Art projects range from creating a Wordle (image designed
using text) to designing a science experiment. Students write a plan for their
creative projects first before approval by the teachers. Many of the students
select to create artworks which were displayed in community exhibitions.
Also, Reader’s Theater is a popular choice for creative expression. The
students write scripts and create puppets for the performance. Some students
17
are cast as characters and the play is performed for the rest of the student
group (Dietrichs, Tihenor, Heins, & Piechura, 2015).
Evidence is provided that supports integrating theatrical projects in the
curriculum. One fourth grade student performing in the bottom 30% in reading
according to state standardized testing wrote:
I will come back…because when school started I hated reading, but when
DaVinci Club started my teacher Mrs. Dietrichs kept pushing me to read
because reading is very important in life. So every day at DaVinci Club I read
calm [sic] because I just to [sic] always read mad because I thought reading
was boring. But now it shows me a picture in my head that is real when I
read exciting books. (Dietrichs, Tihenor, Heins, & Piechura, 2015, p. 41)
Clearly for these educators the STREAM approach to curriculum was

rewarding and beneficial for their students.
Many educators may ask why integrate literacy or reading into the already
full STEAM curriculum. Elliott Eisner (1991) and his concept of multiple
literacies and their value in expressing comprehension provide answers. Also,
Paul Duncum’s (2002, 2009) research concerning multimodal literacy and
visual literacy through visual culture is a part of the rationale in support of
integrating literacy. It is important to be textually literate and visually literate
in today’s world as reading in the content area is stressed in schools across
all curriculum subjects. Sometimes students are resistant to reading in other
classes (beyond English class). The solution to the challenge of reading across
the curriculum involves functional literacy. Functional Literacy is defined as
“using printed and written information to function in society, to achieve one’s
goals, and to develop one’s potential” (Ntiri, 2009, p. 97). For example, textual
literacy through a functional lens can be addressed in a ceramic art class using
different environmental print such as, label reading (art supplies) and online
research of artists’ and museum websites. When integrating reading across
the curriculum, it is recommended that students use a print rich environment
to explore reading in the content areas (Andrelchik, 2015). Andrelchik (2015)
suggests using functional literacy in the interdisciplinary classroom. Functional
literacy is defined as “using printed and written information to function in
society, to achieve one’s goals, and to develop one’s potential” (Ntiri, 2009,
p. 97). In one study, Andrelchik (2015) addressed textual literacy through a
functional lens in a ceramic art class using different environmental print such
as, label reading (art supplies) and online research of artists’ and museum
18
websites. It is recommended that students use the print rich environment to

explore reading in the content area (including the arts).
Storytelling is another effective strategy for integrating the arts and literacy.
Martinez and Nolte-Yupari (2015) designed and implemented an art summer
camp for children aged 8-10 that included puppetry and comic books. Using
puppets, the children created their own stories, which were performed and
recorded into mini movies. They wrote scripts, created backgrounds/stages/
props, and created story boards to sequence the puppet performance. Next,
students created comic books about a character they developed. They created
a one page comic completed with illustrations and text. The students utilized
multimodal literacy to help them transfer their written stories into the visual
format. Multimodal literacy is defined as “the practice of moving from one
sign system to another (e.g., transmediation from verbal-visual, visual-verbal,
visual-spatial)” (Martinez & Nolte-Yupari, 2015, p. 12). Integrating visual
art with language arts is one example of multimodal literacy. Expressing
knowledge and understanding through different media supports children’s
literacy development and can be implemented through an interdisciplinary
curriculum.
STREAM to STREAMSS
The interdisciplinary concept of STREAM has been further developed by

the authors to include social studies education evolving into the acronym of
STREAMSS.
Figure 1. STREAMSS integration teaching model
19
Integrating two traditionally marginalized content areas, the arts and social
studies provides a comprehensive curriculum model for teachers to utilize
in K-12 classrooms.
A new approach to integrating social studies is necessary in order to change
students’ attitudes towards the discipline. Researchers (Misco & Patterson,
2009) have attributed a growing student distaste for the subject to the way
some textbooks tend to cover social studies topics in a broad manner with
little depth, present content in a mind-numbing, memorization emphasized
approach, and offer a one-sided perspective of the world (Misco & Patterson,
2009). It can be argued, therefore, that social studies has become, plainly
put, a boring subject for students. Regardless of diverse backgrounds, as
well as socio-economic status and academic levels, students generally want
to learn about other people: what have others experienced? How did they
change the world? Although students have a common desire to ask questions,
they primarily want to know how learning is related to their own lives. As
with any subject, one must teach key concepts; however, to find value and
meaning in social studies, students should be taught using an interdisciplinary
curriculum. Through an interdisciplinary approach, students find excitement
in social studies disciplines, commonly thought of as dull subjects, such as
history, government, geography, and economics, and discover new meanings
in the concepts taught. Numerous multidisciplinary social studies learning
opportunities include highlighting historical figures while reading various
forms of literature, conducting scientific inquiry while discussing notable
inventors, and incorporating math when covering economic theories.
As high-stakes testing and government policies have caused social studies
to become an “18 minute a day” subject with only 23% of educators teaching
it daily (Levstik & Tyson, 2010, p. 53), the National Council for the Social
Studies (NCSS, 2017) has diligently worked to alter the perception of social
studies as a problem for elementary teachers. In their assertion that social
studies should be integrated across the curriculum, the NCSS (2017) has
created a list of 10 social studies multi-disciplinary themed standards to assist
teachers in establishing an integrated curriculum. Since the goal of social
studies is for students to acquire the knowledge, skills, and values that will
enable them to become effective citizens, it is critical that students be offered
the opportunity to go beyond the boundaries of other subjects and recognize
how people, history, and culture have played a role in the formation of all
other fields of study. The social studies issues form part of the foundation of
the STREAMSS approach to interdisciplinary teaching and learning.
20
In the STREAMSS curriculum, all disciplines are co-equal with distinct

and connected forms of knowledge and practices. Thus, a Venn diagram more
appropriately represents the STREAMSS model by allowing each discipline
to be unique yet connected and providing an infinite number of entry points
for curriculum integration. Not all disciplines are expected to be integrated
in all lessons. Depending upon the concept and practice being taught, the
appropriate disciplines are involved in that particular lesson. For example, a
lesson that includes historical analysis of Aztec culture and their art forms
used in daily life would naturally gravitate towards an integration of social
studies, art and reading. This lesson will most likely use technology to view
and analyze specific artifacts and geographical locations. The outcome
may include artwork and writing that uses traditional media or technology
depending upon students’ interests. Another lesson may focus on Aztec
architecture and include engineering and mathematics concepts. Environmental
concepts pertaining to the geographic region and time period can be integrated
into either lesson and connect science concepts. Over several lessons, the
students engage in a variety of disciplines through an overarching topic of
study. Thus, the STREAMSS model approaches curriculum design and
implementation from different angles to most appropriately assist students
in gaining understanding and applying new information into multiple forms
of knowledge representation.
CONCLUSION
There are many benefits for students and teachers provided in an

interdisciplinary curriculum. Supporting twenty-first century competencies
and skills is an important aspect of interdisciplinary instruction. Collaboration,
communication, creativity, critical thinking and problem solving all play a
part in an interdisciplinary teaching and learning approach (Drake & Burns,
2004). Selected rationales and possible learning outcomes are listed in Table
1 in order to summarize support for an interdisciplinary curriculum.
These significant rationales lay the foundation for a paradigm shift in
teacher perspectives and may guide school reform efforts. Although the list
of support is not organized by priority, it is important to note that promoting
the joy of learning is a primary goal of education in general. Teachers assume
that students will become life-long learners, but without scaffolding with real
world experiences and modeling, this goal may be pushed aside by students
once they complete a course/grade level or when they graduate from high
21
Table 1. Why interdisciplinary learning? Significant rationales and learning outcomes
STREAMSS Rationales Student Learning Outcomes

Aesthetics and Joy of Life-Long • Emotional Connections
Learning • Appreciation of Beauty and Uniqueness
• Discovery of Joy in Life
• Motivation to Learn
Cognitive Connections • Meaningful Learning
• Deeper Comprehension
• Expansion of Disciplines
• Metacognitive Awareness
• Research Initiative
Creative Development • Imagination
• Innovation
• Flexibility
• Inventiveness
• Unique Problem Solving
Ethics and Self-Development • Empathy
• Compassion and Concern
• Issue-oriented
• Social Justice in Action
• Building a Holistic Sense of Self
• Self-Confidence and Sense of Success
Language Development and Skills • Interconnected Vocabulary
• Advanced Disciplinary Terms
• Effective Communication
• Multiple Forms of Knowledge Expression
Real World Connections • Global Perspective
• Multicultural Perspective
• Deeper Understanding of Culture
• Cultural and Contextual Experiences
• Skills Application in a Variety of Situations
Twenty-First Century Competencies • Career Skills Across Disciplines
and Skills • Communication
• Critical Thinking
• Collaboration
• Content Knowledge Connections
Social Emotional Interaction • Positive Attitude for Learning
• Common Goals for a Better Future
• Values and Ideals
school. Purposefully teaching students to seek joy in discovery and find beauty
in the world sets the stage for the development of life-learners. Cognitive
connections is an important support for interdisciplinary learning and forms
the foundation of the interdisciplinary approach (Jacobs, 1989). Due to the
integration of the arts in the STREAMSS model, creative processes inspire
students to become engaged in learning and further develop twenty-first
century skills. Developing a strong sense of self, which includes ethics, values,
and morals, is an essential part of education and provides a basis for learning
22
motivation. Without the ability to effectively communicate not only through

language but through other forms of communication (e.g., visual, musical,
and kinesthetic), students are unable to express their comprehension and
share ideas collaboratively (Congressional STEAM Caucus, 2013). Language
development is key to academic success of all students. Making real world
connections to classroom learning creates meaningful links to students’ daily
lives and demonstrates the value of what is learned. Social and emotional
interactions support collaboration and create effective learning communities
(Stegman, 2014). All of the rationales discussed relate to the development
of twenty-first century competencies and skills.
The authors’ proposal of a STREAMSS model for interdisciplinary
curriculum outlines the approach that is utilized throughout this text. The
STREAMSS unique interdisciplinary model contributes to the field of
education by providing an innovative framework for curriculum designers.
As research continues, information gathered from various interdisciplinary
K-12 programs can be compared and analyzed for best practices. The changes
in pedagogy are guided by educational theory, which is the focus for the next
chapter.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Arts Integration: Usually refers to a unit of study that focuses on the arts,
specifically dance, drama, music, and visual arts, as a way of learning in other
disciplines (i.e., mathematics, language arts, science, and social studies).
Curriculum: Generally understood as what schools teach, it is specifically
the educational activities planned for students during a set time period.
Interdisciplinary Curriculum: An approach referring to the interrelating
of different content areas in curriculum in order to promote comprehension.
The integrity of each discipline is emphasized by including authentic goals,
objectives, meaningful learning experiences, and embedded, appropriate
assessments.
26
Learning: A process in which a person gains insights or new perspectives

on a topic of study.
STREAMSS: An interdisciplinary curriculum that includes Science,
Technology, Reading, Arts, Mathematics, and Social Studies.
Teaching: The learner is prepared to make lifelong decisions in our
changing world through effective communication using a variety of media
in many different settings for various purposes. The teaching process creates
learners who can comprehend, describe, interpret, analyze, evaluate, and
apply information in a variety of disciplines. Teaching can also involve the
implementation and promotion of learner insights through inquiry.
27
28
Chapter 2
Teaching and Learning
Theories for an
Interdisciplinary Curriculum
ABSTRACT
Historical and contemporary theorists have consistently influenced the
philosophy of education. Theorists such as John Dewey, the forefather of
progressive education, Lev Vygotsky, the creator of the zone of proximal
development theory, Paulo Freire, the architect of a social justice-infused
curricula, Sonia Nieto, the trailblazer in the multicultural movement, Nel
Noddings, the groundbreaker of the care perspective, Emile Durkheim, the
originator of sociology, Adam Smith, the spearhead of the economic theory,
Howard Gardner, the mastermind of the multiple intelligence theory, and
Maxine Greene, the visionary behind the aesthetic experience, have reasoned
that a multidisciplinary approach to learning would allow students to recognize
their learning potentials, and most importantly, offer students the knowledge
and experience they need to connect to life itself.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Although there is no doubt that teaching and learning are necessary components
of life, notions of how, what, when, and why we teach have constantly changed
and evolved throughout educational history. From the time ancient theorists
such as Socrates, Aristotle, and Plato searched for truth and knowledge, the
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-4065-6.ch002
Teaching and Learning Theories for an Interdisciplinary Curriculum
term philosophy, or “love of wisdom” (Critchley, 2009, p. xxii), emerged as

a basis for teaching, learning, and understanding. Similar to inquiring about
the philosophy of life, the unspoken question in education has often been
“What is [the] . . . philosophy of education?”; however, as Peters (2015)
suggests, “to ask such [a] question. . . is one thing . . . but to answer . . . is
quite another” (p. 15).
Objectives
• Identify the philosophy of education

• Recognize the perspectives of past and present educational theorists
• Examine educational movements that initiated an integrated curriculum
• Distinguish the purpose of an integrated curriculum
CENTRAL THEORISTS FOR AN

INTEGRATED CURRICULUM
Although the educational theorists’ philosophies selected for this chapter

are distinct in nature, they all have a common goal in mind: to offer students
the skill and knowledge they need to make the world a better place. These
theorists have undertaken an effort to produce intelligent and caring citizens
who not only have the capacity to make intellectual and moral decisions for
themselves, but also for future generations. The theorists have reasoned that an
interdisciplinary curriculum offers students the knowledge and experience they
need to connect smaller concepts into major ideas, and, above all, link them
to life itself. With an emphasis on democratic, moral, and practical education,
most of the theorists base their educational philosophies on real-world and
hands-on learning in and out of the school setting. The philosophies in this
chapter provide tools to promote a more communicative, culturally responsive,
and democratic classroom which incorporates dialogue (to evoke social
action), social interaction (to build cultural relationships), and socialization
(to instill and reinforce positive characteristics). A focus on imagination
offers ways to think beyond the norm, generate new and creative ideas, and
interpret concepts subjectively rather than objectively. Amongst the various
philosophies featured, all theorists believe that a multidisciplinary approach to
29
learning would allow students to identify their place in the world, understand
themselves and others better, and recognize their learning potentials.
John Dewey: Forefather of Progressive Education
Historical and contemporary theorists have consistently influenced the

philosophy of education. Most notable is John Dewey (1903), the forefather
of Progressive Education, who promoted a movement that focused on moral
improvement, child-centric learning, and democratic education in school and in
“life beyond school doors” (p. 193). He laid the groundwork for a curriculum
that avoided single-subject teaching and learning, and instead, focused on
the integration of subjects, activity-based learning, problem solving, and
most importantly, a plan of study that required less memorization. In John
Dewey’s (1903) view, traditional methods in teaching were:
Nothing more or less than the deliberate restriction . . . [and] the imprisoning
of the spirit. It is no uncommon thing to find methods of teaching such subjects
as reading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic officially laid down; outline
topics in history and geography are provided ready-made for the teacher;
gems of literature are fitted to the successive ages of boys and girls . . . [as
well as] the domain of art, songs and methods of singing, subject-matter and
technique of drawing and painting. (p. 196)
With an underlying concern for what was to become of a child in the future,
Dewey (1934) believed that schools should play a role in a student’s social
development. Schools had the power to teach students how to get along with
others when situated in groups, and allow them to morally, developmentally,
and intellectually grow through the act of experiencing and communicating.
He considered children to be active beings and stressed the importance of
practice; learning came from practice and experience, and experience was
part of problem-solving. Particularly through the integration of social studies
throughout the curriculum, Dewey (1934) believed that teachers could instill
democratic values, encourage motivation, and offer students opportunities
to find solutions to real-world problems. During the early 1900s, classroom
spaces were often designed by teachers and students to role play situations that
occurred in the community and to provide practical experiences. A flexible,
choice-driven curriculum guided students to take the lead in their education,
thus bringing democracy into the classroom. Dewey’s (1934) inquiry-based
learning practices used during that time fit well with learners even today, since
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students should be able to find solutions to problems themselves, regardless

of developmental levels.
By encouraging and emphasizing creativity, resourceful thinking could
also help children gain insight, aesthetic awareness, originality, and a sense
of reality produced from within an experience. Dewey (1934) asserted that
discovery, or aesthetic response, fuels a student’s imagination and ignites
their desire to learn. Since students often react to aesthetic experiences, it
is during these moments that students have the ability to form new visions
and innovative solutions to problems or issues they encounter. As education
involves not only gaining knowledge, but also students’ concern for each other,
creativity can inspire student action and a desire to eliminate societal ills.
Perceiving democratic education as a lifelong learning process with lasting
effects, Dewey (1934) believed it was important that young children learn
the life skills necessary to create a sound future society, as well as learn how
to maintain, preserve, and pass this knowledge on to the next generation.
Lev Vygotsky: Social Interaction
Lev Vygotsky (1978), a Russian educationalist and psychologist who

pioneered the theory of promising intellect in youth, developed a philosophy
of education that was not only focused on intellectual development and the
influence of language in learning, but also on the way encouragement and
collaboration impacts student learning. Unlike other theorists who insist
that a child must be cognitively prepared and of the correct age, Vygotsky
(1978) argued that the ability to think and reason does not follow a set of
prescribed stages; instead, real learning derives from social interaction and
cultural experience. As the home, classroom, and community are the primary
settings where children socially engage, culturally adapt, and experience
everyday happenings, Vygotsky (1978) asserted that students could reach
advanced levels of thinking if well-guided, given effective instruction, and
offered encouragement to learn by knowledgeable and experienced individuals
(e.g., teachers and well-informed adults). With the underlying belief that
a child’s ability to learn should not be underestimated, Vygotsky (1978)
created a theory known as the “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD)
(p. 34), meaning that regardless of finding it difficult to understand certain
concepts, children have the proximity, or potential, to learn through cultural
and social experiences. The ZPD relates to a student’s developmental level
as indicated by assessment of independent work, and the student’s potential
31
Figure 1.
developmental level resulting from working with adult supervision or with

more capable peers.
As Vygotsky (1978) suggests, children learn within the framework of
social interaction; once they adapt to their social settings, children can become
almost self-governing. At this point, students learn to interact with others,
while still held accountable for their own learning. When children interact,
they not only pay attention to their own individuality, but also to the group of
which they are a part. Through social interaction, students learn to collaborate
with others, while simultaneously, individually mastering functions that can
be applied to other purposes and ultimately become habits.
Vygotsky (1978) also discussed how the social interaction between
mixed ability level groups can influence creativity. Since learning occurs
simultaneously when students are engaged in heterogeneous or collaborative
groups, students’ ZPD are constantly changing due to growth and development.
Not only can learning gains and creative thinking be encouraged through
group work, but also through scaffolding, the building upon knowledge and
ideas which can impact a student’s ZPD. What a student cannot accomplish
32
independently today, may be completed independently in the future after

collaborating with diverse groups or knowledgeable adults. Social interaction
is an important part of a student’s development since higher levels of
comprehension and creativity are reached through cooperative learning
experiences. It is within this type of learning environment that Vygotsky
(1978) contends developmental processes are internalized and become
part of the student’s independent abilities. Moreover, participation in the
collaborative learning community builds affective and cultural bonds and
instills feelings of safety and support. Students learn to care about each other
and value different perspectives while promoting a sense of commitment to
the group for a shared purpose.
Paulo Freire: Dialogue
Similarly to Vygotsky, Paulo Freire (1993) believed that higher levels of

learning could be acquired through social interaction. However, as the architect
of a social justice-infused curriculum, Freire (1993) made his mark by
insisting that students should be able to express themselves through dialogue,
a mode of communication that could evoke deeper contextual meaning and
understanding, and instill in students, democratic values such as rights and
liberties. Dialogue would be the tool that could offer students a voice, the
opportunity to ask questions, the chance to become socially involved, and the
motivation to alter society for the better. Out of concern for the oppressed,
or children who Freire (1993) viewed as having no voice, he held that for
the silent to intellectually grow, they must establish “consciousness” (p.
87), a deep awareness that creates an emotional connection with the content
being taught. By infusing democratic thought into all subjects and topics,
children would learn not to fear democracy and use the gift of freedom to
their advantage. As language is viewed as a form of protection, Freire (1993)
believed that no one should be silent; one should be able to express one’s
opinion and exchange ideas freely. He also proposed that since art inspires
creative expression and empowers the artist and viewer, art can serve as a
form of social activism.
To Freire (1993), the traditional model of instruction that he believed
consisted of rote memorization and stale concepts were the underpinnings
of a shallow curriculum. Comparing the field of education to the institution
of banking, he described teachers as individuals who regularly deposited
content into containers, or students’ minds, which offered students little
33
in return for what had been deposited. As Freire (1993) suggested, content
taught in this method does little more than breed ignorance, refute education,
and stifle creativity. He also noted, however, that teachers have the power
to change this style of teaching; they can engage students in dialogue by
prompting discussion and welcoming teachable moments. Teachers and
students’ roles can be somewhat reversed; teachers can become learners, and
learners can become teachers. Freire (1993) points out that while teachers
should learn from students, this does not mean teachers should dismiss their
role as educator or classroom manager; reversing teaching and learning roles
simply means teachers who initiate discussion and ask questions can open
the door for students’ responses and help educate other students, as well as
the teacher. Although disagreement may occur between students and teacher,
Freire (1993) suggests that learning may still occur during these discussions;
the difference in viewpoints could be an opportunity to listen to and evaluate
other classmates’ perspectives. Learning is a continuous process that depends
on not one individual, but rather an entire generation.
Sonia Nieto: Multiculturalism
Sonia Nieto’s (2015) philosophy of education also includes dialogue as a

tool for communication, but as a frontrunner in the multicultural movement,
she believes more specifically that dialogue allows students to share cultural
experiences. This type of teaching and learning exchange is referred to as
multiculturalism, an approach to teaching that offers students the opportunity
to openly discuss their differences while forming social ties. Although sharing
information about one’s self is a skill that many children may not know, may
shy away from, or may be embarrassed to engage in, Nieto (2015) insists that
by allowing students to work together in the classroom, children can learn
to express themselves more freely. Since culture is a social creation that
develops within and among groups, she believes culture could be the force that
brings people together. Learning about differences and appreciating diversity
can bridge the gap between disparity and equality, reduce stereotypes and
conflict between individuals and groups, and in due course, create a better
multicultural tomorrow.
With the present-day focus on a standards-based curriculum that tends
to overlook individual differences, Nieto (2015) advocates that cooperative
learning strategies – such as children working together face-to-face or
interacting during activities – can help create a culturally rich and engaging
34
classroom where children have the power to become equals. Students could
see their peers for who they are and learn to get along with each other better.
Nieto (2015), taking note of the evolution of education, reminds readers that
since the inception of public schools in the United States during the mid-
1800s, the institution of education viewed students with diverse backgrounds,
particularly the foreign-born, in need of acculturation. Even though movements
for equality and social justice took shape over the last century and brought
about change, Nieto (2015) points out that there is still room for improvement
in multicultural education. She emphasizes how schools tend to misunderstand
the meaning and depth of culture and misrepresent culture in a superficial
manner. For example, many educators believe multicultural education simply
means celebrating a cultural holiday or eating ethnic food. However, as Nieto
(2015) advocates, multicultural education is much more than cultural holiday
parties and festivals; a multicultural curriculum should include a culture’s
history, traditions, language, values, and the human experience. As she has
found, multicultural themes are rarely discussed in textbooks; therefore,
concepts connecting culture to topics under study should be woven daily
into all subjects and topics of discussion. Most importantly, as multicultural
education encourages students to alter their preconceived notions of others,
Nieto (2015) advices teachers to do the same. Teachers should look at
their own biases and promote the understanding of differences and cultural
contributions.
In addition to promoting the exchange of culture through student interaction,
Nieto (2015) offers the belief that multiculturalism nurtures creativity and that
art can allow students to individually express who they are, not which group
they belong to. “If art is only used as a superficial cultural representation,
it won’t do the job, but when it is embedded in the entire life of the school,
then it holds great promise” (Kitagawa & Nieto, 2000, p. 29). In essence,
Nieto (2015) makes it clear that culture is not only embedded in one’s art,
but that art also has the power to reflect on one’s culture, human experience,
and core values.
Nel Noddings: Care Ethics
Nel Noddings’ (2010) groundbreaking care theory furthers the notion that
social interaction and engagement in dialogue can help eliminate ethnic and
racial barriers, and most importantly, schools have the chance to teach students
35
how to care since students, regardless of age, need love and appreciation.
Although intellectual development is important, learning to care for others
is crucial, not only for students, but also for society. Though Noddings’
(2010) theory may appear to be religiously motived, she views her “care
perspective” (p. 375) as a connection to real life learning. She offers the idea
that students can be taught to “care for” those who they personally interact
with (e.g., family, peers, and community members) and “care about” (p. 18)
those who are in other places and they do not know, and have the capacity to
develop positive characteristics such as kindness and concern. The teaching
of caring can also occur when teachers display their own acts of kindness
in the classroom, allow for spontaneous teachable moments to arise, engage
students in activities and discussions that underline care, and offer students
opportunities to practice, reflect, and respond to their feelings about someone
or something (e.g., peers, animals, and the environment) (Noddings, 2010).
Faced with lessons like these and more, Noddings (2010) believes students may
begin to exhibit compassion for others and encourage others to do the same.
Although the traditional curriculum is mainly concerned with single-
subject instruction, and offers little time for addressing emotions, thoughts,
and relationships, Noddings (2010) proposes that teachers create their own
curriculum by combining subjects, taking student interest into account, and
including opportunities for students to inquire about life. As all subjects are
worthy of learning (for example, science and math are no more important
than art and social studies), she believes that all subjects have a place in
the curriculum and should be treated with equal respect. Noddings (2010)
notes that if school systems continue to compartmentalize rather than fuse
subjects, students will have difficulty seeing how subjects are related to
each other. She further stresses that lessons, regardless of subject, should
be rooted with themes of caring as all topics are either covertly or overtly
linked to humans and connected to life situations. When discussing war, for
example, she believes students should be given the opportunity to converse
about death, loss, love, and other aspects of human emotion that will allow
students to understand subject-content while establishing empathy, a form of
caring. According to Noddings (2013), if children are to become contributing
members of a democratic society, they should be able to ask questions about
life, deliberate on controversial topics, share cultural experiences, and act
upon injustices and inequalities. By incorporating these factors into lesson
planning, the curriculum will become a joint student and teacher endeavor;
teachers will guide students into becoming independent thinkers and students
will be able to support the knowledge they created.
36
Emile Durkheim: Socialization
Emile Durkheim (2012), a nineteenth century French social scientist known

as the originator of sociology, believed that history, culture, and society play
a role in how individuals interact. Since his work focused on the power that
institutions have over individuals, his theories have often been applied to the
field of education since the school system is a social institution, an organization
which is not only influenced by society, but one that also establishes social
norms. From Durkheim’s (2012) perspective, every human being is socialized
throughout their lives. However, he theorized that people should be positively
socialized, rather than in a negative manner. In his view, schools are the main
source of socialization; students are not just going to school to learn – they
are going to school to become socialized.
Since the classroom setting is a place where children’s ideas and social
norms are generally shaped, Durkheim (2012) believed that traditional
instruction accustoms children to a systematic way of learning (for example,
single-subject curriculum and lectures). This common mode of teaching tends
to penalize and discourage deviation from the system. For instance, if a student
does not participate wholeheartedly in the established learning system, then
the child often becomes unreceptive and resistant to learning. As Durkheim
(2012) concludes, since children are academically and culturally diverse,
this same type of education may not be appropriate for all children. In terms
of society and the school system’s impact on citizens, Durkheim believed
(2012) that the roots of societal ill are mainly caused by citizens who, through
no fault of their own, are programmed by schools into becoming passive
citizens. These citizens do not feel free to express themselves due to having
spent their formative years in a strict learning environment with no room
for improvisation. He believed the same could be said about children; when
a child is physically or mentally inactive, a child is more likely to distance
themselves from the school system. Therefore, in Durkheim’s perspective
(2012), students need to engage in activity so that staying busy and remaining
productive becomes a lifelong habit.
As Durkheim (1956) also held the belief that education was oversaturated
with theories, the philosophy he put forth was simple: education should
consist of practical schooling. By practical, he meant schooling should be
useful to an individual’s life. Rather than a set of methods in instruction
that over the years become robotically dispersed by teachers and routinely
absorbed by students, education should consist of a more real-world focus
37
on “social facts” (Durkheim, 1956, p. 35), or components of society which

have the power to influence human relationships, conflict, and competition.
According to Durkheim (1977), when individuals interact socially, they
create new realities, or societal norms that may or may not preserve what
has been taught, created, or thought of before. If school systems continue to
propagate ritualistic methods of teaching, he insisted that learning will remain
dull or be stifled, and continue to require students to accept generalities as
truth. Reality, as Durkheim (1977) advised, cannot be explained through
only single-subject courses; truth is better understood when the focus is on
human societies and societal forces. The traditional single-subject teaching
and learning model tends to overlook individual experience, disallow an
understanding of society, and fail to promote rational and ethical thinking.
For these reasons, Durkheim (1977) recommends that a variety of academic
subjects be integrated and taught around societal, or real life, concepts. History
has shown that “progress does not proceed in a straight line” (Durkheim,
1977, p. 23), therefore; children will need more than what they have been
methodically given in schools in order to overcome the setbacks and be on
their way to positive, productive socialization and lifestyles. Rather than
school systems relying on old practices, education should encourage fresh
ideas. Durkheim (1956) idealizes a school model that prepares students for
changes, develops new and exciting ideas, and offers educators the opportunity
to establish new teaching methodologies.
Since socialization, as Durkheim (1977) suggests, links education to
the manifestation of society, social interaction could be considered part
of a hidden curriculum since students often acquire socialization skills
implicitly while relating with others. Unanticipated and accidental learning
opportunities that occur daily in the classroom between teachers and students
have the potential to teach positive values, dispositions, and principles. As
students may be unaware that they are being taught socialization skills even
during standard instruction, Durkheim (1977) posits that embedding good
socialization skills in this manner will be effective because teachers so often,
as well as unexpectedly, teach more this way than through the content strictly
contained in the textbook.
Adam Smith: Common Good
Adam Smith (2010), an eighteenth century Scottish economist, spearheaded

the political economic system that became known as capitalism, a theory based
38
on the notion that the wealth of a nation should not only be determined by
its quantity of production, but also by the quality of its citizens. By learning
to become self-disciplined, individuals could better learn to live and work
together, eventually leading to a “common good” for all (Hanley, 2016, p.
222); production would increase and society would improve both economically
and socially. As humans are faced with unavoidable conflict throughout their
lives, Smith (2010) believed citizens have the power to overcome everyday
battles by being intellectually, sensibly, and most importantly, ethically able
and ready.
Although Adam Smith’s theories inspired the makings of the U.S.
economic system, his belief that a nation cannot achieve greatness without
human morality for the common good has influenced the field of education.
Per Adam Smith (2010), morality is contingent upon sympathy, or being
willing to view others’ perspectives, experiences, and feelings. However, to
establish sympathy, imagination is required; imagination has the power to
evoke emotions and formulate ideologies that constitute ethical principles.
As Adam Smith (2010) suggests, children can learn to be compassionate,
self-reliant, and free from subjugation in everyday life through the power of
imagination. Similar to establishing a sound economic system, he believes
that education should include the teaching of social conflict, problem solving,
and making good choices. By injecting social responsibility attributes into
the curriculum, children can become human capital, or priceless resources
that will benefit future society.
With Adam Smith’s (2010) claim that single-subject education has
historically been unmotivating with its memorization-based instruction and
removed concepts, he urged educators to teach through an interdisciplinary
approach, where a multitude of subjects are creatively combined and the most
important concepts stressed. He presses that in order for students to achieve
deep understanding, concepts should be connected, thoroughly examined, and
delivered according to their usefulness and ability to be applied to situations
in students’ own lives.
Howard Gardner: Multiple Intelligences
Although Howard Gardner’s (1983) original mastermind theory of multiple

intelligences, the notion that all individuals encompass various modes of
independent learning capabilities, was geared towards the field of psychological
and cognitive development, individuals in the field of education found his
39
theory far more useful. His theory on multiple intelligences helped educators
distinguish how students learn best in educational settings and situations, and
allowed teachers to integrate the different means of learning into their lesson
planning. Howard Gardner’s (1983) seven intelligences include:
• Linguistic: The capacity to use language as a form of expression, to

explain well, and to speak and write in different languages.
• Logical-Mathematical: The capacity to examine and analyze scientific
and mathematical problems and processes.
• Musical Intelligence: The capacity to identify and distinguish various
musical elements such as tone and pitch.
• Bodily-Kinesthetic: The capacity to use body movements or body
parts to investigate problems.
• Visual-Spatial: The capacity to visualize small and large spaces, and
patterns
• Interpersonal: The capacity to work with, appreciate, and understand
others.
• Intrapersonal: The capacity to know one’s self.
As learning is linked to human nature and how individuals reflect on life,

Gardner (1983) even proposed three additional intelligences that he believes
frames the entire design: naturalist (environmental), spiritual (ethical), and
existential (philosophical) intelligences. While the various intelligences are
often thought of by educators as learning abilities, styles, talents, assessment
tools, or even a measure of IQ, Gardner (1983) prefers to consider these
intelligences as individual learning dimensions, or capacities. Although
human beings are genetically different, the theory of multiple intelligences
goes beyond hereditary factors and focuses more on ways individuals can
become attuned to their cultural background and educational experiences to
gain a deeper understanding of what they are learning. According to Gardner
(1983), how one masters a skill or gains intelligence differs. To exemplify,
although a student may be skillful in playing the guitar, the student may not
be aware of how he or she plays (Gardner, 1983).
Although the seven intelligences are connected, they offer different ways
for students to learn. Howard Gardner (1983) suggests a similar attitude can
be taken towards teaching with an interdisciplinary approach. As all single-
subject concepts are theme-related, connected to life, and involve skill-building
and problem solving, an interdisciplinary curriculum would allow students
the opportunity to learn any given concept the way they are most capable of.
40
As Gardner (1983) proposes, topics that are taught in numerous ways have
the ability to influence more students and make better use of their multiple
intelligences. Although the arts, for example (e.g., paint, dance, music, and
literature), are often considered as interpersonal or intrapersonal intelligences,
he believes the arts are connected to all categories since the arts help children
establish creativity. While many undervalue the importance of the arts, Gardner
(1983) feels that without having had the capacity to exercise creativity and
find the beauty, as well mystery, in images, colors, sounds, and movement,
the world of science, as well as all other subjects, would not exist.
Maxine Greene: Aesthetic Experience
Maxine Greene (1995), a philosopher in arts education, was the visionary

behind the theory that art could encourage the growth of aesthetic (artistic)
and social imaginative (empathy) qualities in individuals, and therefore, the
infusion of art into an interdisciplinary curriculum is vital to the field of
education. Since art offers opportunities for reflection and discussion, she
emphasized how art could promote understanding, stimulate inquiry, and
benefit academic and social progress.
However, as Maxine Greene (1995) acknowledged, societal forces make
it difficult for children to use imagination, to think beyond the ordinary, and
to see things that others do not. As the media, schools, and technology tend
to dictate how people should live, imagination is often stifled, individuals
are inclined to form compliant habits, and “everything fits together with a
sleepwalker’s precision” (Greene, 1995, p. 381). As Greene (1988) offers,
the arts can help students imagine; the arts have the power to cultivate
creativity, promote ingenuity, and instill “wide-awakeness” (p. 113), a term
she used to describe an aesthetic experience that stirs a sense of awakened
imagination. The person involved in the aesthetic experience gains a deeper
understanding and awareness of what is occurring. Color, objects, movements,
sounds, and shapes become the link to one’s freedom and the inspiration to
view the world differently. Aesthetic experiences occur through an exchange
of the environment, time, and space. Including mediums such as painting,
dance, literature, or music, the arts allow an individual’s mind to recapture
a moment or to see the future. Through the arts, Greene (1988) believed
one can reflect upon and share individual experiences, as well as view and
understand others’ perspective. Like life itself, the arts should be observed
from numerous perspectives. As human beings construct their own truth, the
41
act of creating art becomes part of a human’s personal search. For example, in
dance, body movements are transformed into knowledge and understanding;
one’s breadth of experience is what shapes one’s thinking (Greene, 1988).
Although many people do not perceive the arts as being worthy in the
present day high-stakes testing and standards arena, or as having the aesthetic
effects on children and youth that it could have, Green (1988) insisted that the
arts should be included in an interdisciplinary curriculum to broaden students’
understanding of the world. Since children of all ages could benefit from
different sources of learning, for many students, the arts could be the conduit
for young students’ academic and social development. In Greene’s assessment
(1988), the arts not only have the ability to widen one’s perspective, but also
encourage resourcefulness in finding solutions to local and global conflicts
and injustices, and inspire social action; imagination offers individuals insight
as to what is right (e.g., values, morals, and beliefs), what is wrong (e.g.,
inequalities, bias, and prejudices), and how to make the world a better place.
Applying Theory and Practice
The principles of education are what guide an educator’s teaching practice.

Teachers often pull from a variety of theorists’ philosophies to help them
find their way. Understanding what theorists have contributed to the world
of education will allow teachers to be eclectic in the way they form their own
teaching philosophies. Through an awareness of the various theories, teachers
will be more knowledgeable about the practices that have been developed
and better equipped to help students attain higher levels of learning. Without
knowing these foundations, educators may not have a clue as to where
education has been and where it is going. It is important that teachers be
conscious of the innovative ideas that past and present educational theorists
put forth, use theorists as models of change, and be willing to modify their
own curriculum. Finding ways to ensure students are being well-guided and
given effective instruction from knowledgeable, as well as caring, teachers
has been the inspiration of the featured theorists. However, as educators tend
to teach the way they view the world (Freeman, 2002), including at times
predispositions, teachers who are willing to reflect upon their own strengths
and weaknesses and alter their way of thinking and teaching, will be more
in tune with their students; teachers will not only teach their students better,
but will also learn from them.
42
The theorists’ rationale for supporting a multidisciplinary curriculum is

two-fold: students will be offered a more meaningful education, and teachers
will become more knowledgeable about other subjects. As the national, state,
and local focus on testing has left little time for subjects such as art and
social studies (Smith & Kovacs, 2011), it is important that teachers create a
teaching plan that goes beyond the traditional curriculum and include aesthetic
opportunities and activities connected to historical and current events. The
curriculum should also contain heterogenous and inquiry-based group work
that allows for cultural exchange and shared experiences. Teachers should
view teaching as a means to discover students’ potential and focus on students’
strengths rather than weaknesses. As the featured theorists delivered, all
students, regardless of academic, linguistic, or behavioral challenges, hold
a multitude of abilities, as well as capabilities; therefore, the infusion of
multiple subjects into every lesson is likely to reveal that students often learn
better when they are not required to focus on a single subject, particularly
one they may find difficult to understand, or in which they do not have an
interest. Thus, a multidisciplinary curriculum will allow teachers to examine
the effects of an infused lesson on their students, and determine students’
interests and abilities.
Future of Education
Since education in the twenty-first century is overshadowed by science,

technology, engineering, and mathematics, it could be argued that the purpose
of education is geared towards preparing students for the workforce (Freedman,
2006). Although shaping our youth into economically productive citizens is
important for a nation to thrive, it is also imperative that children are nurtured
into well-informed citizens and caring individuals who display concern for
their fellow humans. As we are living in an era where technology is slowly
replacing face-to-face instruction and communication and social media is
taking precedence over physical interaction, teachers often find it hard to
compete for students’ time and attention. With an ever-increasing number
of linguistically, academically, and socially diverse learners, the challenges
teachers face can be overwhelming.
As the selected theorists have conveyed, the evolution of any field does
not, and perhaps should not, necessarily advance in a traditional manner.
However, in regard to education, the belief that students can continue to receive
a quality education in today’s day and age will remain steadfast if teachers
43
are willing to view the social forces that may impede instruction as learning
opportunities. By adopting an interdisciplinary approach to instruction and
considering life experiences and societal conflicts when creating lessons,
teachers will be able to offer students a better understanding of how society
impacts their lives – and what they are learning today will help them survive
a changing world tomorrow.
Since local and global issues, conflicts, and controversies find their way
into the classroom, by incorporating subjects such as global education,
technology, social studies, and the various arts into a lesson, students will not
only become globally enhanced and aware, but will also have the opportunity
to use their democratic, historical, and aesthetic powers when trying to come
up with creative and equitable solutions to human problems.
The future of education is unknown; past theories may repeat themselves,
new ones may occur, but some theories, perhaps those that are featured in this
chapter, may live on forever. What new forms of technology will emerge, how
they will impact our lives, and whether or not they will improve education is
a mystery; however, as Maxine Greene (1995) well stated, “There are always
roads not taken, vistas not acknowledged. The search must be ongoing; the
end can never be quite known” (p. 15).
REFLECTION AND CONCLUSION
As highlighted by the theorists presented, since schools play a critical role

in a child’s life, whichever teaching approach teachers use, the methods,
techniques, and resources should include authentic context. The actual
teaching and learning that takes place in the classroom should represent
aspects of real-world instruction and a connection to students’ present and
future lives. As teachers are given the power to share knowledge, knowing
which concepts are important, why concepts should be taught, and how best
to teach concepts, will help educators become better teachers. Since learning
is about much more than gaining knowledge, students need to know why they
are learning certain concepts, and why teachers need students to know them.
It is important that students realize that the concepts they are learning will
come back to them in the future. While on the job, students may be asked to
problem solve, write a letter, use technology, or calculate figures. At social
outings, students may be asked to share their opinion on politics, support their
position on a controversial issue, or to critique a work of art. As skills and
strategies are needed to meet the demands of the twenty-first century (Silva,
44
2009), it is important that students either match or go above and beyond what
other countries around the world are doing, or may have already succeeded at
accomplishing. What will drive politics, business, and the economy is what
students should be rooted in at school: working in groups, collaborating,
exchanging ideas, and sharing knowledge and experience.
Although the theorists discussed may hold different views on their
philosophies of education, theorists are similar in their belief that students
should interact, form relationships, and communicate. Though education has
Table 1. Educational theorists’ philosophies
Theorist Educational Philosophy Connection to Interdisciplinary

Philosophy Overview Curriculum
John Dewey Progressive Education • Democratic education • Child-centric learning
• Moral improvement • Activity-based
• Importance of practice • Solving real-world problems
• Choice-driven curriculum
Lev Social Interaction • Zone of Proximal • Cultural and social experiences
Vygotsky Development • Encouragement and collaboration
• Scaffolding • Mixed-ability level groups
Paulo Freire Dialogue • Consciousness • Social-justice infused curriculum
• Social activism • Social involvement
• Exchange of ideas
Sonia Nieto Multiculturalism • Cultural appreciation • Discuss differences
• Avoid superficial cultural • Share cultural experiences
representation • Form social ties
Nel Care Ethics • Care perspective • Students taught to care for others
Noddings • Establish empathy • Topics connected to life
• Act upon injustices
Emile Socialization • Social organizations • History, culture, and society are
Durkheim influenced by society intertwined
• Humans are socialized • Children can be socialized in a
throughout their lives positive manner
• Society establishes social
norms
Adam Common Good • The quality of a nation’s • Children learn to live together
Smith citizens is the greatest good • Children establish sympathy
for all • Learning is applied to life
• Human morality
• Social responsibility
Howard Multiple Intelligences Individuals hold various • Topics taught in multiple ways help
Gardner learning capabilities children learn
• Skill-building and problem solving
is a collaborative process
Maxine Aesthetic Experience • Art offers aesthetic and • Opportunities for reflection and
Greene social imagination discussion
• Creativity and imagination • Can share personal experiences &
inspire social action evoke emotions
• Understand others’ perspective
45
moved from one theory to the next, evidence of theorists’ philosophies still
linger on. Bits of theorists’ practices are evident in many classrooms today;
students are engaging in groups, hands on activities, and discussion. However,
as textbooks are geared towards the general student and mostly fail to facilitate
the sharing of culture and the human experience (Sleeter & Grant 2011), it is
important that teachers not only integrate subjects, but also take advantage
of teachable moments and unplanned discussions so students can express
deeply-held feelings, establish empathy, and hold appreciation for others.
REFERENCES
Critchley, S. (2009). The book of dead philosophers. New York, NY: Vintage
Publishers.
Dewey, J. (1903). Democracy in education. The Elementary School Teacher,
4(4), 193–204. doi:10.1086/453309
Dewey, J. (1934). Art as experience. New York, NY: The Berkley Publishing
Group.
Durkheim, E. (1956). Education and sociology. New York, NY: Simon and
Schuster.
Durkheim, E. (2012). Moral education. North Chelmsford, MA: Courier
Corporation.
Freedman, M. (2006). The social-purpose encore career: Baby boomers,
civic engagement, and the next stage of work. Generations (San Francisco,
Calif.), 30(4), 43–46.
Freeman, D. (2002). The hidden side of the work: Teacher knowledge and
learning to teach. A perspective from North American educational research
on teacher education in English language teaching. Language Teaching, 35(1),
1–13. doi:10.1017/S0261444801001720
Freire, P. (1993). Pedagogy of the oppressed: New revised 20th anniversary
edition. New York, NY: Continuum Books.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences.
New York, NY: Basic Books.
46
Greene, M. (1995). Art and imagination: Reclaiming the sense of possibility.

Phi Delta Kappan, 76(5), 378–382.
Greene, M. (1995). Releasing the imagination: Essays on education, the
arts, and social change. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc. Publishers.
Greene, M., Ayers, W., & Miller, J. L. (Eds.). (1998). A light in dark times:
Maxine Greene and the unfinished conversation. New York, NY: Teachers
College Press.
Hanley, R. P. (Ed.). (2016). Adam Smith: His life, thought, and legacy.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Kitagawa, M. M., & Nieto, S. (2000). Profile: The light in her eyes: An
interview with Sonia Nieto. Language Arts, 78(2), 58–164.
Nieto, S. (2015). The light in their eyes: Creating multicultural learning
communities. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Noddings, N. (2010). Philosophy of education. Surry Hills, Australia:
Accessible Publishing Systems.
Noddings, N. (2013). Caring: A relational approach to ethics and moral
education. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Peters, R. S. (2015). Ethics and education. New York, NY: Routledge.
Silva, E. (2009). Measuring skills for 21st-century learning. Phi Delta Kappan,
90(9), 630–634. doi:10.1177/003172170909000905
Sleeter, C. E., & Grant, C. A. (2011). Race, class, gender and disability in
current textbooks. In E. F. Provenzo Jr, A. N. Shaver, & M. Bello (Eds.), The
textbook as discourse: Sociocultural dimensions of American schoolbooks.
New York, NY: Routledge.
Smith, A. (2010). The theory of moral sentiments (6th ed.). New York, NY:
Penguin Books. doi:10.1002/9781118011690.ch10
Smith, J. M., & Kovacs, P. E. (2011). The impact of standards‐based reform
on teachers: The case of No Child Left Behind. Teachers and Teaching:
Theory and Practice, 17(2), 201–225. doi:10.1080/13540602.2011.539802
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. Readings
on the Development of Children, 23(3), 34–41.
47
Democratic Education: An education that consists of moral improvement

and child-centric learning, and prepares students to use their Constitutional
rights.
Empathy: To have feelings of compassion and sympathy.
Ethics: To apply morals, values, and principles during social interaction
and in decision-making.
Hidden Curriculum: To acquire knowledge or skills implicitly.
Progressivism: To emphasize progress and advancements in knowledge.
Social Activism: To actively support a cause (e.g., boycott, strike, march,
and sit in).
Socialization: To instill and reinforce societal norms and values.
48
49
Chapter 3
Best Practices in K-12
Social Studies Integration
ABSTRACT
Social studies, the study of historical people, places, and events, geographical
physical and cultural landscapes, governmental structures of power and policy,
and economic systems of control, could be viewed as the root of all other
academic subjects. From the observations and thoughts of ancient people
who questioned humans’ and Earth’s existence came science, technology,
reading/writing, engineering, the arts, and math (STREAM). However, students
are often unaware of this phenomenon. Therefore, by infusing the concepts
of social studies into all subjects, students would be able to recognize the
possibilities, importance, and value of social studies, and examine how social
studies and all other subjects are interconnected.
INTRODUCTION
What is social studies? Although the subject of social studies houses an

abundance of disciplines, what first comes to a secondary student’s mind
when hearing the words social studies is often a distinct discipline such as
history or geography. However, to an elementary student, social studies is
often thought of as a single, yet all-inclusive, course children simply refer to
as social studies. Therefore, social studies is not easy to define. Given the
importance of social studies and how it plays a role in students’ everyday
lives, social studies could be defined as the story of people, a myriad of
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-4065-6.ch003
Best Practices in K-12 Social Studies Integration
interconnected and human-related disciplines, and an umbrella of topics that

involve places and events (Evans, 2004). Yet more specifically, history is an
investigation of ancient civilizations, a synopsis of how flourishing settlements
evolved into present-day societies, and a summary of how life progressed.
History also provides an opportunity to learn from past happenings, in hopes
of never repeating the bad ones (although humans still do). Sociology and
psychology evaluate the societal forces that help shape individual and group
identities, as well as recognize lifestyles and the attributes of culture, such as
language, religion, traditions, and customs, cultural attributes that make us
different. Through excavation and discovery, anthropology and archeology
examine the old world with a new set of eyes. While geography views maps,
locations, and land formations, human geography analyzes how people
migrate, interact, communicate, and adapt to, or alter, the environment in
which they live. Government classifies major political systems, examines
laws and policies, and identifies major leaders whom through the means of
either brutality or kindness, have impacted our world. Economics analyzes
economic trends and their effects on human behavior. Civics reviews the roles
and responsibilities of good citizenship and the importance of voting. However,
regardless of viewing social studies as separate disciplines or as a group of
disciplines, social studies is a subject that has the potential to historically,
economically, socially, and politically enhance the content taught in K-12
courses. By instilling social studies into the subjects of science, technology,
reading/writing, engineering, the arts, and mathematics (STREAM), a
STREAM curriculum, of which unites the subjects typically taught in a K-12
educational setting, has the power to broaden students’ knowledge about the
world, teach students 21st century skills, and inspire students to make change
in the future world.
What Is the Goal of Social Studies?
As social studies was originally established during the 1940s to socially

improve, what educational policymakers and politicians once referred to as a
crumbling and undemocratic U.S. society, the task of transforming American
youth into productive and contributing citizens was placed in the hands of
public school teachers (Evans, 2004). With social studies being more of a
people-subject, it evolved into a curriculum that became life-related and
receptive to society’s needs and as a result, “less academic” (Beck, McKeown,
& Gromoll, 1989, p. 101). Over the years, social studies grew into a less
50
Figure 1. Social studies disciplines
important subject that was believed to be useful for character-building, but do

little for a future career, and subsequently became the place where a cache of
less important disciplines were bundled together into a subject called social
studies (Saxe, 1991). Although social studies remains true to promoting
what earlier educational theorists referred to as civic competence, or the
knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for youth to be able to make well-
informed decisions as citizens of a democratic society (National Council for
the Social Studies, 2017), from a social studies educator’s viewpoint, social
studies should be much more than this. Although it is important that students
receive the knowledge necessary to become good citizens, a major goal of
social studies is for students to be able to understand, compare, and contrast
the world’s people, cultures, government, and economic systems to broaden
51
their minds about the world. Social studies’ aim is for students to think and feel
history, geography, government, and economics: to establish empathy for the
human experience, as well as critically analyze the cause and effect of human
beings’ actions. The intention of social studies is to educate students on the
many various places in the world, for many students might never be able to
get there physically. Social studies attempts to provide students with a vast
amount of knowledge about culture, religion, and society to make students
more aware of their surroundings. As historical events, as well as current
events, are captured through the eyes and written by the minds of people,
social studies strives for students to consider perspectives and take into account
how other people view(ed) situations and events in different ways; the more
students understand diverse perspectives, the better students may “coexist”
(Banks, 2004, p. 296). Lastly, social studies hopes that students will engage
in classroom discussion so they may learn to voice their opinion, understand
the challenges people faced to establish our nation’s democratic rights, and
be inspired to not only become good citizens, but also global citizens.
Objectives
• Distinguish the purpose of integrated K-12 social studies teaching and

learning
• Recognize the issues of K-12 social studies integrated curriculum and
instruction
• Identify the strategies of integrating social studies into the K-12
curriculum
• Analyze pedagogical methods in K-12 social studies education
CURRICULAR CONNECTIONS: K-12

SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION
Although social studies is a subject that holds an abundance of important

disciplines, it is often the least taught and most undervalued subject in school
(Stanley, 2001). There are many, however, who believe social studies is the
most significant subject because of its focus on people. For students to mirror
this feeling, find meaning, and make sense of social studies, students should be
shown that the disciplines of history, geography, economics, and government,
as well as other social studies disciplines, are not only intertwined, but that
52
the many disciplines are also embedded in and linked to science, technology,
engineering, and mathematic (STEM), as well as reading/writing and the
arts (STREAM). Without understanding this association, students may view
social studies as a meaningless subject (Fogarty, 1991). The social studies
curriculum should be one that offers intelligible content and concepts, a
connection to STREAM, and a balance of integrated subjects.

in Social Studies Integration
Although there are many students who do find social studies interesting and
engaging, there are several more students who find social studies to be dull
and unmotivating (Chiodo & Byford, 2004). Since social studies is not a
subject prioritized for standardized testing, some students often wonder why
they are learning it at all. In terms of social studies disciplines, a majority
of students find economics to be the most problematic with its overuse of
unfamiliar and unclear terms (Charkins, O’Toole, & Wetzel, 1985). There are
those students who believe social studies, regardless of discipline, is difficult
to learn due to the memorization of facts, dates, and names (Thornton, 2005).
Other students feel that the social studies textbook is dense, readings tedious
and bland, and note-taking dreary (Marden, 2001). Far more students insist
that their detachment from social studies stems from a teacher who lacked
the desire or ability to teach social studies, and rarely made social studies
interesting, interactive, or engaging (Leming, Ellington, & Schug, 2006).
These are common perceptions from students that elementary and secondary
social studies educators have heard before.
Students’ attitudes towards social studies have been largely discouraging
to educators in the field. However, it is interesting to note that many social
studies teachers often feel the same discontent as their pupils (Zhao &
Hoge, 2005). Based on their experiences, teachers’ failure to teach much or
even any social studies can be attributed to personal preference, interest, or
unwillingness. However, the limits placed on teaching social studies often
go beyond a teacher’s ability or control. Because of standardized testing’s
focus on STEM subjects, many school districts or administrators make the
decisions for teachers on what, when, and how content should be taught
(Cimbricz, 2002). With more time spent on STEM subjects and less time spent
on teaching non-standardized-tested subjects, social studies is often pushed
aside to make way for core subjects. State standards and the pressure to cover
53
STEM content influence the pace of the curriculum, classroom management,

and student’ understanding of not only social studies, but also other non-
prioritized subjects’ content (Jones & Egley, 2004). Standarized testing often
encourages teacher-centered instruction (lecture), hinders teachers’ autonomy
(freedom to choose content), restricts teachers’ opportunity to get to know
their students, restricts the selection of topics, and pevents teachers from
going beyond the textbook (Cimbricz, 2002).
The resources teachers use in the classroom also impact student interest
and learning. For example, both elementary and secondary social studies
teachers frequently use and rely on textbooks and their accompanying
workbooks, reproducible worksheets, and tests as their main, and sometimes
only, instructional and assessment materials (Armbruster & Ostertag, 1993).
As social studies textbooks do not always take into account student learning
syles, background, academic levels, and language proficiency, and tend to
represent a one-size-fits-all learning approach to social studies, students with
academic and linguistic challenges often have difficulty reading textbooks
and learning social studies (Butler, Bailey, Stevens, Huang, & Lord, 2004).
Textbook authors and publishers tend to assume students have requisite
prior knowledge and can make sense of social studies concepts without
the concepts being thoroughly exaplained (Wade, 1993). Regardless of
the need to understand important concepts, textbooks often cover topics
with little depth and offer authors’ one-sided view of the world (Giroux &
Penna, 1979). Furthermore, in an effort to avoid confrontational topics and
perspectives, or offend any ethnic, racial, religious, or special interest group,
publishers often deliver the content of texts with political correctness instead
of meaning (Evans, Avery, & Pederson, 1999). Although social studies
content should matter in students’ lives, textbooks fail, or hesitate, to cover
controversial issues, conflicts, and social dilemmas or examine a multitude
of perspectives; this not only impedes intellectual and critical thinking, but
also causes students to view social studies as detached from other subjects
and separate from their lives.
In an effort to familiarize students with social studies at an early age, the
elementary curriculum has been designed and structured to teach students
about everday life’s situations and their surroundings through the commonly
used expanding environments spiral-based model of instruction (NCSS, 2017).
The plan is based on different social environment themes per elementary grade
level, which slowly widens as students go up in grade level (e.g., kindergarten,
first grade, second grade, third grade, and so on).
54
Table 1. Expanding environments
Kindergarten Self/Home
First grade Family
Second grade Neighborhood
Third grade Community
Fourth grade State
Fifth grade Country
Sixth grade Global Nations
Athough the expanding environments approach offers a systematic order

of themes that go from simple (e.g., Self, Home, Family, and Neighborhood)
to more complex (e.g., State, Country, and Global Nations), critics of the
expanding environments approach suggest that since the themes are specifically
designed per grade level, the focus on important concepts becomes more
narrowed, causing a limited view of social studies; though the highlighted
concepts are related, they do not go beyond certain generic themes (Palmer,
1989). As content increases per grade level, concepts begin to repeat. Although
the plan is considered a stepping stone to understanding meaningful social
studies, opponents of the expanding environment approach believe it teaches
students information they already know (e.g., self and family), and therefore
do not need to spend a year’s time focusng on single and specific themes.
Further, many educators feel that the expanding environment’s themes that
are addressed during a child’s elementary and middle schooling should be
infused in all topics, subjects, and grade levels – not in one selected year
(Akenson, 1989). Although the expanding environments model has the
ability to jump-start students into learning by doing, or learning through a
constructivist approach, critics believe that instead of teaching meaningful
content that will assist students in escalating their thinking and attitudes about
social studies, the expanded environment approach focuses more on trivial
and often useless activities mostly intended to keep young students busy
and to prevent them from becoming idle, disinterested, or inattentive during
class (Instructivist, 2005). In addition, as not all school disticts incorporate
the expanding environments model into their elementary program, transient
students may miss certain content knowledge when leaving their school
district or entering a new one. Teachers often find it hard to teach social
studies according to the model since it limits their ability to go past what
55
has been prescribed for teachers to teach, or to integrate other subjects into
the hierarchy of themes (Instructivist, 2005).
Though social studies has the power to initiate heated discussions and
debates, teachers often find it difficult to discuss controversial topics with
their students as they fear losing control over the classroom, accidentally
saying something offensive, and repercussion from parents and the school
board (Hess, 2004). Teachers also have reservations about allowing students
to voice their opinions on topics that teachers themselves may have conflicting
views about. Many teachers do not understand the purpose of discussing
controversial issues, do not know how to handle emotionally-charged students
or situations, or feel uncomfortable discussing off-limit topics that center on
gender, race, and religion (Oulton, Day, Dillon, & Grace, 2004). However,
since today’s youth spend much of their time perusing social media sites and
hearing negative political rhetoric, by ignoring controversial issues, students’
understanding and tolerance of differing perspectives may end up hindered
(Parker & Hess, 2001).
As technology has radically changed our lives and impacted how humans
think, it has become apparent that students, as well as teachers, need an
advanced set of teaching and learning tools in order to keep up with our
changing world. Although social studies can be enhanced with the use of
technology, many teachers do not know how or are afraid or unwilling to
use technology in the classrrom (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010).
Depending on school budgets, many schools do not furnish teachers with
technology such as IPads, Smartboards, and other online resources. In some
schools, it is common to see teachers buy their own technology or bring
what they have at home to the classroom. Due to spending a majority of their
time on preparing for standardized testing, many teachers do not have the
time to find online resources since they feel the pressure to focus more on
academics rather than technology. Many schools or school districts do not
offer workshops that could acquaint teachers with resourceful technology or
inform teachers how to incorporate technology that could benefit the social
studies curriculum (Staples, Pugach, & Himes, 2005). If teachers have the
motivation to teach social studies, and many do, teachers should be given
the tools, skills, knowledge, and opportunity to integrate technology into the
curriculum to generate purposeful learning.
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SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Since government policy plays a major role in what teachers can teach,
elementary teachers, who teach a multitude of subjects per day and are required
to prioritize STEM subjects, and social studies middle and high school teachers
who, due to a standards-based curriculum, have little time to cover the required
content, often find it hard to teach social studies at their discretion (Phillips,
1991). As with any subject, teachers should teach key concepts; however,
due to prioritization of STEM subjects and less time for in-depth coverage
of concepts, social studies has become a subject occupied with prescribed
content, monotonous lectures, and rote-memorization practices. Since social
studies is largely regarded as “the subject students love to hate” (Hope, 1996,
p. 149), it is understandable why teachers and students hold negative views
about social studies. Nevertheless, the challenges educators face in teaching
social studies and the difficulties students encounter learning social studies
could be alleviated by using a multidisciplinary curriculum. By integrating
social studies into STEM courses, as well as STEM into social studies,
teachers will be able to teach social studies in an all-inclusive manner, harness
a creative, cooperative, and activity-based curriculum, and show students
how greatly social studies is conceptually linked to these, as well as other,
academic subjects (Fogarty & Pete, 2009). An integrated curriculum would
offer teachers the opportunity to go beyond textbooks and explore content
that textbooks often overlook, treat casually, or deliver superficially so as to
not offend the public sector. As elementary teachers often lack autonomy,
a multidisciplinary curriuculum would allow teachers to prepare for STEM
testing while teaching social studies regularly and more expansively.
National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS)
Since 1921, the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), a professional
organization dedicated to promoting the subject of social studies, was
established to provide guidance and support for social studies educators. With
government policies causing social studies to be deemed less important than
other subjects, NCSS was committed to showing why social studies deserves
greater prominence (NCSS, 2017). Through NCSS’s effort to assist teachers
in teaching social studies, the NCSS created a list of 10 social studies themes
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that, although are parallel to current state standards, were originally created
for teachers to better understand social studies. The 10 themes reveal how
social studies disciplines are entwined with each other and inter-connected
to STEM subjects, particularly math, science, and technology (NCSS, 2017).
Table 2. NCSS’ ten themes of social studies
Theme NCSS Entry Points Social Studies STEAM

Culture • Create, share & adapt to culture • History • Language Arts
• Examine beliefs, values, behaviors & traditions • Geography • Math
of people • Sociology • Science
• Multiculturalism • The Arts
Time, • How things change over time & how some remain • History • Engineering
Continuity& the same • Geography • Math
Change • Causes & consequences of events • Government • Science
• Anthropology • The Arts
People, Places & • Relationships between humans & the physical • Geography • Language Arts
The Environment world (climate, weather & natural resources) • History • Math
• Where people are located; patterns of settlement, • Anthropology • Science
migration & population • Archaeology • Technology
• Sociology • The Arts
Individual • How individual identity is shaped by culture, • Psychology • Language Arts
Development & groups & institutions • Sociology • The Arts
Identity • Social norms • Anthropology
• Multiculturalism
Individuals, • Political, economic, and social organizations • Sociology • Math
Groups & • How organizations play a role in our lives • Economics • Language Arts
Institutions • Political Science • The Arts
• History
Power, Authority • Civic competence • Government • Language Arts
& Governance • Government and judicial system • Civics • Technology
• Rights & responsibilities • History • The Arts
• Law
Production, • Goods & services & how they are distributed • Economics • Math
distribution & • Production, distribution & consumption • Government • Science
consumption • The impact of globalization • Sociology • Technology
Science, How science and technology have influenced social • Sociology • Engineering
Technology & and cultural change • Geography • Math
Society • Economics • Science
• Technology
Global • World societies and regions • Geography • Engineering
Connections • Communication • Economics • Language Arts
• Religion • Technology
• Government • The Arts
Civic ideals & Civic ideals & practices in societies across time • Civics • Language Arts
practices • History • The Arts
• Government
• Sociology
Adapted from National Council of the Social Studies (2017), http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/strands
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FOUR MAIN SOCIAL STUDIES DISCIPLINES
History
What is history? History is the pillar of social studies grounded in people,

places, and events of the past, and supported by human perspective and
artifacts. History allows students to evaluate the past, assess the causes and
consequences of events, and determine what changed and what stayed the
same thoughout time. Influenced by social, political, and economic factors,
historical people and events often become the stories of past generations. By
learning about humans and their life experiences, students could attribute
new meaning to the words perseverance and endurance.
Learning about the past is essential for students; what is happening in the
present is a result of events from the past. Without the foundation of historical
knowledge, it would be somewhat difficult for students to understand the
links between historic occurrences and the developments of civilizations.
Although secondary schools often categorize history into courses such
as U.S. History, World History, and European History, textbooks tend to
center around invisible-like eras such as BC (Before Christ), BCE (Before
Common Era, a more present-day politically correct term for BC) and AD
(anno Domini, or as students often prefer to say, After Death), and organize
content into a “pre-structured societal order” (Lässig, 2009, p. 1) such as Early
Civilizations and Post-War. Dividing the world’s story from the beginning of
time into parts can help classify events that happened within descrete time
periods; however, critics of social studies textbooks believe that this mode
of grouping historical happenings can be a hindrance to students’ ability to
view the whole picture (Marwick, n.d.). Indeed, even the historical content
that students are taught is by no means seamless either (Egan, Berghahn,
& Schissler, 1989). It can be argued that no single perspective is better or
truer than the others (Marwick, n.d.). Since history is chiefly derived from
human accounts, the history that students learn often includes content that is
“written from a limited cultural perspective” and fails to include ethnic, racial,
religious, and female views of history, “contributions from individuals with
different cultural perspectives and different areas of expertise . . . [that could]
enrich the conceptualization of epistemological beliefs” (Schommer, 1994, p.
37). If different points of views were acknowledged regarding reasons why
historical events took place and how they occurred, students could observe how
historical events are perceived quite differently through the eyes of contrasting
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Table 3. Ancient civilizations
Civilization Region Characteristics and Contributions

Sumer(ians) Mesopotamia Cuneiform writing system
4000-5000 BCE
Ancient Egypt(ians) Nile River Valley Papyrus, pyramids, mummification of Pharaohs, 24-hour
4000-5000 BCE system, astronomy, hieroglyphics & first solar calendar
Babylonia(ns) Mesopotamia King Hammurabi & the Code of Hammurabi
4000-5000 BCE
Assyria(ns) Mesopotamia Sculpture, jewelry, military & trade
2500 BCE
China’s Shang Dynasty Yellow River Valley Writing system, bronze tool-making, walled cities & horse/
1600 BCE wheel transportation
Anasazi (Puebloans) Southwestern U.S. Pueblo cliff adobe/stone dwellings
1200 BCE
Ancient Greece Mediterranean City-states, architecture, mythology, philosophy & Olympic
1100 BCE games
Ancient Rome Mediterranean, Asia Senate, trade, slavery, aqueducts, roads & powerful military
700 BCE & Africa
Persia(ns) Asia (Iran), Europe, Mathematics, science, & carpet-weaving
500 BCE Egypt & India
Maya(ns) Central America Solar calendars, pyramids, advanced agriculture, writing
500 BCE symbols & pottery
Olmec(s) Central America Water/drainage system & stone heads
400 BCE
China’s Qin Dynasty Asia Strict leadership, advanced infrastructure, system of weights
200 BCE & measures, currency & Great Wall of China
Inca(s) South America Agriculture, roads & powerful military
1250 CE
Aztecs Mexico Strong military & alliance system with groups in other
1430 CE locations
parties. Therefore, it is critical that students be given the opportunity to view

perspectives from various subjects such as science, a subject that could offer
more specific findings, and art, a subject that could offer scenes of the past,
in order for students to express their own interpretation of historical events,
differentiate between fact and opinion, and decide for themselves what might
have happened and who took part in the event (Bousalis, 2017).
It is common for history to be built upon missing evidence. For this
reason, history lessons should include primary resources, or original sources
of information, such as texts (e.g., historical documents, articles, essays,
diaries, and journals), realia (e.g., real objects or artifacts), oral histories (e.g.,
recorded or written interviews, speeches, and testimonies), and photographs,
film, music, and works of art, that could help students fill in the gaps. Primary
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Table 4. U.S. history timeline
15,000 BCE Humans migrate from Bering Strait 1867 Purchase of Alaska
1492 Christopher Columbus 1869 Transcontinental Railroad
1499 Amerigo Vespucci 1886 Haymarket Riot
1513 Ponce de Leon, St. Augustine, FL 1890 Sherman Act
1524 Giovanni da Verrazzano, Atlantic Coast 1890 Peak immigration
1534 Jacque Cartier, St. Lawrence River 1890 Wounded Knee Massacre
1541 Hernando de Soto, Mississippi River 1896 Plessy v Ferguson
1585 Roanoke, VA 1898 Hawaii is annexed
1607 Jamestown, VA 1898 Spanish American War
1620 Pilgrims land at Cape Cod, MA 1903 Muckrakers
1620 The Mayflower Compact 1914 Panama Canal
1676 Bacon’s Rebellion 1914-1918 World War I
1682 Sieur de La Salle 1919 Red Scare
1692 Salem Witch Trials 1920 Women’s Right to Vote
1733 The Molasses Act 1929 Great Depression begins
1756-1763 French and Indian War 1939-1945 World War II
1764 Sugar Act 1941 Japan attacks Pearl Harbor
1764 Currency Act 1945 US drops atomic bombs on Japan
1765 Stamp Act & Quartering Acts 1947 Cold War begins
1767 Townshend Acts 1950 Korean War
1770 The Boston Massacre 1954 Brown v Board of Education of Topeka
1773 The Boston Tea Party 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott, Rosa Parks
1774 Intolerable Acts 1955-1975 Vietnam War
1775-1783 The Revolutionary War 1957 Sputnik
1776 Declaration of Independence 1961 Freedom Riders
1781 Articles of Confederation 1961 Bay of Pigs
1787 Shay’s Rebellion 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
1787 Northwest Ordinance 1963 John F. Kennedy assassinated
1788 U.S. Constitution 1964 Civil Rights Act
1789 George Washington, 1st US President 1965 Malcolm X assassinated
1790-1870 Industrial Revolution 1968 Robert Kennedy
1803 Louisiana Purchase 1968 Martin Luther King, Jr. assassinated
1812 Missouri Compromise 1968 My Lai Massacre
1812-1815 The Battle of 1812 1969 Neil Armstrong lands on the moon
1823 Monroe Doctrine 1970 Kent State shootings
continued on following page
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Table 4. Continued
1846 Mexican War 1972 Watergate

1849 Gold Rush begins 1972 & SALT
1979
1850 Compromise of 1850 1979 Iranian Hostage Crisis
1854 Gadsden Purchase 1979 Soviet Union invades Afghanistan
1857 Dred Scott US Supreme Court decision 1986 Iran Contra Affair
1861-1865 Civil War 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill
1863 Emancipation Proclamation 1989 Berlin Wall opens
1864 Sherman’s March to Sea 1990-1991 Gulf War
1867 Reconstruction begins 2001 September 11 attack
sources could offer students firsthand accounts about how past people looked
or sounded, what past people said or wrote, where places were situated, and
what the environment once looked like. Most importantly, information from
primary sources could be compared or contrasted with history textbooks.
Primary sources have the power to draw students into a topic; the more they
are exposed to real materials of the past, the more questions students are
provoked to ask (Hendry, 2007). As students read, observe, listen, and touch
primary sources, students can begin to construct their own knowledge, gain a
deeper sense of lived experience, and theorize how historical events played out.
Primary documents also have the power to encourage historical imagination,
a holistic method of envisioning, linking, and interpreting people, places,
and events that may have played a role in the causation and consequences of
historical occurences. Similar to an unsolved crime, a historical happening is a
mystery with undisclosed evidence (Bousalis, 2017). As there is rarely a sole
reason for a historical happening, students should gather clues to the cause of
such an incident by exploring various perspectives and linking events that led
up to the incident. Since blame is merely a perspective, historical imagination
will allow students to go beyond an author or publisher’s simplified renditions
of blame, investigate social, cultural, and psychological influences from a
local to worldwide perspective, and focus on the people who experienced these
historical events first-hand (Bousalis, 2017). As history requires examination,
it is important that students learn to develop historical imagination in order
to gain a better understanding of the causation of events, reject and analyze
common interpretations, distinguish fact from opinion, and provide evidence
that supports their historical judgment.
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There is often a connection between making historical judgments and

feeling emotions. As perspectives and experiences are grounded in history,
how students feel about a historical event or figure is key. Establishing
historical empathy, or compassion, is a major step towards understanding
history: historical empathy not only fosters a caring and sympathetic attitude
towards what people believed in, acted upon, and suffered, but also a feeling
of wonder about what our past ancestors of the world may have experienced
(Davis, Yeager, & Foster, 2001). By offering students the opportunity to
examine historical topics from a human perspective, students will be able to
have authentic experiences, or feel what it was like to live, work, and play
during a time in history, and be apt to alter their views about others (Yilmaz,
2007). Students can readily apply the concept of historical empathy to STEM
subjects since human experience is present in all academic subjects.
Geography
What is geography? Geography is often thought of as a social studies discipline

entrenched in maps and globes. Although the subject incorporates these
essential tools into the curriculum, geography is more than just locating a
country on a globe, or labeling and then coloring in a country on a blank
map. Geography, a Greek term meaning Earth (geo) and writing (graphy) is
the study of Earth’s people (who they are, where they live, and why they live
there), physical qualities (land formations, oceans, and natural resources), and
humans’ relationship with Earth (how they impact each other). Geographers,
or those who study Earth’s phenomena, explore the features of our planet’s
crust (surface), investigate how Earth has changed over a billion-year’s worth
of time, examine Earth’s ancient and contemporary societies, and study the
diversity of human culture.
As geography consists of an extensive list of topics, geographers have
organized and divided geography into two main fields of study: physical
geography (land formations) and human (cultural) geography.
Although earlier maps were known as “projections” (Harley, 2002, p. 66)
and created by map-makers to assist navigators wth compass directions, in
present-day geography, map-makers are called cartographers, a combination
of the Greek term for paper (carto) and writers (graphers). While earlier
maps were created for exploration purposes, contemporary maps consist
of magnified views with in-depth detail. Modern-day maps allow students
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Table 5. Physical and human geography chart
Physical Geography Cultural (or Human) Geography

• Environment • Migration
• Landscapes • Settlement patterns (rural or urban)
• Landforms • Cultural diffusion
• Glaciers • Population
• Oceans & other water resources • Cultural artifacts
• Hydrological process • Language
• Soil • Religion, social norms & traditions
• Geographic space • Food, clothing & dwellings
• Ecosystems • Politics
• Geological history • Economics & infrastructure
• Plate tectonics • Military
• Climate • Health & disease
• Weather patterns • Standards of living
• Coastal features (land & water) • Borders & boundaries
to find out who or what takes up space and where, understand the concepts
of location, region, and place, learn how to read a map’s legend (a table of
symbols similar to a math chart’s key), measure distance, determine direction,
examine topography (landforms and elevation), borders, bodies of water,
villages, towns, and major cities, and analyze data such as precipitation,
temperature, population, and agriculture. A disadvantage, however, is that
maps can be distorted (Battersby & Kessler, 2012). For example, in an
effort to display all lands onto a flat map, countries or continents are often
illustrated disproportionately smaller or larger than they are in reality. In
addition, states such as Alaska and Hawaii are usually severed from their true
location, placed in a small box, and unrealistically displayed near the lower-
half of the map. This specific inaccuracy tends to confuse young students
on how the left edge of a flat rectangular-shaped map is the continuation of
the right edge, and how when the two ends are joined together they not only
make up the world, but also a round world. However, today’s mapmakers are
highly skilled and maps have become technologically advanced with the use
of Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and Geographic Information Systems
(GIS), tools that have altered the meaning of geography and transformed it
into an all-inclusive field of study.
As geography includes a wide-range of topics, issues, and concerns,
geographers have created a themed-system of maps (Boehm & Petersen,
1994). The use of maps is not only an effective strategy when teaching
students geography, but also useful for governments and other institutions
to illustrate information, determine where issues exist, and explore possible
solutions to the world’s problems.
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Table 6. Types of maps
Climate Maps offer information about temperature and precipitation.

Economic (or Resource) Maps portray economic activity.
Physical Maps display physical features and elevation.
Political Maps show borders.
Road Maps illustrate roads and highways.
Thematic Maps primarily focus on a single topic.
Topographic Maps exhibit landscapes and changes in elevation.
Mapping skills can help students in their daily lives. Particularly for
younger students, understanding direction (north, south, east, and west) and
how the direction mid-points form a compass rose (the shape of a flower)
allows students to better understand spatial perception – the place in which
they live, the environment that surrounds their home, in which direction
they are situated, and in which direction different places around the world
are from their home.
To fully understand direction and its impact on student’s lives, students
should understand how the Earth’s tilt and equator play a role in determining
which parts of the world will have daylight or darkness, a different season,
hot or freezing temperature, or a different time zone. Map features such as
lines of longitude, lines of latitude, the Prime Meridian, the International
Dateline, and grid coordinates can help students better understand spatial
perception as they observe the world though a bird’s eye view.
Since students represent world citizens, it is important that students
understand how time zones are organized and globally divided by lines of
longitude and latitude, how each interval of longitude represents 15 degrees
(one hour), and that time zones have the potential to physically, socially, and
economically affect students’ everyday lives. For example, when desiring
to communicate with a friend in another country, travel to a place that is
experiencing a different season, or conduct business with an office overseas,
it is vital that students consider what time it is before orally engaging or
physically visiting that location. As citizens of the United States, it is especially
important for students to understand the changes between place and time
across the U.S., and how students may gain or lose one or more hours in time
depending on which direction they phone or travel.
In addition to time zones, it is essential that students are able to identify
the four different hemispheres (northern, southern, western, and eastern),
65
understand that the hemispheres are divided by the Prime Meridian and
equator, and that the U.S. is located in the northern, as well as the western,
hemisphere. As the media tends to use terms such as the Far East or the
Western World, students should be aware of the different hemispheres to be
able to more effectively and efficiently determine what part of the world the
media is referring to.
Realizing the significance of geography in students’ everyday lives,
geographic education associations collaborated to classify and create five
major themes in geography (Boehm & Petersen, 1994).
In teaching geography, an educator’s goal is for students to achieve
geographic literacy, or the deep understanding of the relationship between
people and places and how together, they have the ability to affect the
environment (Manson & Vuicich, 1977). By acquiring geographic literacy,
students will be able to recognize the importance of place; place not only
determines our way of thinking and acting, but also how place is shaped by
its people (Agnew & Duncan, 2014). Geographic literacy is interdisciplinary
in nature as it includes social, cultural, economic, and political aspects of
social studies, and multidisiplinary as it calls for mathematical and scientific
analysis when studying human population, the availability of resources, and
the causes and consequences of human activity on the environment. Yet, in
addition to math and science, geography can be incorporated into other subjects
such as art, to express environmental protest, the subject of reading, to focus
on a storyline’s setting, and the subjects of engineering and technology, to
encourages citizens of the world to find solutions to Earth’s problems and
ways to help future life.
Government
What is government? Government is the governing body, institution, and

system of rule over citizens in a community, state, or nation. Since history
has shown that human beliefs often collide over matters such as politics and
religion (Nyhan, 2014), it could be argued that government was created to
guard against conflicting ideas, instill law and order, and protect its citizens.
Although governments, leaders, and laws have changed over time, and many
policies created have been controversial, unfair, or have sent nations to war,
it is still difficult to image a world without government.
Although sovereignty (autonomy) was, and often remains today, what
human civilizations sought to gain, government and citizens’ responsibilities
66
Figure 2. The five themes of geography
have evolved. For example, the U.S. government’s goal is to provide for
the well-being of its citizens. However, to achieve this goal, over the years,
government policies have stretched into becoming more economy-related
(e.g., a focus on employment, wages, banking, and production) while citizens’
roles have become more government-related (e.g., a focus on social action
and social justice).
Although the role of any government includes maintaining order, protection,
and a sound economy, governments around the world differ in the manner in
which they lead their nation, implement their laws, and govern their nation’s
citizens.
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Table 7. Types of government
Government Who or What Rules?

Anarchy No ruler
Aristocracy Social elite
Autocracy One person/dictator
Communist Dictator or party
Democracy Citizens
Fascism Dictator/nationalism
Federal Central & state governments
Monarchy King
Oligarchy One or few/wealthy
Parliament Prime minister & cabinet
Socialism State controlled
Theocracy Religious leaders
Totalitariamism State/total control
The U.S. government, for example, is a federal system that divides

power between the national government and the states. In an effort to limit
government power, three branches of government were established: Executive,
Legislative, and Judicial. These branches share responsibilities and are policed
by a political system of checks and balances. The Executive branch, or the
central division of U.S. government that implements the law, consists of
the President, Vice-President, Cabinet members, and numerous committees
and agencies. The Vice-president’s job is to assist the President, the Cabinet
members’ roles are to guide the President, the committee members’ job is to
examine and propose laws, and the agencies’ task is to oversee government
programs. The Executive branch’s chief leader is the President, an elected
official who has many jobs and holds different powers. As Executive Leader
of the Federal Government, the President is in charge of overseeing the
country. As Chief Executive, or Legislator, the president has the power to
appoint important federal administrators, implement law, and approve or
veto (reject) laws brought forth from Congress. As Commander in Chief,
the President oversees the U.S. Military. As Head (or Chief) of State, the
president is to display good leadership and citizenship characteristics since
he or she represents the country. However, in order to become President, an
individual must meet certain requirements.
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Table 8. Qualifications for President, Senator, and House of Representatives
• Must be at least 35 years old

• Must be a natural born citizen
U.S. President
• Must have lived in the U.S. for at least 14 years
• Can serve two terms (four years each)
U.S. Senator • Two senators are elected per state (100 members total)
• Length of term: six years
U.S. House of Representative • Number of House Reps are determined by state population
• Length of term: two years
The Legislative branch, which consists of Congress, has the power to

create laws, authorize or disapprove presidential appointments, declare war,
and remove the President from office (impeach) if he or she is found to be
ill-performing. Congress is made up of two divisions: the Senate (members
consist of Senators) and the House of Representatives (members are referred
to as the “House” or “House of Reps”). Both the Senate and House members
are similar in that they are state-elected officials, have unlimited terms, and are
to represent the state that elected them, but differ as far as age requirements,
years per term, and the number elected per state.
The Judicial Branch, which includes the Supreme Court (the highest U.S.
court) and federal courts, has the power to interpret, assess, and overturn the
laws contrary to the Constitution (the Law of the Land). The Supreme Court
includes nine Justices (a Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices) who are
nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. In an effort for
Supreme Court Justices to have the freedom to express their interpretation of
the Constitution, deliver a sound ruling, and avoid the fear of being removed
due to holding views of the law contrary to that of the President or other
government officials, Justices hold their position for life.
The U.S. Federal Government’s system of power is called federalism, a
hierarchical structure of authority that requires the federal government to
share power with state and local governments. Although each state holds
its own constitution, each state’s constitutions must coincide with the U.S.
Constitution. Although the U.S. Constitution divided and delegated powers
to the state, local, and national government, the powers and responsibilities
for each level vary.
While it is important that students understand the framework of
government and how it works, it is also vital that students understand how
the U.S. government system originated, and that it was created as a result
69
Figure 3. Nation state concurrent powers
Table 9. Responsibilities of local government
Public transportation
Police & departments
Housing
Health care/human services
Roadworks
Parks & recreation
Libraries
Utilities (water, sewage, & trash)
Urban planning & zoning
Education
Create & enforce local laws
Conduct elections
of the turbulent relationship between the 18th century American colonists

and Great Britain. American colonists objected to Great Britain’s rule over
their lives and the harsh taxing demands (also known as taxation without
representation). In an effort to gain sovereignty, American colonists created
a series of important documents including the Declaration of Independence,
70
which subsequently led to the American colonists’ independence in 1776,

and the Articles of Confederation and the U.S. Constitution, which became
the foundation of our U.S. government.
By understanding the importance of these historical documents and
realizing the trials and tribulations the American colonists and founders
of our government experienced (respectfully speaking, through the eyes of
Great Britain, the American colonists and founders of our government were
committing treason), students will gain a better sense of why natural rights are
important to citizens, what the institution of government is, what democracy
means, and what the role of a democratic citizen should be.
Although Civics (citizenship education) is generally a course taught in
secondary schools, the meaning and characteristics of good citizenship (to
be contributing citizens) should be integrated in all grade levels, particularly
elementary, as it will help students better understand the concept of government
early in their schooling, build upon the concept in subsequent grades, and realize
how government and citizenship are related. By the time young students reach
secondary grades, they should be able to understand and appreciate the rights
given to them by the Constitution, and know what their responsibilities are as
U.S. citizens. Students should also recognize societal problems and issues, be
able to analyze and evaluate different solutions, and be prepared to take on
civic roles in their communities. The more students understand government
and civics, the better students will be at becoming future problem-solvers,
decision-makers, and citizens (Kahne, Chi, & Middaugh, 2006).
Table 10. Historical U.S. government documents
The Declaration of Independence

The Declaration of Independence is a list of American colonists’ grievances towards King George III, his harsh
treatment towards the colonists (e.g., taxation without representation, Intolerable Acts, and Townshend Acts), and
reasons as to why the colonists and the 13 American colonies should become free and independent from Great
Britain.
Articles of Confederation
Although the Articles were adopted by the Continental Congress in 1777 and later ratified by the 13 colonies in
1781, due to the Articles’ looseness in organization and text, and an uneven balance of power between the central
government and states (states were given more power), and a lack of confederation with states emerged.
U.S. Constitution
As the insufficiencies of the Articles became a problem, in 1787, a Philadelphia Convention was formed to revise
the Articles and create a document that would establish the separation, delegation, and limitations of power between
national and state governments, a system of checks and balances, and the right for citizens to change the government
if it abused its power. Classic British documents such as the Magna Carta (1215), the Petition of Right (1628), and
the British Bill of Rights (1689) were used as blueprints for the basic principles of government that were included in
the new document, the U.S. Constitution. Today, the U.S. Constitution includes a Preamble, seven Articles, and 27
amendments.
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Figure 4. The constitutional amendments
One of the goals of civic education is for students to be informed citizens:

to know what their rights are and to be able to exercise them. However, it is
often difficult for students to believe they have rights. When the media so
often fills their minds with political rhetoric and slanted views, it is no wonder
students are suspicious about government and politics, and have little desire
to vote. Students will be able to vote when they turn 18 years old, but many
high school students reject politics (Bennet, 1997). Knowing that the electoral
votes take precedence over the popular votes, students often feel that their
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vote will not count anyways. However, if students understood what people
in the past went through to have the right to vote, perhaps students would
be more motivated to vote. Therefore, it is important that teachers of every
grade level integrate voting into the curriculum and expose students to the
historical background of those who fought for the right to vote so students
will not take their future right to vote for granted (Valbuena, 2015).
Though elementary students are usually thought to be clueless about
politics and voting (Lecce, 2009) while secondary students’ opinions are
slightly more significant, it is a myth that youth do not understand voting
(Chareka, Sears, & Chakera, 2006). Elementary students engage in voting and
decision-making daily. For example, when children are asked to vote on what
game the class will play during recess, they are voting. Even young students
have some understanding about society from power structures they see at
school (e.g., principal, assistant principal, and teacher) and at home (e.g.,
grandparents, parents, and children), and they observe forms of inequitable
practices in schools (Virta & Virta, 2015). By allowing young students to
engage in voting on simple issues such as which book students will read
together that day will help them understand the importance of voting and
of having the right to vote. Voting practices often inspire social action and
finding solutions to local, state, and global problems. As history has shown
injustices and inequaltities, voting practices can empower students to take a
stance on issues and fight for theirs, as well as others’ human rights (Virta
& Virta, 2015).
Although voting is important and students should be taught necessary voting
skills in the hopes that they will take part in elections in the future, being
an active and participating citizen involves more than just voting (Galston,
2004). Civics education encourages students to make change in the world;
therefore, for students to understand social action, educators should support
students’ ideas and help them develop the skills and attitudes needed to become
informed and active citizens. Although social action is often thought of as a
practice, outcome, or disposition nurtured only through social studies, it is
important for teachers to realize that if students have the ability to transform
subjective ideas into objective realities in a social studies course, then students
should be able to do the same in STEM subjects. There is an interrelation
between politics and STEM fields of study; government influences scientific
research, technological progress, and medical innovations. Students as active
citizens can in turn participate in government issues, for instance, advocating
for certain STEM progress. For this reason, it is important that government
and civics be taught in a multidisciplinary manner so students, elementary
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and secondary, can recognize how the functions of government, responsible

citizenship, and social action have the power to impact STEM subjects.
Economics
What is economics? Economics is the study about a nation’s economy, the type
of economic system a nation uses, the economic policies a nation practices,
and the way a nation oversees the production, consumption, and distribution
of its goods and services. As a nation’s strength lies in its ability to produce
goods and services, a nation’s economy mainly focuses on its available or
limited resources (surplus and scarcity), how it will use these resources, and
the supply and demand of its goods and services.
Economics includes various aspects of money (e.g., banks, legal tender,
coins, and currency exchange rates) and business (e.g., entrepreneurs,
corporations, labor, and capital). As economics is linked to government policy,
a national government such as the U.S., for example, regulates and manages
its money supply, monitors the value of its dollar, and adjusts interest rates to
avoid an economic panic and collapse such as the 1929 Great Depression. As
history shows that the U.S. has experienced recessions (declining economy),
inflation (prices increase), and stagflation (prices increase while wages and
jobs decrease), the Federal Government over the years has created monetary
agencies to assist the U.S. in maintaining a sound economy.
Depending on the type and structure of its economic system, a nation’s
ability to produce, distribute, and market (buy or sell) goods and services
is determined largely by a nation’s government or by the nation’s citizens.
Although all economic systems include some form of government involvement,
there are economic systems around the world that are entirely regulated by
the government, and certain systems that are controlled by individuals or
groups that hold wealth or status.
Table 11. Federal monetary agencies
Federal Reserve Central U.S. banking system (financial institutions)

United States Mint Produces coinage
Bureau of Graving and Printing Designs and creates monetary goods (such as paper money)
Department of Treasury Manages government revenue (monies coming in and going out)
Bureau of Public Debt (Bureau of Fiscal Reduces U.S. debt by borrowing money needed to operate the
Service) Federal Government
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Table 12. Different economies chart
An economic system based on culture (custom & tradition) & mainly determined by
Traditional Economy
heredity (hierarchy order/status), occupation, or affluence.
A government controlled economy that regulates the supply of goods & services,
Command Economy
determines what can be produced & how the goods & services will be priced.
An economic system that includes both public (citizens) and private (government)
Mixed Economy sectors in the decision-making process on how goods are produced, distributed and
priced.
An economic system that is based on capitalism (entrepreneurship & competition)
Market Economy
and freedom for individuals to control production, distribution, and price.
Before students can comprehend the differences between economic systems,

students should be able to recognize how economics plays a role in their
everyday lives; without an economy that provides for students’ basic needs
(e.g., shelter, food, and safety), not only would it be difficult for students to
live, work, and play as they do, but it would also be difficult for students to
survive. For students to understand and appreciate how the U.S. government
oversees citizens’ basic needs, elementary students should be introduced to
the concept of needs, products and services that individuals need for survival,
versus wants, items that individuals desire but do not need. As economics
education is also about making good choices, needs vs. wants and the concept
of scarcity (limited resources) can be an entry point for teaching economics
to young students. Children could be asked to consider what life would be
like if there was only so much food, housing, and clothing to go around.
What choices would students then make about using limited resources? From
the focus on scarcity, students could move on to topics such as production
(how and why products are manufactured), distribution (how products are
transported), and consumption (why people buy goods and how prices are
determined). Personal budgeting and banking activities could also be gateways
into learning about finance.
As students often believe they already know a great deal about economics
from life experiences or by observing their family’s financial practices (Hayes,
2006), students tend to view economics as a social studies discipline that is
mostly concerned with making money and losing money, and the difference
between rich and poor. It is no wonder why students think this way since
economics does revolve around businesses, depressions, banking, and the
stock market. However, economics is about more than just money; economics
is a comprehensive discipline that includes not only government, but also
history (economic trends), sociology (studying people’s behavior during
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recessions and prosperous times), and geography (push and pull factors;
why individuals, such as immigrants or refugees, choose to, or are forced
to, move from their homes). With a focus on topics such as consumerism
(buying goods), materialism (buying for the sake of having), conspicuous
shopping (buying products to increase status), and opportunity cost (having
had the opportunity to make money but lost the chance), students will be able
to examine the cultural, social, and psychological aspects of why and how
humans often mistake their wants for needs. Since students tend to become
more interested in economics during times of societal or personal economic
dilemmas (e.g., unemployed or lack of wage increase), it is apparent that
students have the motivation to learn about economics, particularly when the
economy affects their lives (Placido, 2013). Therefore, educators could help
students better understand economics if the content is related to students’
lives (Löfström & van den Berg, 2012).
Although the teaching of economics is intertwined with the various
disciplines of social studies, economics has its own distinct two themes:
macroeconomics, a magnified view of economics that involves topics such as
interest rates, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (average amount one spends on
goods and services per year), and the Federal Reserve (the chief U.S. banking
system), and microeconomics, a close-up look at the financial behavior of
people (e.g., why people live where they do or own the cars that they do).
Economics has the power to offer students information about the financial
activity of all segments of society, from a small community to the world as a
whole. With the magnitude of data available to students through the internet
and encouragement from teachers to engage in classroom discussions about
economic issues, students should be able to critically examine and think about
issues such as average wage disparity and the cost of living. Through teacher
support and the vast amount of resources available, students can attempt to
understand important aspects of financial planning such as why people spend
money, where people spend it, and why some people have a hard time saving
money (Lusardi & Mitchelli, 2007). Economics can set the stage for students
to not only come up with innovative and alternative solutions to economic
problems, but also to make future economic predictions.
Economics is a subject that can offer valuable information to government
agencies, scientists, mathematicians, engineers, and technology creators.
From planning stages, research and development, to finished products,
economics influences these endeavors every step of the way. Even supply
and demand impacts scientific research and progress. When there is a dire
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medical emergency (such as an epidemic for example), there is a huge demand

for a specific cure and government and private funding is directed towards
specific scientific research; universities race to be the first to the cure. As
these examples highlight how economics is ingrained in STEM courses,
it is important that teachers teach economics through a multidisciplinary
curriculum. Particularly for elementary teachers who may have difficulty
teaching economic principles due the subject’s expansive terminology,
integrating economics into daily lessons may lessen the fear of failing to
effectively teach economics (Placido, 2013).
Multiculturalism and Diversity
Although multiculturalism falls under the umbrella of social studies,

multiculturalism is a social studies discipline that could stand alone. With a
focus on the appreciation of diversity (e.g., ethnic, racial, religious, political,
and social differences), multiculturalism strives for students to recognize
the differences in each other, as well as the commonalities (Kendall, 1983).
Particularly with the influx of immigrants (individuals who move from one
country to another), refugees (individuals who have been forced to leave their
country due to war, oppression, or natural disaster), and children of migrants
(seasonal workers who move from one place to another) who come to the
U.S. from places all over the world for a number of reasons, continue to not
only shape our diverse nation, but also impact the classroom. Due to language
and cultural differences, immigrants often feel like outsiders (Engstrom &
Okamura, 2007). Since immigrant students, as well as all students, need
to feel as if they belong, it is important that teachers recognize the cultural
diversity in their classroom and give students the opportunity to learn about
others, interact and converse with students from different backgrounds, and
get to know who the newcomers are and what they have experienced. As many
students have never regularly been around culturally diverse individuals, it
is important that students learn to communicate background knowledge and
share stories about each others’ lives. From this cultural exchange, students
should be able to gain a deeper appreciation for their peers’ differences,
become more aware of their peers’ qualities, and recognize the similarities
between themselves and their peers.
Though multiculturalism has the power to bring authentic learning into the
classroom, teachers often teach social studies superficially by engaging students
in holiday activities that may be fun, but are culturally shallow (Banks, 1975).
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Figure 5. Features of multiculturalism
In order for multiculturalism to go beyond meager craft-making activities,

teachers should include more meaningful cultural practices. For example,
students should be exposed to past and present human cultural experience:
how people live(d), experience(d) defeats and victories, and honor(ed) ethnic
customs, traditions, and cultural beliefs. With content derived from human
experience, students will be able to get a deeper sense of what culture is, how
culture impacts people’s lives, and how culture influences society. Students
should also be able to compare and contrast cultures, both others and their
own. With students sharing first-hand accounts of their own culture, other
students will learn about cultural content typically not found in textbooks.
Teachers should offer an equitable coverage of countries, particularly those
represented by students in the classroom. Students should have the opportunity
to investigate the origin of traditions, read multicultural literature, engage
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in cultural art, dance, and music, and peruse primary sources that highlight
cultural figures, issues, and perspectives. Through the involvement of parents
and community guest speakers who are willing and able to share their cultural
stories, students could gain a greater awareness of other cultures and countries
and make global connections.
Part of the multiculturalism approach involves discussing religion, although
it may be an uncomfortable subject for some. However, since religion is
embedded in history (Gaustad & Schmidt, 1966)), it is important that religion
be addressed and discussed in the classroom; students will realize that religion
is not only part of their culture and belief system, but also a human element
that shapes who they are. By evading religion in the classroom, the topic of
religion may continue to be viewed as taboo or promoting conversion, and
adherents to a faith may continue to feel shame for their beliefs. Religion should
be taught with the premise that it will encourage awareness and acceptance,
dismiss stereotypes, and encourage students to respect one another (Passe
& Wilcox, 2009).
Similarly, teachers often feel uneasy or unprepared to engage students in
discussions on topics such as racism and discrimination, or simply see no
reason to do so (Darden, 2009). By dodging these topics, injustices such as
inequality and intolerance will remain unexposed and unconfronted. Time spent
on discussing unspoken topics will be advantageous to students and society
in the long run. When deliberating over local, national, and global issues that
center around equity issues, students should be able to communicate openly
about race relations and cultural dissidence, view multiple perspectives, and
critically think about how these issues affect their lives and other peoples’
lives (Howard, n.d.). By participating in discussion, students will not only
be expressing their views and share lived experiences, but students will also
be teaching their class, as well as their teacher, about different countries,
cultures, and people. As cultural and racial issues have the power to impact
the classroom, it is important that social studies teachers allow for in-depth
discussions to help eliminate prejudices and establish empathy.
Since student differences exist in the U.S. classrooms today, it is central
that schools address and seek ways for students to understand and appreciate
diversity. As multiculturalism has the potential to bring students together,
build relationships, and encourage cooperation among diverse students
(Trotman, 2002), it is crucial that multiculturalism be taught not solely in
social studies, but in all subjects. With a vast number of individuals coming
from other countries to the U.S. to work, produce art, music, and dance,
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conduct research, and design innovative products in science, engineering,

and technology, these individuals will not only incorporate their own cultural
beliefs into their work, but will also teach and inspire others with new ways
to create.
DISCUSSION, REFLECTION, AND ANALYSIS
Since social studies is the study of people and the evolution of ideas, and
from the minds of people came the creation of science, technology, reading/
writing, engineering, the arts, and math, students are often unaware that
they are in fact learning social studies in their STREAM courses. Similar
to STREAM subjects, social studies examines change over time, observes
past and present resources, initiates inquiry, analyzes trends, and evaluates
evidence. As STREAM subjects and social studies are built upon the same
foundations and intertwined in a direct and indirect manner, educators should
be supportive of social studies, realize its importance and connection to
STREAM subjects, and teach it as regularly and as effectively as teachers
do all subjects.
TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES
Art
The marvel of art is that regardless of what content matter students learn, they
can express their knowledge in their own creative way. By infusing social
studies with art, students can observe images through the eyes of a historian,
a Renaissance painter, or a Greek city-state designer. While viewing historical
documents, photographs, and paintings, students can place themselves in
a different time and place, and deliberate over who created it, why it was
created, and how it was created.
Through art, students can be the creator. Students can convert what they
learned in social studies to a visual representation of what students believed
happened in history, how they feel about it, and what they believe caused it.
Creative expression could come in the form of creating a collage, political
cartoon, book or magazine cover, craft, puppet, poster, mural, or game.
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Although students may not always depict topics as the teacher or social
studies textbook would, since students’ art is an expression of creative
thought, students’ differing representations of concepts should be expected
when addressing topics such as human rights, politics, or war. Students’
expressions may reflect forms of social protest, an unpleasant memory, or
even a happier day to come.
Music
Music can also be a mode of communication, a cultural tradition, a form of

spirituality, an expression of joy or sorrow, or a means for social action. By
incorporating music into the social studies curriculum, students should be
able to recognize how music reflects life. Since music and lyrics have the
power to evoke emotions (Vist, 2011), social studies, with its ties to the human
experience, blends well with music. A song’s lyrics could showcase past and
present events, physical landscapes, social dissidence, and controversial issues.
The music that artists create can deliver subliminal or blatant messages about
everyday life or freeze in time information about a certain era and location’s
community life. Through advancements in technology and engineering,
teachers and students now have access to archived, or digitally-stored, music
such as American and global cultural folk songs.
Drama
As drama, or the performing arts, is movement-based, drama not only has

the privilege of connecting with students who are kinesthetic learners, but
also has the potential to beckon students into engaging in social studies,
particularly those students who lack interest in the subject. With technology’s
ability to show students visual images, such as film footage of historical
figures and events, students could use these references to help set the stage
for envisioning and recreating history. Drama can be integrated in the form
of role playing (the acting out of scenes in character) historical figures such
as the American colonists during the 1773 Boston Tea Party, Rosa Parks and
her refusal to give up her seat to a white passenger in 1955, or the women
who were trapped in the 1911 Triangle Shirtwaist factory fire. Since drama
allows students to partake in an event as if they had been present at the scene
or stepped into the shoes of a historic figure, acting out scenes from the
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past can help students gain a deeper understanding of history, setting, and
characters, and allow students to capture a moment in time as if the event
were happening today, right in the classroom.
Technology
Since technology is regularly used by students in their everyday lives, it is

important that teachers consider technological aids when gauging student
interest and determining what could help jump-start students’ learning. Given
the vast amount of resources technology could offer, to depend entirely on
textbooks for content knowledge would not only be a disservice to today’s
students, but also to teachers. To keep up with a changing world, teachers
should take advantage of technology’s services and provide students with
primary sources found online such as actual letters written from soldiers
to their loved ones at home, diary entries of Holocaust victims, and visual
images of segregation. Film, documentaries, and videos could be used to teach
about Prohibition, the World Wars, and September 11. Technological tools
that allow visual imaging in various global locations could allow students
to converse with individuals in distant lands, as well as place students at the
foot of the Egyptian pyramids. Video games could help students learn about
history, spatial perception, mythology, business, math, word recognition,
and problem solving, all while having fun. Social media sites and newsfeeds
offer students the opportunity to keep up-to-date with current local, national,
and global news. Most importantly, technology has the ability to promote
democracy, prepare students for life beyond the classroom, and offer students
the opportunity to become well-informed citizens.
Science
Although science and social studies appear to be on opposite sides of the

classroom subject spectrum, the two fields are more similar than students
may realize (Brush, 1989). The rise of modern civilization and scientific
advancement, for example, are closely connected. Scientific progress is
driven by the needs of people, which are in turn analyzed and examined in
social studies. Although certain eras of human history are identified by their
significant scientific achievements, such as the Stone age, the Bronze age,
and the Space age, students may find it difficult to study a civilization and
its evolutions without understanding the scientific innovations that drove
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those changes. Furthermore, as science has changed humanity, scientific

phenomena can best be studied by considering the impact of science on
people’s lives. For instance, medical research has ensured that people today
have longer lifespans than ever before; what people do within their lifespans
and how people’s additional years impact communities and the environment
could be analyzed and explained by social studies. Population growth and its
causes and effects, a topic associated to the longivity of life, could also be
discussed in both science and social studies. Since science and social studies
have historical connections and contemporary links, both subjects can be
simultaneously and efficiently integrated into the curriculum.
Math
Teachers may find the task of integrating math and social studies difficult
as these subjects appear to be more different than they are alike (Stodolsky,
Salk, & Glaessner, 1991). However, where there are numbers, students
could find social studies supporting them. For example, when discussing
Constitutional Amendments, a teacher could explain and demonstrate how
¾ of the 50 states must approve an amendment to the U.S. Constitution. By
attaching math computations to a real-world example, a teacher can teach
fractions and U.S. Government at the same time. Another way social studies
and math are related is through the use of statistics (the analysis and collection
of numerical data). Since social studies gathers data on population and figures
and numbers are determined through mathematical processes, math could fit
nicely with social studies.
Literature
Literature could be used as the primary source for teaching social studies
or as a supplement to the curriculum (Guzzetti, Kowalinski, & McGowan,
1992). Literary materials often used to teach social studies include trade
books (a non-textbook storybook that can be bought or traded), chapter
books (a book with storylines divided into chapters), novels (a book with a
longer and more narrative storyline), picture books (a children’s book with
many illustrations), biographies (a story about a person written by someone
else), autobiographies (a story about a person written by the same person),
oral histories (an individual’s historical accounts or perspectives on an event
derived from a taped recording, interview, or transcription), and folk tales
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(a story about traditions and beliefs). Through the integration of fictional

or nonfictional literature into social studies, students could expand their
historical knowledge about a time period and event. Geography could be taught
by focusing on a story’s setting (e.g., country, cultural and environmental
landscape, and climate). Economics could be addressed by recognizing a
book’s character’s socio-economic level and whether or not the character’s
financial status increased or decreased by the end of the story (e.g., “rags to
riches” tales, immigrant stories, and stories about the Great Depression and
Dust Bowl). Government can be referenced when storylines include characters
that have been oppressed (e.g., stories on slavery and political and religious
oppression). With an endless list of topics to cover within a single semester or
school year, literature could fill the gap left by missed content, and enhance
the topics that do get taught. As stories often contain life experiences, students
can connect what they have read to social studies concepts, as well as to their
own cultural, racial, and social identities.
Writing
Since students in the social studies classroom are regularly asked to explain,
evaluate, compare, and contrast people, places, and events, students are prone
to have plenty of opportunities to write. Through writing essays, summaries,
and journal entries, social studies concepts could be examined and expressed
in a more thoughtful way. Writing could open possibilities for students to
explore how social studies concepts is related to STREAM. As writing
often supports in-depth analysis and critical thinking, writing could offer
students a greater chance of discerning the knowledge they have acquired
and internalized (Giroux, 1978).
School and Community Resources
Service learning, or volunteering one’s service to the community as a learning

opportunity, is an educational strategy that allows students to use their
democratic citizenship skills by offering their time and effort in community
programs or organizations they find interesting or worthy. Through service
learning, students have the opportunity to connect the content they learn in
social studies to working in the community, learn about how organizations
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are run (many of which are science, technology, or engineering-related),

and become more kowledgeable about how these organizations impact the
community. When out in the field, students could have a better sense of
social studies by recognizing the history of people and places, the geographic
themes of relative and absolute location, how government plays a role in the
community, and how the economy influences people and industry. More
importantly, students’ involvement in local programs may give students the
feeling that they are contributing to the community and making a difference
(Stukas, Clary, & Snyder, 1999).
Guest speakers, or individuals who have the knowledge or experience in
a particular field, are also valuable resources to social studies and STREAM
subjects. Guest speakers could include professionals, family members, and
school staff who are willing to share meaningful information. Speakers
have the power to impact students with their first-hand and often moving
accounts of historical events, places they have been to, people they have met,
and experiences such as fighting in a war. Speakers can enlighten students
about technology, financial institutions, entrepreneurships, and mathematical
processes. Guest speakers can inspire students, grab their attention, and
arouse their senses about what they are learning (Li & Guo, 2015). Parents,
too, can be a treasured source of information (Witmer, 2005). Although time
constraints or limited English play a role in parents’ ability to come into the
classroom, for those that can, parents’ stories of courage, knowledge of the
workforce, or demonstration of a cultural tradition may not only increase their
child’s ability to do well in school, but could also help other students learn
more about other people (Carlisle, Stanley, & Kemple, 2005).
Field trips could also provide students meaningful learning opportunities
(Falk & Dierking, 1997). When visiting community settings such as research
labs, universities, government agencies, courtrooms, and businesses, students
could witness the practices of those who hold power or are employed in these
venues, realize the setbacks and achievements that people who work in these
fields experience, and become aware of the formal and informal procedures
that take place in these major institutions. Field trips could be as simple as
visiting a local supermarket, bank, or factory within walking distance from
the school. The knowledge students gain from field trips is often more than
textbooks could offer. Field trips may not only provide a connection to
social studies and STREAM content knowledge, but also authentic learning
opportunities.
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CONCLUSION
As decisions about what to, when to, how to, or even why to teach social
studies largely center around government policy, teacher disposition, and lack
of time, for many educators and schools, teaching social studies is often not
a priority (Au, 2009). Consequently, students may lose the opportunity to be
taught social studies, a subject that not only includes important topics such
as history, geography, government, and economics, but also a subject that
holds the gateway to a meaningful multidisciplinary curriculum. For example,
Table 13. Integrating social studies into a “STREAM” curriculum: discussion topics
Subjects and History Geography Government Economics Sociology

Disciplines (Figures & (People & Places) (Politics) (Money (Psychology)
Events) systems)
Science • Copernicus • Geology • Disease control • Alternative • Ethics in
• Isaac Newton • Eratosthenes • Government resources research
• Albert Einstein • Ptolemy policy • Research • Social
• Time & calendar • Earth’s systems • NASA funding behavior
• Seismology • USDA • Economic • Social
• Urban & rural • Recycling growth control/
environments • UN • Adam Smith deviance
Technology • Evolution of tools • GPS • E-Government • Online • Social
& machines • GIS • Online licenses banking media
• Bill Gates & • Aerial • Surveillance • Amazon/ • Mass media
Steve Jobs cartography • Online voting eBay • Gaming
• Digital divide • Online
courses
Reading • Immigrant stories • Storyline setting • Current events/ • Karl Marx • Identifies
• Slavery • Immigrant readings • Nobel with self
• Oppression stories • Constitution Laureates • Cultural
• Cultural • Etymology • Supreme Court • Need & practices
traditions • Analogies rulings wants • Family
• Biographies • Map reading • Townshend Acts • Making • Morals
good choices
Engineering • Skyscrapers • Scarcity • Oil/engineering • Project • Identity
• Bridges • Global warming • Solar power funding theft/
• Pyramids • Desalination • Push for women • Supply/ hacking
• Automobiles • Infrastructure in field Demand • Public
• Telephone • Energy • Aerospace • Benefit/ welfare/
• Industrial conservation • Environmental Costs decisions
Revolution engineering • Place/site/
situation
Art • Renaissance • Earth Day art • National • Poverty/ • Self-
(the Arts: • Social protest • Landscape art Endowment for wealth portraits
art, music & • Cultural dances • 3 Dimension the Arts • Price of art/ • Status/
dance) • Archived music • Perspective • Censorship auctions class
• Reader’s Theater • Topography art • Political • Museums • Society
• Art history cartoons • Art issues
restoration
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civics could benefit students in STREAM courses as they learn to use their
democratic right to inquire, seek evidence, critically think, deliberate, and offer
their perspectives. More specifically, history and geography could be infused
in STREAM to examine the evolution of concepts or where STREAM subjects
all began. Government and economics could be integrated into STREAM to
investigate the influence of government policy on research and the impact
it has on the society. In classrooms where funding or other school policies
might hinder the teaching of social studies, teachers should work social studies
into a multitude of subjects and as often as possible (Drake & Burns, 2004).
It is important to also point out that similarly to the way STREAM can be
integrated into social studies, social studies can be integrated into STREAM;
an integrated curriculum could be considered a two-way street, or a concept
of interchangeability. In essence, through a multidisciplinary curriculum,
students will have the opportunity to recognize how social studies, a subject
that students often find boring or useless, is connected to all other subjects.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITONS
Checks and Balances: A system provided by the Constitution to confirm

that the three branches of government’s power would be shared, and that one
branch would not become too powerful.
Cultural Landscape: The envioronment in which humans adapt to and
alter nature.
Delegate: Government’s assigning of responsibilities to states.
God, Gold, and Glory: The rationale for expanding a nation’s land or
territories: God (for religion), Gold (for wealth), and Glory (for power).
Government Policy: Government legislation that influences an opportunity
or course of action.
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Chapter 4
Best Practices in K-12
Arts Integration:
Curricular Connections
ABSTRACT
Arts integration is a necessary part of the STREAMSS (science, technology,
reading, engineering, art, math, and social studies) curriculum model. Within
an arts integrated curriculum, K-12 students can communicate thoughts and
emotions through arts criticism, arts history, aesthetics, and arts production/
performance. The goal of arts learning is to better understand the self and
others through artistic expression about important topics and themes. The
arts provide opportunities for students to think independently and critically,
to solve real world problems, and to creatively work for a better future. Arts
strategies for students encourage reflection, analysis, synthesis of new and
existing knowledge, and creative problem solving. Teaching practices and
effective strategies integrating the arts for K-12 students are provided for
educators to create curriculum using the STREAMSS approach.
INTRODUCTION
What is arts integration? What is the purpose of teaching and learning

through the arts? Learning across the curriculum or interdisciplinary learning
includes learning through the arts. Appropriate standards-based arts activities
increase student participation and motivation, deepen understanding and
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-4065-6.ch004
Best Practices in K-12 Arts Integration
engage students cognitively, socio-emotionally and physically in the learning

process (Drake & Burns, 2004). Teaching and learning in and through
the arts is often accomplished through an arts integrated curriculum. Arts
integration is related to interdisciplinary curriculum through a focus on a
topic of study allowing students to explore and understand concepts through
a variety of disciplines. The focus on the arts includes dance, drama, music
and the visual arts. While arts integration connects concepts through a deeper
understanding of the skills and processes that engage students in not only the
arts disciplines but other content areas (mathematics, science, language arts,
and social studies) as well, interdisciplinary learning is a broader term that
may or may not focus on bringing the arts into the curriculum (Goldberg,
2016). In the arts integrated approach to curriculum, students engage in ways
of knowing that are inherent in the arts forms. Students use the artistic skills
and techniques to assist in further exploration of ideas. Many connections
are naturally occurring, as the arts guide students in expressing new ideas
through processes, skills, techniques, and unique ways of knowing. Often
the arts form cultural foundations that communicate meaningful ideas in
creative ways. Arts integration allows for self-expression motivating learners
to create innovative methods of demonstrating comprehension. The personal
realization of creative goals is individualized. The arts are an outlet for learners
to express new ideas that cannot be represented in other disciplines. Students
have opportunities to observe, discover, imagine, problem solve, invent, and
create. The arts are an integral part of learning and life because the arts involve
social, philosophical, psychological, historical and contemporary aspects of
one’s inspiration, intellect and expression (cognitive, socio-emotional and
physical aspects of self). The arts are not separate from life, but are an integral
part of life connecting people through common creative goals (Anderson &
Milbrandt, 2005). With the philosophy of art as life in mind, educators can
create meaningful arts integrated curriculum that enriches student learning.
The objectives of this chapter are:
• Distinguish the purpose of arts integrated K-12 teaching and learning.

• Recognize the issues of K-12 arts integrated curriculum and instruction.
• Identify the strategies of integrating the arts in the K-12 curriculum.
• Analyze pedagogical methods in K-12 arts education.
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CURRICULAR CONNECTIONS: K-12 ARTS INTEGRATION
The content of the arts includes a variety of social, cultural, contemporary

and historical concepts. In education, the arts are often taught by focusing
on the performance or production of artistic understanding (art production
and performance), the historical and contemporary influences of culture
(arts history), the philosophical contemplation of why and how artworks or
performances can be defined (aesthetics), and the analysis, interpretation and
evaluation of artworks or performances (arts criticism). It is the combination
of these four study areas that form the foundation of art education. For students
studying the arts helps to connect concepts in a variety of disciplines and make
sense of the world and themselves (Goldberg, 2016). The disciplines of art
history, art criticism, art production/performance and aesthetics are closely
connected and are an integral part of all learning when the arts are integrated
into STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) courses
becoming the STEAM approach to curriculum (The Congressional STEAM
Caucus, 2013). As noted in earlier chapters of this text, when the arts are
integrated with social studies and reading throughout the curriculum (including
STEM courses), students benefit from a holistic model of learning that provides
meaningful engagement and real-world connections. The STREAMSS
(Science, Technology, Reading, Engineering, Arts, Mathematics, and Social
Studies) model for curriculum provides a structure for life-long learning that
is not only meaningful for students, but links to their lives, communities, and
the world. The STREAMSS model deters marginalizing disciplines such as,
the arts and social studies as excluding these important disciplines weakens
the structure of interdisciplinary learning. Interdisciplinary learning should
acknowledge the importance of learning in all disciplines. Arts integration
as an approach within the larger interdisciplinary model focuses on arts
education as central to student learning (Goldberg, 2016). The importance
of understanding the arts and their inherent value to society is one key to
comprehending the concept of humanity. The arts are an expression of life
and this connection allows for deeper comprehension of the reflective self as
related to the world in present life, historical analysis and future predictions.
Through the arts, one imagines what was, what is and what could be and
artistic expression has immense value (Anderson & Milbrandt, 2005).
97

in K-12 Arts Integration
Integrating the arts in the K-12 curriculum involves effective use of time in the
planning, implementation and evaluation processes. A variety of issues and
problems that may arise when planning and implementing an interdisciplinary
curriculum also apply when teaching and learning through arts integration.
Often, educators explain that time is limited during the K-12 school day for
a variety of reasons and therefore are unable to teach an interdisciplinary
curriculum. The difficulty in implementing an arts integrated curriculum for
some teachers may stem from a sense that only an artist, musician, actor, or
dancer can perform in the arts field. Educators may believe that integration
of all aspects of the arts is difficult in the K-12 curriculum. The concept of
bringing aspects of an unfamiliar discipline into the existing curriculum
appears daunting to some as the breadth and depth of these content areas are
immense. The broad concepts within the arts can seem overwhelming making
it difficult to focus content in a specific lesson or unit plan (Goldberg, 2016).
Since curriculum guides are not available in all school districts, teachers may
need to creatively design curriculum to meet all students’ needs. Sometimes
the scope and sequence of required disciplines due to testing limits educators
to focusing on the assessments. The required scope and sequence of lessons
throughout the school year may be limiting options for creative teaching and
learning. High stakes testing in specific curriculum areas such as, mathematics,
language arts and science demand instructional time during the school day,
which further limits availability to teach in and through the arts. Dividing
planning time between other professional responsibilities makes implementing
an arts integrated curriculum seem daunting (Sabol, 2010).
Although time is always an issue when designing curriculum, another
issue involves the marginalization of the arts in the school curriculum.
Some educators may under-value the arts as a form of communication
and engagement for all learners. With the school day divided into discrete
timeframes for disciplines that are involved in high stakes testing, little time
and therefore importance may be given to arts instruction. Advocacy for the
arts as a central part of the school curriculum is essential to demonstrate
the benefits for all learners (The Congressional STEAM Caucus, 2013).
According to Elliot Eisner (1998) arts educators should advocate the arts
for its inherent value since learning through the arts provides unique forms
of expression not communicated in other disciplines. Also, Charles Fowler
98
(1996) explained that educators should concentrate on activating and inspiring

students to discover the joys of learning, using the arts a means to inspire
while emphasizing the uniqueness of each student, the wonders of life, and
the satisfaction of accomplishment. Arts advocacy is an important issue in
arts integration as it supports the basic rationale for why arts should be an
essential part of the curriculum.
Solutions and Recommendations for K-12 Arts Integration
Arts integration is not a cobbling together of concepts from different disciplines

randomly; rather arts integration emphasizes the enduring understandings
present in each discipline and the unique connections between these concepts.
The study of the arts disciplines is complex and unique involving a diversity
of learning that cannot be matched through other disciplines. The arts forms
of dance, drama, music and visual arts have different knowledge domains and
are expressed in multiple ways. By developing creativity and imagination,
students learning through an arts integrated curriculum utilize critical thinking
skills and flexible problem-solving skills to express meaningful comprehension
of ideas throughout multiple disciplines (Goldberg, 2016).
In American education, the study of the arts has evolved to include a
comprehensive approach that began with discipline-based art education
(DBAE) (Clark, Day & Greer, 1987). When DBAE was in development in
the 1980s, this approach to teaching encouraged educators to move beyond a
studio or performance based curriculum and expand arts teaching and learning
to include history, criticism and aesthetics. The DBAE approach to teaching
the arts in schools included production/performance, history, criticism, and
aesthetics (see Figure 1).
The four disciplines within the field of the arts were the focus of study
units for K-12 students. Through funding by the J. Paul Getty Trust,
regional institutes were established across the United States, which provided
professional training and resources for educators implementing the DBAE
curriculum in K-12 classrooms. Instructional curriculum and professional
teacher training is currently supported by The J. Paul Getty Museum (2017)
through the education programs and many resources available online. In
general, the DBAE approach was accepted by most educators in the 1980s and
1990s, but some educators criticized the approach as being too prescriptive in
the early stages of curriculum development. At that time, educators worried
that integration of all four disciplines would be a detriment to K-12 students’
99
Figure 1. The four disciplines of arts education
development of skills and techniques in production and performance. Over

time these criticisms were addressed and art educators began to develop
new strategies to integrate child development theories and arts education
theories. One solution was to integrate history, criticism and aesthetics into
arts production/performance focused lessons. Self-expression and inquiry
skills were emphasized in lessons that valued students’ interests. Curriculum
was expanded to include art forms from cultures around the world as DBAE
developed into a comprehensive approach to teaching and learning. Currently,
the debate on how best to teach and learn through the arts continues and
includes a focus on design education, technology, and visual culture.
As the J. Paul Getty Trust continued supporting arts education, universities,
state arts agencies and state departments of education researched best practices
in K-12 schools. American universities, arts organizations, state departments
of education and schools strive to improve student achievement in and through
arts learning through a variety of initiatives (Sabol, 2010). As a central part of
100
K-12 curriculum, the arts are integrated to impact school culture, the lives of
students, parents, educators, and the community at large. As research in the
field of arts education continued, DBAE formed into a comprehensive arts
education approach. National policies from the U.S. Department of Education
such as, the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) (2001), Every Student Succeeds
Act (ESSA) (2015) and Race to the Top (2009), continue to impact school
reform efforts and curriculum in K-12 schools.
National arts organizations support these efforts through their mission
statements and other research documents and policies. The National Art
Education Association (NAEA) (2017) explains in their vision: “Students
of all ages benefit from comprehensive, balanced, and sequential learning
in the visual arts, led and taught by qualified teachers who are certified in
art education...The power of the visual arts to enrich human experience and
society is recognized and celebrated throughout the world” (p. 1). The National
Association for Music Education (2017) supports “leading the world in music
education, empowering generations to create, perform, and respond to music”
(p. 1). The National Dance Education Organization (2017) maintains that
“the art of dance uses movement to communicate meaning about the human
experience. It is a powerful medium to express one’s values, thoughts, and
aspirations about the lives we live and the world in which we live” (p. 1). The
Educational Theatre Association’s (2017) “mission is shaping lives through
theatre education by: honoring student achievement in theatre and enriching
their theatre education experience . . . and influencing public opinion that
theatre education is essential and builds life skills” (p. 1). These organizations
affect K-12 arts education in many ways by providing professional development
for teachers and setting standards for the field.
Standards in Arts Education Instruction
Arts educators make decisions of what to teach and what not to include in the
curriculum. Although professional standards and initiatives pressure teaching
requirements, teachers know their students best and understand how to help
individuals reach their full potentials. Comprehension of big ideas or major
concepts in each discipline is the ultimate learning goal to promote enduring
knowledge (Szekely & Bucknam, 2012). Instructional standards are guided
by these big ideas and the art integrated structure in turn assists teachers to
develop curriculum. Stewart and Walker (2005) describe enduring knowledge
as topics of study or themes that have real world application in students’ lives.
101
These broad or umbrella-like concepts reflect the human experience and help
students to prepare for future applications in their lives. The study of topics
such as, life cycles, self-identity, community roles, societal values, and social
activism, are part of an extensive list of enduring concepts. In curriculum
design, teachers narrow from a big idea to a specific lesson concept usually
by relating to grade level standards adopted in the school. For example, in first
grade students may be studying the concept of relationships with others in the
community. One of the lessons in the unit may focus on family relationships
or parent-child relationships. Other lessons may focus on friendship, kindness
to others, or community helpers (police, teachers, paramedics, etc.). Each
lesson builds on the big idea or main concept to create a more holistic picture
of relationships related to the child’s life. Often instruction is guided by key
questions or essential question which encourage higher order thinking. All
of these sections of a lesson plan begin with the appropriate grade level
standards (Drake & Burns, 2004).
Selecting appropriate standards involves analyzing the learning objective
and connecting the objective to the identified enduring knowledge. Standards
must match the lesson objective and in turn be reflected in the assessment
process. Each arts discipline (dance, drama, music, and visual arts) has national
standards, state standards and sometimes district standards or guidelines
(Goldberg, 2016). Currently, The National Coalition for Core Arts Standards
(2014) has developed national core arts standards that are used in schools
across the United States. The national core arts standards are organized under
four artistic processes: creating, performing/presenting/producing, responding,
and connecting. Within the arts framework, there are eleven anchor standards
that can be used to guide curriculum and instruction (see Table 1).
The National Core Arts Standards align well with the arts integrated
approach to curriculum design that incorporates history, criticism, aesthetics,
and production/performance. Focusing on pedagogical practices that encourage
active engagement further supports utilizing an arts integrated approach in
lesson planning.
Arts Creation, Production, Presentation, and Performance
Teaching and learning in and through the arts supports the development of
creative and critical thinking skills for all students. The creation of artwork
and performances is central to an arts integrated curriculum. Through the arts
form, students are able to study and analyze (arts criticism) the influences of
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Table 1. National core arts standards
Artistic Processes Anchor Standards

Creating #1 Generate and conceptualize artistic ideas and work.
Creating #2 Organize and develop artistic ideas and work.
Creating #3 Refine and complete artistic work.
Performing/Presenting/Producing #4 Select, analyze, and interpret artistic work for presentation.
Performing/Presenting/Producing #5 Develop and refine artistic techniques and work for presentation.
Performing/Presenting/Producing #6 Convey meaning through the presentation of artistic work.
Responding #7 Perceive and analyze artistic work.
Responding #8 Interpret intent and meaning in artistic work.
Responding #9 Apply criteria to evaluate artistic work.
Connecting #10 Synthesize and relate knowledge and personal experiences to make art.
Connecting #11 Relate artistic ideas and works with societal, cultural and historical
context to deepen understanding.
history and aesthetics, which in turn inspire new work. The goal of artistic
creation is to communicate meaning through the selected media form (dance,
drama, music, and visual arts). Artistic creation and performance has inherent
value throughout history and in contemporary society. Influenced by society,
culture, philosophy, and experiences, production using the arts forms is an
extension of life. As part of life, artists, musicians, actors, and dancers (often
these roles are generally referred to as artists) express their emotions, thoughts
and spirit. As a uniting force, the arts are not separate from life, but instead
integrate and transform the human experience (Anderson & Milbrandt, 2005).
Ellen Dissanayake (1992) explains that humans have a biological need
to create which is supported throughout history and represented by various
artifacts around the world. Social and cultural importance is placed on the
behavior of artistic creation and performance, which connects to learning
within a society or culture. Humans are driven to create and it is this drive
that fuels the artistic work throughout history and into the future. Through
the arts, humanity can express thoughts and emotions using the unique
forms and media when other forms of expression such as, language may not
be adequate in capturing the intensity of their emotions and intellect. Art is
“culturally significant meaning, skillfully encoded in an affecting, sensuous
medium” (Anderson, 1990, p. 238). By communicating through the arts,
the artist’s emotions, thoughts and values are transferred to the selected
medium and meaning is transacted to the viewer through the artistic form
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of communication. The shared meaning inspires more communication as

the artistic process and the product both result in promoting understanding.
Verbal, visual, physical, social, and emotional transactions between the artist,
arts forms and the viewer results in a shared meaning derived from the work.
Knowing how to utilize the arts media to promote the communication of
meaning may begin with an understanding of the elements and principles
within each arts form (Goldberg, 2016).
The arts form of dance includes the elements of energy, movement, pattern,
repetition, space, and time. By learning dance, students use critical thinking
skills requiring collaborative interactions both verbally and nonverbally.
Education in the art of dance develops the knowledge and skills required
to create, perform, and understand movement as a means of artistic
communication. A comprehensive education includes improvisation, technique,
choreography, performance, observation and analysis. Exposure to dance
history and cultures, kinesiology and anatomy, and movement theories further
enriches the dance educational experience. Education in the art of dance
engages the artistic processes of creating, performing and critical analysis.
(National Dance Education Organization, 2017)
When students participate in drama, they incorporate the elements of

improvisation, movement, space, and time while immersing themselves into
a character and setting. Dramatic activities encourage students to explore
not only acting, but writing, stage design, lighting, and costuming (Koster,
2014). Often on stage, dance, drama, music and visual arts are integrated
to create a theatrical performance. Students learn the elements of music
through performance experience, both instrumental and vocal. Musical
practice involves learning to read musical notation and understanding how
to perform with a variety of instruments individually and as a group. Some
of the musical elements that students learn about include: contrast, melody,
repetition, and rhythm. Working with the elements of music, the students
explore collaborative and communication skills, while promoting self-
expression and creativity (Koster, 2014).
Teaching visual art includes the elements of art and principles of design.
The creation of artwork involves utilizing the elements of art (line, shape, form,
color, value, space, texture, and pattern). The elements of art are combined
to create the desired visual impact that is defined by the principles of design
including: balance, contrast, emphasis, movement, repetition, unity, and
variety. Together the elements of art and principles of design are combined
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by the artist to create the desired effect of the artwork. For example, using a
variety of types of line (thick, thin, wavy, and straight) create variety in an
artistic composition. A bright and bold color may create a point of emphasis
in a design (Dow, 1899). Students connect their knowledge of the elements of
art and the principles of design to communicate meaningful ideas to others
providing a forum for discussion and an exchange of thoughts and perspectives.
The basic vocabulary of each arts discipline allows students to discuss
their works and the work of others, while generally developing and explaining
different perspectives. During the production of artistic works, the elements
are manipulated to create the expression desired by the artist. Understanding
the elements of each arts form is the first step to mastering the use of various
media as an effective form of communication (Stewart & Walker, 2005).
Arts Criticism
Discussion about artistic works promotes the transaction of meaning between

the artist and the viewer. Often critics will explain that work speaks for
itself, which alludes to the process of analyzing the work for meaning by an
observer who did not create the work. Central to the process of arts criticism
is the artwork or performance. Without the work, criticism cannot occur as
there must be something to direct the critique. Arts criticism is an important
part of the creative process as having discussions promotes a variety of
interpretations, which also inspires future creation and further discourse.
The art criticism process in education generally has four steps: description,
analysis, interpretation and evaluation (Feldman, 1993). When introducing
a new artistic work to students, the teacher often asks for an initial reaction
(What do you think or what emotion is felt initially?). Supporting all student
answers that relate to work is important, since there are no wrong answers,
just differing perspectives. If a student response is unrelated to the work,
teachers can refocus and refer to details of the artistic creation. During the
description process, student answers begin by describing the elements and
principles related to the art form. For example, students may describe how a
painting includes large red geometric shapes, or how a musical composition
has a quick beat. Students describe what is seen in the artistic work. Teachers
can guide the discussion and use details and characteristics of the work to
help students complete the descriptive process.
Next, student analyze the work in order to explain why certain elements
or characteristics create impact or specific effects. For example, students may
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describe how the quick beat alternating with a slower beat creates a pattern
of sound, or how a jumping dancer creates emphasis on the movement.
Students may consider how the artist uses the elements to create an impact
on the viewer. At point in the discussion, students are usually interested
in contextual information or cultural influences on the work. Historical
or contemporary facts can be shared with students about the timeframe in
which the work was created, the life of the artist, and culture. Students should
identify: who created the work; what is the title of the work; when (time)
and where (place) was the work created; in which style is the work created;
what impact does the work have on society; and what does the work tell us
about the person who made or the culture that values it? Using a historical
timeline during an art criticism discussion is an excellent way for students
to visualize the events that stimulated the artistic work and influenced the
artist. There may also be personal life events that prompted the creation of
work that can be discussed. Sometimes, a teacher waits until after students
have interpreted the work before providing contextual information in order
to allow the student to personally connect with the work.
During the third step in the arts criticism process, students interpret the
work using the information gathered in the previous steps of the process.
Students explore meanings of work from different perspectives. Teachers
often ask students to consider what the artist is communicating or what
story is being told through the artwork. Student blend what they know about
the work with their own personal feelings and life experiences to create a
unique interpretation. There are no wrong answers since what students feel
and describe is their own interpretations. The open discourse approach to
accepting multiple perspectives is an important part of the criticism process.
Students relate their life experiences and what knowledge was gained through
the descriptive and analytical processes to support their interpretations.
Finally, students evaluate the creative work and consider whether or not the
work was worthy of exploration based upon their opinions and information
gained in the previous three steps of the criticism process. Students should
explain why they have come to specific conclusions. Criteria and reasonable
support from the critique process guide student evaluations of creative work.
Personal likes and dislikes may be described, but fully formed rationales of
why or why not a work is valuable must be discussed. Teachers may assist
the evaluative process by providing a list of criteria or questions for students
to discuss in a small group. Another strategy is for the class to discuss
criteria and create a list to consider when evaluating creative work. During
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the evaluation process, students should be able to rationalize why they have
come to a decision about the work (Anderson & Milbrandt, 2005).
Several questions are asked during the arts criticism process throughout
all four steps. In general, questions guide and define the type of critique that
is being used. Depending upon the audience for the critique and the desired
result, the arts critic may utilize a perspective or approach that is best suited.
For example, an arts critic that is interested in a feminist perspective may ask
questions about how feminine characteristics are portrayed and how society
has influenced this portrayal. An arts critic that is interested in formalism,
may analyze the work using the design elements and principles to interpret
meaning. Historical and cultural analysis would be included in a contextual
arts criticism approach. Using a different lens will lead to answers based
upon that perspective and yield a specific type of criticism. Which approach
to utilize depends upon the desired results of the critic and not based upon
the superiority of one approach to another (Feldman, 1993).
The process of arts criticism should be taught to students allowing for
practice individually and in groups to promote confidence. Students and
teachers should ask a variety of questions and discuss answers from differing
perspectives prior to writing a critique. Modeling the process first under the
close guidance of the teacher can assist students in effectively practicing arts
criticism in small groups before embarking on individual critiques. Providing
students with a list of suggested questions can guide them through the arts
criticism process (see Table 2).
Arts criticism begins with factual questioning (description) which leads
to higher order questioning and critical thinking skills such as, analysis,
interpretation and evaluation. As students practice arts criticism, their
questioning strategies and answers become analytically stronger as they
build rationales and arguments into the discussion depending upon different
perspectives. Students reflect and analyze their own thoughts and ideas as
well as those of their classmates to develop independent thinking and an
increase of metacognitive awareness (understanding why one thinks a certain
way; Stewart & Walker, 2005).
Arts History
Studying historical and contemporary artistic works, including information

about the life of those who created the work and the time period in which it
was created, provides students with knowledge pertaining to arts history. Art
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Table 2. Selected art criticism questions
Art Criticism Steps Questions for Students

Description • What do you see?
• What elements do you see?
• What is this? What does it remind you of?
• What is the subject or theme?
• What media or forms are used? How is it created?
Analysis • How are the elements used to create an impact?
• How does the artist/dancer/actor/musician create emphasis?
• How is movement used to create unity? Or contrast?
• How is balance created?
Interpretation • What is the story being told?
• What is the artist/actor/dancer/musician trying to tell the viewer?
• What meaning is expressed?
• If you were a part of the composition/performance how would you feel? What
you would you be thinking?
Evaluation • Is the artistic work worthy of your time to critique?
• Do you like the work or not? Why?
• What criteria can be used to measure the value of the work?
• What are the reasons for the value or significance of the work?
history includes completing research using primary and secondary documents

and artifacts to learn more about the life of an artist/actor/dancer/musician
and the culture that influenced the work. The context in which the artistic
work was created includes the people involved in the process, timeframe,
location, and reason for the artistic production. Students’ can research how the
artwork was originally used or presented and what was the intent or purpose
of the creation. Cultural importance may stem from everyday life, special
occasions, religious ceremonies, and political events. Multiple perspectives
or viewpoints can provide a historian with a better sense of the meaning
for artifacts around the world. In contemporary arts history, artistic work is
presented thematically for cross-cultural connections to acknowledge multiple
viewpoints. Meaning is constructed through research that includes narratives
that present factual accounts, emotional discourse, and personal perspectives
that make up a collective human consciousness (Anderson & Milbrant, 2005).
Arts history should include research of primary documents such as,
letters written by artists, interviews, film recordings, or personal journals.
Reading letters from the artist or from the artist’s family and friends provide
new insights into the artist’s life (Stewart & Walker, 2005). For example,
Vincent Van Gogh, a post-impressionist painter, wrote many letters to his
brother Theo explaining his current paintings and his emotional state. The
letters between Vincent and Theo are invaluable in understanding the artistic
work and interpreting the meaning through context. Another example is the
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journals and sketchbooks of Leonardo daVinci, which show his many ideas
for inventions. Some of the drawings were for prototypes of machines that
daVinci built and other sketches were more imaginative for his time. Students
can study these sketchbooks to learn more about inventions and how many
trials are needed before an idea becomes a reality. Secondary resources
are also valuable to gain an understanding of different perspectives of the
artistic work. Observational accounts of performances in music, dance and
theater provide information that can be used by students to further interpret
an artistic work.
Another strategy used by arts historians is to create a timeline. Various
historical events can be mapped along the timeline to explain influences on
actors/artists/dancers/musicians and their artistic work (Anderson & Milbrandt,
2005). For K-12 students, organizing events in a graphic or illustrated approach,
such as a timeline, help to connect events and artistic work and explain how
arts historians organize periods of art (see Figure 2).
Students can better understand the political pressures and influences
of world events when a brief timeline is discussed. For example, in Figure
2 students can analyze how Columbus’s voyage to the Americas affected
religious pressures that impacted daVinci’s painting of the Last Supper and
Michelangelo’s painting of the Sistine Chapel. Understanding how one event
causes another event is illustrated in a timeline. Also, when students organize
historical events, they can better understand global influences. For example,
the concept that Mayan temples were constructed in the same timeframe that
Byzantine paintings were created and when Arabic algebra was developed
may explain the mathematical influences and provide deeper insight for
students to better understand the advances throughout history. Developing
cross-cultural timelines creates a more meaningful understanding of influences
around the world and the effects on the arts. One example for historical study
includes students researching a painting, musical composition and dance from
three different cultures but during the same time period and comparing the
information to analyze common themes and differences. By comparing three
different art forms from different parts of the world, students can gain a deeper
understanding of the importance of arts history knowledge (Goldberg 2016).
Figure 2. Sample arts historical timeline
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Students connect to arts historical research when it is presented in a way

that engages their interests. One way to connect theater and visual art is to role
play various artists/dancers/actors/musicians (generally referred to as artists)
on stage with costumes and stage settings. Creating a tableau or replication of
a famous work of art using people in costumes also provides a unique way to
explore the work. Puppetry connects the dramatic arts to historical information
when students create puppets of their favorite artist and perform a short play
explaining biographical information and the meaning behind artistic works.
Students can interview contemporary artists in their community and share
the information in a film or presentation to the class. Students can interview
each other and highlight the artworks, inspiration, and goals of each student.
The interviews can be shared in multiple formats such as, a publication in the
school newsletter, a page on the school website, or on social media if students
agree to share the information publicly. Student interviews can lead to writing
personal artist’s statements, which explain the process and inspiration of the
artistic work. Students can research artist’s statements and model writing
styles and structures to create their own artists’ statements.
Connecting art history to social media use by students may provide another
strategy to engage in historical study. Since the arts are a form of communication,
artistic works naturally align with social media communication. Students can
research a selected artist/actor/dancer/musician and apply the information
to designing a website or social media site. For example, students could
write imaginary emails or texts between Vincent Van Gogh and his brother
Theo. How would a text to Paul Gaugin, Vincent’s friend and fellow artist
be different? As Paul Gaugin’s relationship with Van Gogh deteriorated
and he moved to Polynesia, how would his messages change? Since Paul
Gaugin’s artwork represents his travel abroad, students could include travel
photographs through social media to document Gaugin’s travels. Students
could apply concepts they have learned through their own relationships using
social media to a situation in historical context. Another interesting example
might be Berthe Morisot emailing or texting her longtime friend Edouard
Manet about her marriage to his brother Eugene. Wedding plans during that
historical time period could spark the imaginations of students in contemporary
classrooms. Since Edouard Manet painted many portraits of Berthe Morisot,
students could compose an invitation for her to sit for a portrait. Connecting
technology with arts historical research is a unique approach to learning and
requires higher order thinking skills beyond researching an artist/actor/dancer/
musician as students must imagine how that historical person would utilize
technology and social media. Higher level inference requires students to look
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beyond facts and discover the personality of the artist/actor/dancer/musician

and their relationships with others. Identifying the artist, title of the work and
time period is only the beginning of historical research. Creative applications
using technology and resources that promote a deeper understanding of arts
history can inspire students to explore and research. Arts history can be
exciting for students if strategies that engage imagination are used (Stewart
& Walker, 2005).
Aesthetics
Engaging students in the philosophical study of artistic work also provides

inspiration for students to create, discuss and research. Aesthetic inquiry
encourages deep and meaningful discourse about the arts and the roles in
society that the arts play. Through conversation and questions, students
explore aesthetics through discourse, debate and argument to create informed
opinions. The aesthetic question of what is art has evolved to include the
how and why behind formulating the rationale of art. Since there are no
definitive answers and no end to questions that can be asked, aesthetics is
by nature a philosophy. Meaning is constructed based upon an individual’s
experiences and the context that surrounds the artistic work. Culturally,
aesthetics or a philosophy of the arts is embedded into the values, beliefs and
social structure of a society. The discipline of aesthetics varies around the
world such as, Western (European) and Eastern (Asia) forms of aesthetics.
The value of the arts shifts based upon societal values, just as the arts forms
and expression differ depending upon the culture from which it is created. A
Western approach to aesthetics concerns the concept of beauty entwined with
form, skills and emotions expressed through the media. Aesthetic theories
are formulated through the questions and arguments that encourage debate
and reflection upon the artistic work. Culturally constructed meanings and
reasons are created to examine the aesthetic rationales discussed, as there is
no right or ultimate answer (Anderson & Milbrandt, 2005).
How one encounters the arts form is defined by personal perspectives.
The definition of what is and what is not considered art depends upon the
perspective taken (Battersby, 1990). The variety of possible perspectives creates
considerable disagreements among aesthetic theorists concerning the nature
of art and the concept of experience with arts forms. The experience with
an artistic work is often referred to as the aesthetic experience or heightened
emotional awareness of the work. The aesthetic experience allows individuals
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to gain a full appreciation of the work and is often described through a

sense of awe and beauty. Differentiated from other types of experiences, the
aesthetic experience involves emotional and sensory immersion in response
the creative stimulus. An aesthetic heightened awareness is recognized
by the individual as special or extraordinary as the senses are enlivened
to more intensely experience the interaction (Dewey, 1934). John Dewey
(1934) explained in his aesthetic theory that joy is brought into life through
the aesthetic experience, which defines humanity’s foundational urge to
create artistic work. “The capacity for aesthetics is a fundamental human
characteristic” (Mayesky, 2009. p. 37). The concept of humans as creators
is further developed by Ellen Dissanayake (1992) explaining that humanity’s
foundational urge to be aesthetic beings is a biological need. Humans are
designed to be creators and the extraordinary aesthetic experiences make
life special. A philosophy that art is an integral part of life and should not be
detached from daily experience and comprehension is promoted throughout
the concept of humans as creators (Anderson & Milbrant, 2005). As a natural
part of life, the arts influence people’s lives. The appreciation of the arts and
realization of beauty held within the aesthetic experience, makes aesthetic
inquiry valuable in society (Zeglin Brand & Korsmeyer, 1995). The analysis
and reflection required of aesthetic inquiry is important for society as “Works
of art have a philosophical complexity that enables analysis of them to serve
as models for the analysis of large complexes of lived life: issues of value,
of subjectivity, of content, of meaning, and of embodiment that resonate
throughout the domains of philosophical reflection” (Danto, 1995, p. xv-xvi).
The intricacies of humanity may be explored through aesthetic inquiry. How
people perceive and appreciate works of art defines the aesthetic theories as
related to criticism (interpretation and evaluation) and ascribes meaning to
cultural artworks (Hein & Korsmeyer, 1993).
Contemporary aesthetics focuses on cultural frameworks and historical
connections that place the artistic work in context in order to derive meaning
through the media or form. Approaching aesthetics from a cultural perspective
encourages the discovery of why and how an artistic work is recognized
by society as art. Identifying artifacts and performances as art or not art is
culturally defined. Questioning how artistic decisions are made and how
people think about art involves interpretation and evaluation of personal and
cultural attitudes, values and beliefs. How art is defined and who decides the
value of art is as important as the aesthetic question of what is art or not, since
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perspectives and biases influence the decision-making process. Expanding

the philosophical inquiry to include the how and why extends metacognitive
awareness and may pose contrasting concepts within the field of aesthetics.
For example, a feminist perspective on aesthetics takes into account the
many contributions that women have made to the arts throughout history.
Often the artistic endeavors of women have been historically unrecognized
such as, the art form of quilting or weaving (Hein, 1990; Korsmeyer, 1998;
Battersby, 1990). Feminist aesthetics theory often contrasts institutional
aesthetics theory that recognizes the arts by qualified experts or recognized
organizations in the field. Institutional aesthetics focuses on the evaluations
provided by experts in the field. For example, if the painting is exhibited in
a reputable museum such as, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, then
the work must be recognized as art. Simply associating the artistic work
with the institution places value on the work as an elevated art form. The
institutional perspective although common in practice has the flaw of not
questioning who the experts are and what are their backgrounds, beliefs and
values (Korsmeyer, 1998).
As discussed earlier, aesthetics is greatly influenced by attitudes, beliefs
and values found in culture. There are many different aesthetic theories that
reflect a variety of perspectives. Formalism focuses the aesthetic lens on the
elements and principles and the successful use of these characteristics in the
chosen media. Imitational aesthetic theory proves the value of artistic work
through the work’s ability to mimic or provide a realistic connection to the
world. Expressionistic aesthetic theory emphasizes the emotional power of
the work. Expressionists demonstrate through the arts form their feelings in
hopes of inspiring like emotions in the viewer and contribute to a combined
expression of meaning. Pragmatic aesthetic theory focuses on how the work is
created and used in a society in order to derive meaning. Pragmatists question
what the artistic work is used for and what effects are generated within a
society. If a work has impact and changes the way people may view a particular
art form, pragmatic aesthetic inquiry may provide valuable insight about the
artistic work. Aesthetic discussion is guided by the many different aesthetic
theories that represent a variety of perspectives. During discussion, students
may select several aesthetic theories to support their claims and combine
concepts to gain a deeper understanding of the artistic work. Students’ artistic
development is enhanced through aesthetic discussion as the process promote
introspection and reflection beyond an initial reaction to the arts (Anderson
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& Milbrandt, 2005). A supportive classroom environment that encourages

open discussion benefits students by allowing them to explain unique ideas
and express their understanding of the world. Students develop their own
sense of aesthetics as they observe, recognize and define the beauty present
in the arts and throughout everyday life.
DISCUSSION, REFLECTION, AND ANALYSIS

IN K-12 ARTS INTEGRATION
The arts are best taught in a safe learning environment where students feel
secure to express their ideas freely. Since creating artistic work is a reflection
of students’ lives, students’ interests and exploration of concepts should be
valued and integrated into arts learning. Through arts integration, students
learn to create expressive work, consider philosophical ideas about the arts,
discuss artistic work, and study historical and contemporary connections to
culture. The goal of learning in and through the arts is to better understand the
self, others, community, and the world (Anderson & Milbrandt, 2005). Using
the STREAMSS approach requires educators to value all of the integrated
disciplines. Curriculum that reflects the STREAMSS model has the potential
to actively engage students in meaningful learning that impacts their lives
and others with whom they interact.
Teaching and Learning Strategies in Arts Integration
Providing a balanced curriculum that supports the strengths and needs of all
students is an important part of the STREAMSS approach. In this chapter,
the arts have been emphasized through an arts integrated curriculum. As a
form of communication and meaningful expression, the arts are valued in
society for many reasons including an avenue for developing students’ creative
potential, for promoting critical thinking and reflection, and for innovating
the future (Szekely & Bucknam, 2012). Teaching and learning strategies in
each discipline of the STREAMSS model with an emphasis on the arts assist
teachers in planning instruction. Active engagement of students in the learning
process can be supported in many ways such as, arts integration. There are
many strategies that can be utilized when integrating the arts, the suggested
strategies can easily be expanded and adapted by educators for all students.
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Science
Many learning strategies that are employed in the field science are suitable
for exploration in the arts. Artists and scientists experiment with concepts
usually based upon keen observations of the world and its phenomena. For
example, the theory of color and the spectrum of colors provide a topic
that is important to science and arts learning. In the arts, understanding
how color is mixed to create new colors and the basic order of colors in the
prism, assists elementary aged children in planning their composition. Older
students enjoy creating unique color compositions using color theory such
as, complementary color pairs and monochromatic color themes. Another
connection is the use of journals and sketchbooks to record observations and
ideas. The sketchbook/journal can be store bought or hand-made. The studio
process of creating a hand-made journal may create a sense of ownership for
students and increase the reflective quality of the entries. Using a journal
every day for students is part of the research, inquiry and creative process
(Goldberg, 2016).
Technology
As part of the human experience, students are engaged in technology on a

daily basis. When a child plays on a locked cellphone mimicking an adult
conversation, people smile and laugh as it is a reflection of the adult behavior and
further promotes interaction. Children quickly learn how to snap photographs
and navigate app icons on smart phones and tablets. Technology surrounds
K-12 students and it is a very real part of their lives. Technology such as, apps,
video games, digital photography, and videos can be used effectively in the
classroom. When designing instructional experiences that include technology,
educators should preview and use the technology becoming familiar with the
device and program applications prior to teaching students. New programs
and devices for educational use are constantly being designed. Both teachers
and parents should be informed and knowledgeable about current technology
and its use. Designing developmentally appropriate learning experiences
for students that involve technology prepares them for future learning and
promotes real world experiences (Stegman, 2014).
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Reading
Since a child’s graphic symbol system is developed through art, writing and
drawing have many similarities. Using a wide variety of materials to create
marks helps children to recognize the meaning behind mark making and
starts the journey to alphabetic understanding (The Department for Children,
Schools and Families, 2008). Strategies that promote reading comprehension
are varied and are utilized before reading, during reading and after reading
to help student make connections between the self and text, the world and
text and text to text (Keene & Zimmerman, 2007). A print rich environment
supports reading development which includes posters, charts, graphs, maps,
and visual art displayed throughout the learning environment. Multimodal
literacy, being literate in many different forms of communication, is important
in contemporary society since people use icons, images, photographs, social
media, websites, and video to exchange ideas (Stegman, 2014).
Engineering
The arts and engineering are both interdisciplinary in nature. Many artists
throughout history were also inventors and builders, basically engineering
or design new creations. Leonardo daVinci demonstrated that many artistic
works are engineered such as, his flying machines. When the arts are combined
with engineering, students discover that there is more than just making a
working invention, but the invention must user friendly, attractive and creative.
Engineers and artists can visualize results and create models or sketches to
quickly communicate the vision to others. Valuing risk taking and creative
problem solving, students are flexible to move beyond failure through trials
to successful working solutions. Design education focuses student learning
on how to make new ideas into reality. Robotics is one example of how
technology, engineering and the arts are combined successfully. Architectural
innovations for energy conservation that are aesthetically pleasing combine
the arts, science and engineering (The Congressional STEAM Caucus, 2013).
Mathematics
Integrating mathematical concepts with the arts provide active engagement for
students to better understand complex ideas. For example, when elementary
aged students study the concept of physical space, students should be able to
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visualize perspective and understand basic geometry in order to conceive of

how objects recede and get smaller as they approach the horizon line. Repetition
and pattern also require mathematical thinking for young students. The more
complex the pattern, the more time a young student needs to contemplate
and understand the repeated sequence. Musical patterns, visual patterns
and choreographic patterns require mathematical comprehension as active
engagement. Balance is another arts concepts that overlaps mathematics since
the concept of physical weight and visual weight requires contemplation and
computation. Visual weight refers to a sense of balance that a design is similar
or the same (reflection) on both sides of the line of symmetry (symmetrical
design). If the design is different on each side of the line symmetry, then the
design is asymmetrical. Measurement is another concept that can be integrated
with the arts. For example, portrait drawing, stage design, and costume design
all require forms of measurement to complete. Another example that relates
to mathematics is tessellations by the artist M.C. Escher which provide visual
examples of reflection, translation and rotation (Goldberg, 2016).
Social Studies
Students learn and retain knowledge when they are actively engaged in creative
activities. Connecting culture and history through the arts supports social
studies learning for K-12 students. For example, elementary aged students can
create dioramas of scenes throughout history. Many children have transformed
small boxes into landscapes, seascapes, cityscapes, and other habitats around the
world. Describing physical geography by recreating places and environments
in miniature scale develops spatial context and communicates learning through
visual media. Another strategy is to use drama to reenact historical events
complete with costumes and props. Students can research the event and the
different roles of people who contributed to history. For example, students
can perform daily life in Jamestown, VA in 1607 and compare this with what
they know about Pilgrims and their arrival to America. Dramatic activities
bring history alive and helps students understand the emotions, difficulties,
and successes of people during specific time periods. Cultural understanding
can be supported through the arts. When studying cultures around the world,
students can explore traditional dances, clothes, food, music, and artworks.
Multicultural celebrations come to life when the arts are integrated to promote
student engagement. Learning about historical connections to music allows
students to realize how musical performance has shaped history (Goldberg,
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2016). For example, Woody Guthrie’s This Land is Your Land was composed
during a long road trip across American during the 1930s. Students can
research photographs of this time period to give context to the song. Next,
students can rewrite the words of the melody to reflect contemporary events
in America. Many strategies for arts integration in the STREAMSS model
are possible (see Table 3).
The concepts presented in Table 3 provide a first step to integrating the
arts in curriculum using the STREAMSS approach. Teachers can adapt and
expand ideas to incorporate specific topics of study and themes covered
throughout the academic year (Post, Ellis, Humphreys, & Buggey, 1997).
With the STREAMSS approach, curriculum connects meaningful student
learning and promotes deeper comprehension.
School and Community Resources
The arts bring learning to life for students and connect to real world
experiences. Demonstrations and discussions by guests (in person or virtually)
are effective strategies to capture students’ interests and connect to the real
world. Inviting guests who have origins from other countries can support
a multicultural curriculum by sharing stories, music, dance, arts, clothing,
language, food, customs, and celebrations. Students can design posters and
flyers announcing the cultural event and inviting family members to visit
the classroom. Many family members have expertise in a wide variety of
disciplines (Goldberg, 2016). Parents with careers that involve any disciplines
within the STREAMSS model can be invited to share or demonstrate their
knowledge. Community members who have musical, dramatic, or dance
related expertise can share information with students about their training,
tools/instruments, and passion for the arts form. Actors and actresses can
perform historically based monologues, dialogues, or scenes from plays
making history come to life.
Students can visit museums and art galleries to interact with works of art
and complete activities in criticism, aesthetics, art production, and historical
research. For example, the Morikami Museum and Japanese Gardens in
Delray Beach, FL provides not only artistic forms for reflection, but historical
information about Florida’s past and connection with Japanese settlers.
Creating artistic works while on a field trip makes the work more meaningful
and aesthetically creative. Students can use photography and film to capture
the visit, which can inspire journals and sketchbooks. Artists’ books can
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Table 3. Strategies for arts integration through STREAMSS
Arts History Arts Criticism Aesthetics Arts Production

and Performance
Science Research inventions Connect the Debate how Create sketchbooks
and discoveries observational process theories affects and field notes,
throughout history and field notes to viewpoints in both illustrate steps of an
and the impacts on the description and fields, Copernicus, experiment, dance
arts, the Gutenberg analysis to gain Galileo, or play music to
Press and printing arts, understanding of Renaissance artists, demonstrate natural
chemical analysis and science and art in Contemporary phenomena
ceramic glaze daily lives brain research and
creativity
Technology Research historical Describe selected Debate Invent a machine or
inventions that technological embellishment and tool after studying
innovated the field, advances and its decoration on new daVinci, design new
computer software benefits & detriments devices, colors, apps with computer
for drawing and to the arts, evaluate shape and materials illustration, video
illustration, 3D new technology and of smartphones, game design, phone
printers for sculptural its effect on the arts, robotic illustrators, design, vehicles,
design, slide rule, tablets, smartphones website design perform a dance with
camera, film and video lasers
Reading Research literature Write critiques and Communicate a Write using
throughout history, discuss artworks, use debate and rational Ekphrasis in response
Shakespearean plays, Visual Read-Aloud, argument using to the arts (prose or
Greek comedies. Stretch to Sketch, researched theories poetry), illustration
Reader’s Theatre to analysis of text to support position, of text, artist books,
depict historical events illustrations, evaluate development of pop-up books,
text as expression opinions environmental print
Engineering Connect to architecture Evaluate engineering Debate bridge Design a new style
and machines/tools, design as compared design and of building after
stage design, movable to artistic design, strength compared studying Frank Lloyd
props using pulleys describe problem to cultural Wright, build cities,
and gears, silkscreen solving in both the interpretation of new roof design to
and Warhol, portable arts and engineering beauty, compare withstand natural
paint tubes and creativity in both disasters
Impressionism fields
Math Connect computations Critique the process Debate capitalism Dance or move to
and composition, i.e. of creating a musical and its impact on learn math concepts,
perspective, geometry composition and the arts, research addition, subtraction,
of angles and mathematical ideas, and estimate multiplication,
Renaissance art Fibonacci series economic impact of perform a play that
the arts in the U.S. explains probability
Social Studies Connect cultural Compare cultural Discuss the role of Create a historical
artifacts from effects on different the Medici family timeline with world
around the world & perspectives on the arts, select a events and artistic
throughout history evaluating the arts, cultural artifact and time periods,
(Japanese prints use descriptive define why and why describe how
influenced French research to not it is art, describe geography affects
Impressionism; qualitatively describe how social activism cultures and the
African masks and and analyze events affects the arts respective arts forms,
sculpture inspired and images, critique using contemporary design posters,
Picasso) political cartoons. artistic works to cartoons
support
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also result from a visit and provide personally meaningful expressions of

knowledge. Student work and performance can be shared with the community
through multiple avenues such as, exhibitions of visual art in public places,
dramatic performances in auditoriums, dances at outdoor parks, and musical
performances at amphitheaters. With the assistance of technology, students
can visit the world and the world can visit the classroom. For example, an
artist in a studio can use video conferencing with students in a classroom to
discuss current artworks. With advance planning, teachers can bring a wide
variety of artists into the classroom to work with students and further their
artistic futures (Mayesky, 2009).
CONCLUSION
The arts are a necessary part of the STREAMSS curriculum model. Through
an arts integrated curriculum, teachers are encouraging a life-long interest
in the arts for K-12 students. Creative action is demonstrated by teaching
decisions such as, selection of materials, design of space, artistic practice,
and personal passion. The act of teaching itself is an art form since instruction
requires improvisation, personal engagement, and meaningful interactions
to communicate ideas to others. Professional development for educators is
necessary to practice and learn new teaching and learning strategies (Stewart
& Walker, 2005). Bringing arts criticism, arts history, aesthetics, and arts
production/performance into the curriculum motivates student learning and
supports a teacher’s own learning by expanding knowledge of the profession.
Teachers come across a variety of situations in which unique student needs
must be met (Anderson & Milbrandt, 2005). An arts integrated approach to
the STREAMSS curriculum may effectively provide for student success by
actively engaging creativity.
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Aesthetics: A sense of beauty and philosophical value of the arts.

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(Anderson & Milbrandt, 2005).
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Arts Advocacy: Support of the arts in a specific context to create a strong

foundation for artistic action.
Arts Criticism: To comprehend and interpret the meaning of the artistic
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for the artistic work.
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Chapter 5
Interdisciplinary Curriculum
in K-12 Schools:
Current Practices in the Field
ABSTRACT
Creating a multidisciplinary curriculum may be challenging for some teachers
due to a variety in grade levels, subjects taught, time allowed or devoted per
subject or course, and class size combined with the emphasis on high stakes
testing and content knowledge in other subjects. However, since all teachers
have the potential to create integrated STREAMSS (science, technology,
reading-writing/language arts, engineering, the arts, mathematics, and social
studies) lessons, teachers may find the assistance they need by collaborating
with teacher colleagues, connecting with parents and community members,
and exploring available resources. A simplified “how to” list on creating a
multidisciplinary lesson and examples of how STREAMSS concepts could be
intertwined within and among topics is provided in this chapter.
INTRODUCTION
Teaching and learning through an interdisciplinary curriculum involves

complex approaches and diverse strategies. Students practice the skills and
techniques necessary for making effective connections between disciplines
(Drake, 1998). The STREAMSS approach to curriculum design encourages
students to comprehend intricate relationships and creatively problem-solve.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-4065-6.ch005
Interdisciplinary Curriculum in K-12 Schools
Educators should recognize the possibilities of interdisciplinary instruction

to effectively plan lessons and units of study that meet students’ needs and
strengths. The challenges of interdisciplinary learning are actually opportunities
to find unique solutions that encourage creativity and inventiveness (Drake
& Burns, 2004).
Objectives
• Describe United States school programs and general characteristics of

elementary, middle, and high school interdisciplinary instruction
• Analyze current interdisciplinary practices in the K-12 field
• Identify and discuss best practices and effective strategies for the K-12
STREAMSS curriculum
• Recognize that pedagogical practices in the K-12 STREAMSS model
can be adapted to meet all students’ needs
K-12 INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM PROGRAMS
The STREAMSS approach to curriculum relies on the notion that learning can
be meaningful when concepts are interconnected (Wood, 2005). For instance,
the arts and social studies are often integrated since the two subjects are
viewed as naturally interdisciplinary due to the manner in which the subjects’
content (e.g., people, places, and events), skills (e.g., creative expression and
perspective) and techniques (e.g., critical thinking and higher order questioning)
have similar curriculum and instruction underpinnings. Therefore, in this
text, the authors have chosen to showcase the interdisciplinary teaching
and learning approach through examples of infusing STREAMSS subjects
to encourage educators to pursue interrelated ideas and new pedagogical
strategies for their own classrooms.
Introduction to K-12 School Programs
Traditionally in U.S. K-12 schools, students are generally taught using

isolated disciplines. The school schedule, which is customarily divided into
discrete time periods, not only tends to encourage students to study specific
disciplines, but also contributes to the marginalization of the arts and social
studies (McDonald, 2010). The issue of fragmentation, or the division and
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detachment of subjects, inspired the authors to research and practice an all-

inclusive interdisciplinary curriculum, which ultimately led to the development
of the STREAMSS model. The STREAMSS method, a planning process of
connecting concepts within a variety of disciplines, can provides numerous
opportunities for teachers to collaborate. For example, professional learning
communities (PLC) could be designed for teachers to study and create
an interdisciplinary curriculum. By adopting a professional development
framework, PLCs could help teachers learn about a topic of interest and
apply effective research-based strategies in the classroom (McLaughlin &
Talbert, 2006). Classroom instructors of all subjects, as well as other education
professionals, community members, and even parents, could work as a team
or play a role in designing and implementing an interdisciplinary curriculum
(Wood, 2005).
Team teaching is a system of collective practice that involves the
collaboration of educators with other educators during the planning,
implementation, and debriefing stage of any given strategy or technique
geared for teacher and student success. As Welch, Brownell, and Sheridan
(1999) report, team teaching could be viewed as a form of “consultation
and teaming involving dyads of teachers in classroom and small groups
of educators working together to solve problems” (p. 36). Although team
teaching could include individuals who have the shared duty to problem
solve and make decisions regarding students’ academic and social needs,
such as teachers, staff, administrators, and service providers such as social
workers and school psychologists (Welch, Brownell, & Sheridan, 1999), team
teaching does not require team members to collaborate within the confines of
a classroom setting; when educators join forces to share effective strategies
and content expertise, team teaching can take place in a multitude of settings
and for several reasons. On the other hand, co-teaching, a term that is often
mistakenly used synonymously with the phrase team teaching, differs from
team teaching in that co-teaching involves teachers assisting each other
during instruction to diverse groups of students in one setting, primarily the
classroom. Co-teaching could consist of one teacher delivering instruction
while another teacher circulates around the room assisting students (Bouck,
2010). Co-teachers may either choose to alternate lead instruction when the
topic of study highlights a specific co-teacher’s subject/content strength,
or a co-teacher may assist the lead teacher when implementing an activity.
Another co-teaching strategy could comprise of dividing the classroom into
two groups (rearranging classroom desks if necessary), and each teacher
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delivering different instruction separately to their assigned group. At the

close of the lesson, the teachers or students then switch places.
Team- or co-teaching can be more easily facilitated if teachers share a
common planning time during which teachers could collaborate and design
cooperative events, as well as discuss student progress. As Kohler-Evans
(2006) insists, it is vital that teachers who co-teach “find time for mutual
planning. How can two teachers practice their craft simultaneously in front
of a class full of students without having time to plan?” (p. 262). However,
regardless of the specificity of an educators’ role (lead or assistant) or in what
setting the co-teaching or team teaching will occur, the significant component
of collaboration between educators is “that professionals from various fields
of education are working together rather than in isolated settings to serve
students” (Welch, Brownell, & Sheridan, 1999, p. 36).
Team teaching has the power to assist teachers in improving their skills.
Through the concerted efforts of teachers, students could be given the
opportunity to learn beyond a single teacher’s delivery of instruction, and realize
the interrelatedness of subjects, topics, and concepts through various other
teachers’ knowledge and perspectives. As an example, a first-grade classroom
teacher could collaborate with the visual arts specialist and music educator to
create a unit of study about the various senses (e.g., seeing, hearing, smelling,
and touching) by focusing on color, texture and sound. At the middle and
high school levels, team teaching may take the form of an interdepartmental
team, consisting of all teachers from a single grade level, all of whom work
in various disciplines, but all of whom contribute to each other’s lessons and
curriculum. Teachers who work together to plan interdisciplinary study units
could propose school wide events (McDonald, 2010). For example, sixth
grade teachers may decide to plan a unit of study focusing on celebrations in
different cultures and plan an international festival, where students present
what they learned in a multitude of subjects or courses to an audience of peers,
family, and community members. Teachers may also choose to select a theme
or issue, such as water conservation, that involves learning in all disciplines;
students could learn scientific, technological, environmental concepts about
water and how to conserve this natural resource. Posters and flyers about how
to conserve water on a daily basis in the home and at school can be designed
by students using artistic software and printed for distribution across the
community. Photographs of students practicing water conservation can be
posted and sent through social media and promoted on the school website.
Instruction could be designed with special topics or thematic units of study.
Themes, concepts, and skills that are central to the student inquiry process
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could include the required content standards presented through the lens of
real world experiences (see Figure 1).
Thematic units include a wide variety of strategies that engage students in
learning. Although thematic units initially stem from student inquiry, teachers
use content standards in each interrelated discipline to guide instruction and
connect learning experiences, concepts, and skill-building to the real world.
As students’ growth, development, and learning are interdependent, and not
fragmented into developmental domains or content areas, it is the responsibility
of teachers to focus on the links between themes and the required curriculum
content standards (Post, Ellis, Humphreys, & Buggey, 1997; Taylor, Carpenter,
Ballengee-Morris, & Sessions, 2006).
At all grade levels, students benefit from guest speakers including family
members, faculty, school staff and other community members who are willing
to share their expertise with learners. Building relationships with others in the
school and community is a necessary part of providing real world experiences
in the classroom (Drake, 1998). Fieldtrips are also an important part of
learning (Behrendt & Franklin, 2014) and can include visits to museums
Figure 1. Interdisciplinary curriculum through thematic inquiry
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(e.g., historical, science, and art), parks, nature centers, natural areas (e.g.,
parks and preserves), theaters, and auditoriums. Best practices for curricular
integration can be implemented in all grade levels at elementary, middle and
high schools. An interdisciplinary approach emphasizes students’ learning
within real world experiences through interrelated concepts, processes,
and skills (Wood, 2005). In the STREAMSS model, both teachers and
students discover connections among content knowledge, create an in-depth
comprehension of ideas, and share cultural and personal experiences related
to the topic of study.
Interdisciplinary Curriculum in Elementary Schools
Elementary level school structures usually include self-contained classrooms

for primary level (kindergarten, first grade, and second grade) students. For
intermediate level students (third, fourth, and fifth grades), students may attend
classes for specific disciplines using the team teaching model, or where one
teacher selects to teach a specific field based upon expertise. Self-contained
classrooms are also common for intermediate level students as structures vary
school to school. A self-contained classroom structure is often beneficial
when students need consistency for developmental reasons since many young
children bond closely with their classroom teachers (Fogarty, 1991; Wood,
2005). Interdisciplinary planning across a grade level ensures consistency
for young students and may contribute to the transfer of knowledge between
subject areas. By relating topics of study through thematic units, teachers’
instruction and students’ learning may benefit the curriculum since multiple
subjects are covered within interdisciplinary lessons (Post, Ellis, Humphreys,
& Buggey, 1997).
Interdisciplinary Curriculum in Middle Schools
At most middle schools, disciplines are divided and taught separately by

different teachers. If teachers have common planning times in their daily
schedules, teams can be assembled to create a multidisciplinary curriculum.
For example, if all seventh-grade teachers have a common planning period,
teachers of different disciplines such as English, Mathematics, Science,
History, and the Arts, may collaborate on school wide themes or events.
Teachers can visit colleague’s classrooms as guest speakers to present a united
front for student learning. If students are asked about thematic learning in
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every class period regardless of the discipline, connections in learning begin

to strengthen with teacher guidance. Due to a common student base, middle
school teachers are sometimes more willing to work with colleagues who
teach different subjects in order to promote school-wide learning and student
engagement in a multidisciplinary curriculum. Larger class sizes encourage
interaction between peers as students make connections with other students
in different periods of the daily school schedule. Word spreads quickly among
middle school students that teachers in all subjects are well-engaged, actively
plan collaboratively, highly interactive, and willing to go the extra mile to
gain a deeper understanding of interrelated topics (Post, Ellis, Humphreys, &
Buggey, 1997; Troen, & Boles, 2011). For example, a social studies teacher
in a middle school may work with other teachers on meaningful social themes
that result in whole school events or large social projects that encourage
activism and civic responsibilities. Thematic units that support all students’
learning create a school culture in which administrators, teachers, students,
and family members care about each other and contribute equally. Promoting
caring relationships is an important part of learning that could lead to actions
that support reciprocal feelings and motivate further positive interactions in
the classroom (Noddings, 2002).
Interdisciplinary Curriculum at High Schools
An interdisciplinary curriculum is often more challenging at most U.S. middle

schools and high schools due to tight class schedules, larger student enrollment,
varied grade levels enrolled in the same classes, graduation requirements,
high stakes testing (standardized tests and end-of-course examinations), extra-
curricular programs, and specialized curriculum (Applebee, Adler, & Flihan,
2007). Fragmentation poses difficulties for the design of new curriculum,
instructional practices and scheduling of courses. Moreover, secondary teachers
often fear the loss of teaching positions and shudder at the thought of adding
to their workload in an already overloaded schedule. In an effort to overcome
time constraints, teachers often resort to teaching an extra class during what
normally would be a planning time, or combine multiple courses during one
period to meet student course demands. A disadvantage to blended courses
is that the students enrolled in the class, when from different grade levels,
have varying levels of experience or knowledge of the study topic. Thus, it
can be difficult to come up with a one-size-fits-all curriculum to suit every
student at the same time. Although there are many important concerns when
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teaching at the high school level, considering an interdisciplinary approach

may provide creative solutions. In an interdisciplinary approach, teachers and
students connect areas of study in a variety of courses; the holistic nature
of an interdisciplinary curriculum involves students in discipline-specific
understanding that also connects learning across content areas (Taylor et.al,
2006). Interdisciplinary instruction at the high school level can take different
forms including designs that are theme-based, problem-based, project-
based, and inquiry-based curriculum. Learning is valuable when stemming
from students’ interests; students tend to become motivating through active
engagement and real-world connections. Service- oriented projects could
also provide inspiration for interdisciplinary learning since civic duty is an
important aspect of the high school experience (Post, Ellis, Humphreys, &
Buggey, 1997).
Current Practices in the Field
Teachers should reach out to external (out of classroom and beyond the
textbook) sources, take advantage of the opportunities that school and
local community members offer, and recognize how collaboration between
teaching colleagues can benefit both teachers and students when a teacher
maximizes his or her time to create meaningful lessons (Wood, 2005). Through
introduction to newfound content and strategies from other professionals
who specialize in certain subjects, students have an opportunity to receive a
STREAMSS learning experience in every lesson. The STREAMSS approach
to curriculum planning could be effective at all levels (elementary, middle
and high schools). The effort that teachers put into creating and implementing
wide-ranging subject-infused lessons will greatly help teachers, and most
importantly, students in the short and long run; teachers will be able to
cover the required standards while giving students a deeper understanding
of concepts. Teachers may come to realize how a single integrated lesson
could allow students the opportunity to view major concepts through the eyes
of a scientist, contemporary technology user, reading specialist, engineer,
mathematician, artist, musician, actor, singer, and historian – a phenomenon
that rarely occurs while teaching a single subject. Students will begin to
see the interrelation of subjects and find that they may have an unknowing
interest in, or sudden connection to, some or all subjects they once thought
of differently. Students may discover that what they are learning is actually
interesting, inspiring, and fun. Given the multitude of content directions an
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integrated lesson could take, students may find answers to questions they
have always pondered over and discover that they have become better problem
solvers, can relate what they have learned to their own lives, or perhaps even
have decided upon a future career based on a topic they serendipitously found
meaningful and enriching (Drake, 1998).
An interdisciplinary curriculum is valuable to students; therefore, teachers
should understand how to create an effective integrated lesson. In addition
to first focusing on state standards, the second most important aspect in
planning an integrated lesson is unpacking a topic and determining the many
ways the topic could be associated to STREAMSS (Drake & Burns, 2004).
For example, a social studies topic on the Industrial Revolution with a state
standard highlighting the causes and consequences of the Industrial Revolution
(CPalms, 2017) can be broken down into STREAMSS-related concepts
(e.g., science/steam engine, technology/Morse Code, reading/biographies
on Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller, engineering/skyscrapers, the
arts/women’s rights protest art, mathematics/stocks and bonds, and social
studies/factory child labor). At this point in the planning process, it is vital to
gather supplemental resources that can help magnify concepts and enhance
instruction. Once resources and tools are determined and teachers have a
better idea of the organization, flow, and duration of time needed to teach
the lesson, teachers will be better positioned to formulate and frame desired
student outcomes, teaching strategies, and student learning activities. During
instruction, teachers should welcome teachable moments, be prepared to ask
higher order questions, be open for class discussions, and encourage students
to share their diverse views and experiences with other members of the class
(Ballenger, 2009). Upon completion of the lesson, a teacher should debrief
the overall lesson and ask students to reflect upon the important concepts
they learned before administering an assessment (see Table 1).
Although curricular connections are often recognized by teachers who are
familiar or more informed about other subjects, some teachers may find it
difficult to link a topic of study to STREAMSS due to their lack of knowledge.
However, there is a vast amount of resources that teachers can turn to for new
or further information about various subjects and the relationships between
topics. Educational websites hosted by government organizations, special
interest groups (SIG), schools and universities, and education journals and
magazines could offer teachers valuable links to STREAMSS. In addition
to conversing with teacher colleagues on content information or ideas fellow
teachers could share, teachers could seek out school librarians to assist them
with finding topic connections to STREAMSS and supplementary resources
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Table 1. How to create a STREAMSS lesson
Before Lesson
• Determine the topic of study according to State Standards
• Focus on strong concepts/big ideas, & guiding questions
• Unpack major concepts & distinguish curricular connections to STREAMSS
• Locate a variety of supplemental resources and tools to enhance instruction
• Determine objectives that include STREAMSS
• Consider students’ background (academic and social strengths and weaknesses)
• Consider cultural connections
• Consider students’ learning styles
• Consider students’ prior knowledge (informal or formal assessment)
• Determine instructional strategies in relation to STREAMSS
• Plan engaging student activities that include STREAMSS
• Determine higher order thinking questions before, during, and after lesson
• Consider how students can be STREAMSS assessed
• Consider cause and effect & critical thinking questions in relation to STREAMSS
• Consider comparing and contrasting STREAMSS concepts
• Consider including examples and nonexamples of STREAMSS
During Lesson
• Allow for teachable moments
• Instigate discussion and encourage student participation
• Allow for student presentations
After Lesson
• Debrief lesson
• Reflect on concepts/big ideas
• Reflect on curricular connections
• Reflect on concept connections to students’ lives
such as trade books, videos, and literary materials to use during instruction.
Once teachers are familiar with the basic and simple structure of infusing
topics and concepts, planning a multidisciplinary lesson could form into a
habit and become an easy task to undertake with all future lessons (Drake,
1998; Post, Ellis, Humphreys, & Buggey, 1997).
Structure of Current Practices in the Field
Being able to combine all subjects into one lesson may come easier for some
educators, but interdisciplinary lesson planning is not a talent that only a few
hold; having the ability to integrate subjects is a skill that can be developed.
Perhaps some teachers have been knowingly, as well as unknowingly, teaching
integrated lessons from the start of their teaching career; however, in order
to continue or increase the number of teachers who do, teachers should share
what they know with other teachers. As any topic, regardless of subject, has
the potential to be interconnected, teachers should make the effort to find these
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Table 2. Integrating STREAMSS into the elementary school curriculum: kindergarten through first grades
Topic Science Technology Reading Engineering Arts Math Social Studies

My Home, School Water Computer, tablet Libraries, Book Architecture, Genres of music, Measuring Design a safety
and Community conservation and smart phone baskets, Book drives, Compare homes Visiting theaters, common objects, plan, fire escape,
in the home, use, Analysis of Reading Aloud with around the world, museums & Estimating size of describe family
Turn off the effective apps, Digital family members, Wooden blocks, auditoriums, objects, Creating relationship,
Lights, Cooking photography Paint Picture dictionaries, Plastic blocks, Drawings of family a map using identify roles and
with family, programs to create Multi-lingual Design floor space events, family simple measure- jobs within family
Garden: planting illustrations vocabulary charts in home members & pets ment (steps, feet, and community,
seeds, tending, yards) civic duty
harvesting
Seasonal Weather Climate change Create a sundial and Reader’s Theater, Recycled materials Celebration Calendar, Telling Plan for fire,
and Environment and effect on use different times Read Alouds of to design structures, of dance and Time, Counting flood, earthquake,
different habitats, of year, Solar power, illustrated children’s boats, shelters, music, Maypole seasonal fruit or hurricane,
Clothing for wind power, create literature, Show and design a winter coat, dancing, dramatic vegetables, adding tornado, Research
the seasons, inventions to solve tell of seasonal finds, raincoat, rubber movement to and subtracting agriculture
Precipitation, environment-tal issues leaves, flowers, hats, boots, sandals illustrate seasonal seasonal objects around the world
Night time sky, etc. changes of weather and throughout
Earth’s axis and history
tilt
Geometric and Shapes in Nature, Using tools to create Environmental Decorate objects Printmaking, Draw nature Map making
Organic Shapes in Butterfly patterns, geometric shapes- print, signs, posters, and inventions with stamping patterns to scale, use of skills, create
the World Animal shapes rulers, compass, Letter identification, shapes and patterns, of shapes, Abstract middle ground, legends
and patterns, 2D protractor, templates, Acrostic poems, explore shapes of art designs, background, using shapes,
and 3D shapes, computer drawing Found text collage, windows, doors, Musical notation, and foreground, Geography,
Nature walks programs Shape Identification vehicles drawing shapes to overlap shapes, Use shapes to
books with music, Zentangles count shapes categorize events
illustrations
All About Me and Human body Favorite apps, video All about me books, Design dream Self-portraits, Measure height Social Justice and
My Place in the trace body on games, films, and Personal journals, home, bedroom, Emotions in and growth activism, identify
World large paper and photographs, Discuss daily prompts, my playground, park, music, puppetry, patterns over time, issues and plan
identify anatomy social media and its summer vacation personal flying improvised music compare heights solutions, create
and processes- use sentences and machines making or dance of others posters
digestive, illustrations
circulatory
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136
Table 3. Integrating STREAMSS into the elementary school curriculum: second and third grades

Civic Engagement Community Use apps that feature Biographies on Inventing assistive Empty Bowls Figure distance Volunteer,
Gardens, seasonal civic events in famous people devices for people fundraiser to end in an activist Patriotism, Illustrate
food markets, history, multimedia throughout history, with varying poverty using march, number of the flag, national
analyze data about presentation to Poetry about issues abilities, Design handmade ceramic people attending symbols (eagle,
climate change highlight a cause, of equality, create cities, parks, bowls, Dramatic rallies, count and Statue of Liberty,
or endangered create a public mini-books about libraries, civic play about helping weigh waste Ellis Island),
species, recycling announcement or short good citizenship centers, recreational others Write a letter to an
programs film using tablets facilities for all ages government official
Careers, Local and Marine biologist, Use translation Learn foreign Create city from Learn about the Banking, Store Geographer,
Global Economies Weather programs on tablets language phrases boxes and practice arts professions, Clerk, Identify cartographer, make
forecasting, and smartphones to to communicate different community visit artists in currency, budget maps, Identify
product sell a product, online purchases, greetings, careers, designing the community, spending, global currency,
developing of new research of import/ Informational text water treatment fashion design, counting money Identify needs/wants
foods, clothes exports about business plants playwrights
Gathering, Science Time lapse Read charts, Analysis of Use QR codes Measuring Formulate opinions
Representing and experiment, photography of nature interactive maps, location, soil, water, linking research to shadows different about politics,
Interpreting Data science fair processes, Internet line graphs, bar population, utilities artwork, Dramatic times of the elections, voting,
projects, scientific safety, safe website graphs, pie charts, before building role play scenarios day, Recognize social issues, taking
process including use, video interviews scatterplots, visual a community, to investigate and patterns in data, a poll, survey to
hypothesis, to share opinions graphics, Identify Analyze materials issue Predict growth make good decisions
evidence, analysis main idea used to build roads.
of findings
Primary and Scientific theories Photographs and Oral history, Build an abacus, Role play the Receipts from Letters, diaries,
Secondary Sources in history, film of actual events, narratives, compare blueprints Boston Tea Party, sales and pamphlets, laws,
throughout History Einstein, Newton, Record first person interviews, original of historical Create protest purchases, recorded deeds
Magellan interviews documents, journals buildings posters comparing costs
historically
Table 4. Integrating STREAMSS into the elementary school curriculum: fourth through fifth grades

State History Artifacts from Dating artifacts, aerial Read oral Governor’s mansion, Create posters in Population & Native American
and Culture early settlers, photography (before/ histories, state highways, the shape of state economic growth, traditions, explorers,
environ-mental & after views of state), biographies, evolution of towns with facts, clay depressions, timelines, state capitals,
natural resource virtual fieldtrips trade books, to cities, ethnic topographical maps inflation, currency, borders, immigration
concerns court cases, neighborhood of U.S., Critique voting ballots, state
civil case portraits commerce
reports
Earth and Universe, Astronomy/telescope, Read & Efforts to avoid Draw constellation, Pi, Earth’s sphere, Projections, globes,
Space galaxy, planets, seismograph write about rising sea levels/ big dipper, Mars, diameter, distance, political maps,
earthquake, barometer, measure astronauts, first Global warming, act out position of radius, Mars Rover elevation, below
weather patterns distance to planets accounts of space craft design, planets & Earth measurements sea level, scale in
moon landing robotics rotating /Sun topography
Colonial Butter made from Document-aries, Read diaries, Land tracts for Create games Taxes placed on Constitution,
Times milk, soap made Dutch oven, stone about Great colonies/charters, sea colonial children colonists, land grants, Jamestown, Roanoke,
from lard, bread corn grinder mortar Awakening & trading posts, log played, dolls, trading, costs of Penn’s Colony,
making & pestle Narrative of cabins, sod roofs clothing, re-enact life imports from England New Sweden, New
daily life in colony Netherland
Point of View Theories of the Identify cyberbullying Analyze Compare views about Visual culture, Compare mortgage Multiple perspectives,
in a Variety solar system, and prevention, characters, building a home from pop art, social rates, interest rates, campaigns, debate, town
of Texts shape of earth, Compare blogs, settings, plots, home buyer, builder, activist art, graffiti, stock markets prices, hall meeting, mock
debate of tweets, social media themes, heroes developer, city contemporary job wages, rents, trial, radio reports, news
evolution, Pangea posts and villains, building inspector, dance, rap music, inflation rates, inverse reports, multicultural
theory tragedy and environmentalist hip hop, freedom of operations views, gender identity
comedy expression in society
137
138
Table 5. Integrating STREAMSS into the middle school curriculum: sixth through eighth grades
6th -8th Grades

Ancient Civilizations
Topic Science Technology Reading Engineering The Arts (Art, Math Social Studies
(Language Arts) Dance & Music)
Earliest humans Green Revolution, wheel Artifacts (carbon Alphabets & scripts, Shelters/dwellings/ Cave art/ritual Ancient Settlementnear
& civilizations mummification, drought, dating), horse & wheel classics by Socrates, pyramids/Arctic & cultural calendar rivers/Mesopot-
(Egyptians, Inuits, solar calendars transportation, glass, Plato & Aristotle igloos, systems of ceremonies, & 24-hour amia, Fertile
Phoenicians, medicine/Hippocrates, (The Odyssey and irrigation, city-states, human sculptures, system, Crescent, spread
Persians, Greeks, astronomy, use of the Iliad), writing architecture (domes/ papyrus, jewelry number of empires/the
Puebloans, Aztecs, Google Earth systems such arches), roads & a & pottery, role systems, 3 “Gs”: Gold,
Mayans & Chin as cuneiform & Great Wall of China play chariot races BCE, AD, & God, & Glory
Dynasties) hieroglyphic CEGr
Mediums of Scientific discoveries in Tools created to Diaries of explorers, Creation of silk Role play of Trading East India
exchange/currency/ gunpowder, yeast/bread & navigate sea routes & forms of printing, from worms, iron & Portuguese, markets & Trading
trade/barter sugar, Copernicus/Earth is Galileo advances sea translation of text in copper into bronze, Spanish, Dutch, profits made Company
heliocentric/ sun-centered trading with telescope languages (Bantu & & trading posts English & French on trading (England &
Arabic) designed trading, illustrate gold, ivory & India), silent
navigation routes sugar bartering
(Africa/Sahara
Desert), &
colonizing
Math Geometry Pie charts, sundial Aurora Borealis, Literature on Trans- Design of pyramids, Carvings/stone Scale, Division of
angles geometry, weather time geometry, GIS, Atlantic Slave Trade Great Zimbabwe (city heads from stone, project-ions, borders, hemi-
patterns, solid & plane tangent points, Roman Triangle Route, made from stone and jade, and basalt spheres, spheres, tectonic
geometry, solar system, numbers Descartes & Euclid iron, glaciers (igneous rock) cones plates & fault
alignment of planets (geometry) lines
Literary Genres Inquire, provide evidence, Media sources/ Examples of Case study solutions, Picture books, Dates Biographies, oral
(Biography, debate scientific theories, determine if fiction/nonfiction, view books designed illustrations, publish-ed & histories, setting/
mystery, poetry, discuss inconsistencies in accurate, inaccurate, authors’ purpose, to be read from left recreate storyline copy-righted/ geography
science fiction, etc.) theories assumptions, opinions inform & explain, to right/back to front through Readers’ years in print location, primary
& stereotypes perspectives to back Theater document
Table 6. Integrating STREAMSS into the high school curriculum: ninth through tenth grades
9th-10th Grade
Tenets of Government
Topic Science Technology Reading Engineering The Arts (Art, Math Social Studies
(Language Arts) Dance, & Music)
U.S. founding Political science, Archived primary Founding fathers’ Architectural designs View historic Number of House Magna Carta,
documents advancements in documents such as biographies, read for Philadelphia events through of Representatives the Petition of
artillery during the Declaration of Declaration of Convention, Supreme paintings, & senators per Right, the British
Revolutionary Indep., Articles of Indep./ colonists’ Court & White illustrate 3 state, electoral Bill of Rights/all
War Confederacy& U.S. grievances towards House branches of votes blueprints for U.S.
Constitution King George government as democracy
branches on a tree
Math Central Using scientific Work by Albert Write about Designed a balance Tessellation, Relative & Entrepren-
Tendency data/ median/ Einstein (Manhattan Fibonacci of power between create art with equilibrium eurships,
mean/ mode/range project), calculators, Sequence/Golden central and state math tile, pricing, rates evolution of math,
on govt. spending statistics, bell curve Ratio in nature, government/checks patterned quilts, of exchange, religion, Middle
graphs Domino theory; if and balances create cubist art minimum wage v. way, Pursuit of
one country falls, (Picasso) standard of living happiness
others follow
Local, state, and Govt. funding for Space technology, Decipher the 27 Evolution of voting Draw Venn Taxes, the Mint, Social Contract
federal governments’ science research, energy & military amendments, write machines, creating diagram/ concept Federal Reserve, Theory/citizens’
duties public debate over innovations, campaigns, create infrastructure, maps comparing/ Treasury, duty to obey laws
issues censorship, freedom class constitution building inspection contrasting duties, inflation, & & pay taxes
of speech sing U.S anthem interest rates
Natural resources Surplus/ scarcity, Online resources that Literary material Plantation designs, Illustrate Earth Natural Political policies,
water, oil (fossil display how food on moral dilemmas, cotton gin, Day, Plant a Tree Resources/source debates on
fuels) & coal, grown and produced, poetry on manufacturegoods Day art, recycled of wealth for the natural resources,
biofuels recycled metal conservation, Lewis from raw materials art, songs about U.S., capitalism, topography
& Clark journal conserving economic agricultural maps,
commodity& EPA
quotas
139
140
Table 7. Integrating STREAMSS into the high school curriculum: eleventh through twelfth grades
11th- 12th Grade

Aftermath of World War I
Topic Science Technology Reading Engineering The Arts (Art, Dance Math Social Studies
(Language Arts) & Music)
Roaring Autos/engines, Radio, refrigerator, Literary materials Design of dance halls, Gender equality protest Economic boom, Aftermath of
Twenties aviation, Amelia toaster, washing of gangsters/ Al movie theaters, sport art, silent movies, consumer society, WWI, modernity,
Earhart/Charles machine, vacuum Capone, Novelist stadiums Flappers/Charleston credit, Great speakeasies, 19th
Lindbergh, cleaner F. Scott Fitzgerald dance, jazz Migration amendment (women’s
penicillin (Great Gatsby) right to vote)
Great Impact on Stock market ticker FDR’s speeches, Hooverville, Shanty Poverty/economic art, Stock market Dust Bowl, New
Depression agriculture/ tape machines, newspaper towns, decrease in images of the Great crash, population Deal, Prohibition,
decaying farms, recovery/TVA/ clippings, letters, industrial building, Depression of homeless Banks collapse/Black
radio waves/fire- electricity oral histories economic relief/WPA Tuesday
side chats
Propaganda Research studies Propaganda videos, Yellow Political warfare/ Propaganda posters, Citizen/ WWII, political party
Art on psychological use of media to sway journalism, mass persuasion of having pamphlets, graffiti, agriculture & messages
effects/ brainwash- opinion advertising nuclear power comic strips, political productioncontrol
ing tactics cartoons
Red Scare Effects of Archives of Stories about Effects of the Palmer Radical art, role play Statistics of Nativism,
anti-communist McCarthy Hearings, religious/ Raids/ housing for the emotions of “fear” and persecuted citizens communism, Cold
accusations& electrocu-tion/capital persecution, accused or soon to be “threat” War, immigration
hysteria on citizens punishment of Sacco communist spies/ deported restrictions
& Venzetti Rosenbergs
connections and recognize how infused subjects can impact pedagogy, instill
student interest, and offer students more than what is often expected from a
traditional curriculum (Vogler, 2003). To better assist teachers in creating a
multidisciplinary lesson that could focus on all angles of the subject-teaching
spectrum in a single lesson, the following list of primary, intermediate, middle
school, and high school grade level STREAMSS disciplines that could be
unpacked and infused when planning lessons are provided (see Tables 2-7).
The selected and shared STREAMSS strategies may be adapted by
educators to meet individual student’s needs. An interchange of ideas during
planning sessions with peer teachers and students in the classroom ensure that
interdisciplinary lessons support engaged learning. Knowledge of disciplinary
strategies assists teachers in planning a balanced curriculum that utilizes the
STREAMSS model.
CONCLUSION
In this chapter, the authors have discussed current practices in the field of
elementary and secondary education using the STREAMSS model and
approach to the curriculum design. In addition to offering ideas for lesson
integration through school programs, field trips, and guest speakers, this
chapter provides readers with suggestions on how to gain knowledge about
subjects with which teachers may not be familiar but would like to incorporate
into their integrated lessons. Regardless of teaching elementary or secondary
grade levels, teachers should collaborate with other teachers, organize or
attend personal learning communities, welcome team teaching opportunities,
and utilize a vast assortment of supplemental resources and technology tools
available on the internet, housed by school or public libraries, and offered by
educational and government organizations.
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Ballenger, C. (2009). Puzzling moments, teachable moments: Practicing

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Behrendt, M., & Franklin, T. (2014). A review of research on school field
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Kohler-Evans, P. A. (2006). Co-teaching: How to make this marriage work
in front of the kids. Education, 127(2), 260–264.
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McLaughlin, M. W., & Talbert, J. E. (2006). Building school-based teacher
learning communities: Professional strategies to improve student achievement.
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Interdisciplinary approaches to teaching art in high school. Reston, VA:
National Art Education Association.
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Troen, V., & Boles, K. C. (2011). The power of teacher teams: With cases,
analyses, and strategies for success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Vogler, K. E. (2003). An integrated curriculum using state standards in a
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0.1080/00940771.2003.11495383
Welch, M., Brownell, K., & Sheridan, S. M. (1999). Whats the score and
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Education, Inc.
Inquiry-Based Curriculum: Student-centered learning that involves

questions, investigations, observations, analyses, and solutions within a given
study of interest.
Professional Learning Communities: Professional development meetings
for teachers to learn about a topic of interest and apply effective research-
based strategies in the classroom.
School Programs: Student learning experiences that occur through daily
instruction at the elementary, middle and high school levels.
Self-Contained Classroom: Classroom structure where one teacher works
daily with the same group of students.
Supplementary Resources: Materials and tools that support teaching
and learning.
Team Teaching: The classroom teacher cooperates with other teachers
during planning and implementation of an interdisciplinary curriculum.
Thematic Units: Interconnected lessons that evolve around a central idea,
concept or topic using scaffolding to gain deeper comprehension.
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Chapter 6
New Perspectives:
Moving Forward in K-12 Education
ABSTRACT
Based on the creative way a teacher plans a lesson, novice teachers, as well
as experienced, have the potential to create a multidisciplinary curriculum
and engage students. An integrated curriculum not only allows teachers to
draw from a multitude of subjects, materials, and human resources, but also
places value on all subjects and makes topics come alive. Teachers who
go beyond the traditional way of teaching and enter the 21st century world
of holistic-subject teaching can plan more meaningful activities, take into
account students’ learning styles, background, and interests, and as the topics
are interrelated, expand lessons to new horizons.
INTRODUCTION
Experienced and novice teachers alike can learn and consider a variety of
teaching styles and issues from analyzing case studies. Case studies provide
a detailed and rich description of a specific situation for readers to question,
discuss, and consider possibilities about a topic (Calderhead & Shorrock,
1997). For educators, case studies are an important part of professional
development and research in a variety of disciplines as case study scenarios
provide a glimpse into the classroom, offer authentic learning opportunities,
and set the stage for teaching and learning reflections to occur. Reflecting upon
the teaching practice is a relevant part of teacher preparation and continued
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-4065-6.ch006
New Perspectives
professional learning throughout one’s teaching career (Troen & Boles,

2011). Therefore, in this final chapter, possibilities for creating meaningful
and engaging future multidisciplinary lesson plans are discussed.
Objectives
• Recognize various online resources that K-12 teachers can utilize in an

interdisciplinary lesson
• Distinguish teaching and learning strategies that K-12 teachers can
incorporate into a STREAMSS integrated lesson
• Identify K-12 lesson plans that feature the STREAMSS interdisciplinary
model
• Recognize the influence of technology in education today and
importance to K-12 teachers when trying to meet students’ 21st century
needs
CURRICULAR CONNECTIONS IN THE

TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
Case Study #1
A first-year teacher has been hired at an elementary public school in South

Florida to teach 4th grade to a group of academically, culturally, and socially
diverse students. Although the new teacher has become acquainted with the
social studies state standards of the 4th grade elementary curriculum and is
aware of the content required to be taught on Florida history (an often 4th
grade year-long curriculum requirement), given the amount of time allotted
to prioritized subjects such as reading (a two-hour block), math, science,
and technology, how will the new teacher be able to effectively teach social
studies? Moreover, what strategies can this new teacher utilize inside, as well
as outside, the classroom to effectively teach the history of Florida?
Interdisciplinary Strategies and Resources
Novice, as well as experienced, teachers may find themselves in the position

of desiring to create in-depth and meaningful lessons, maximize the time
145
New Perspectives
they have teaching single-subject content, expand their knowledge about

subjects they know little about, or try new methods in teaching and learning
– but not knowing where to start. Teachers can begin the task of teaching
unfamiliar subjects, or ones that he or she is unaccustomed to teaching, by
first building relationships with colleagues in order to come up with new and
creative ways to integrate colleagues’ subject-expertise into the curriculum
(Troen & Boles, 2011). For example, teachers, such as the 4th grade teacher
featured in case study #1, as well as secondary teachers, could collaborate
with an art teacher and ask him or her to create an art lesson that focuses on
early Florida explorers, the life and times of Floridians, social movements in
Florida, environmental concerns in Florida, or Florida migrant worker’s rights,
that could be taught during art class, or offer ideas and art demonstrations
that teachers can implement in his or her own classroom. Similarly, teachers
can ask the school librarian to select and set aside books and other media
resources on significant Florida historical figures and past and present Florida
maps that can be used in the classroom during group activities, read-aloud
sessions, or independent student readings and projects. Teachers can partner
with the school’s reading or writing coach and ask him or her to focus on
social studies topics when teaching writing skills or selecting writing prompts
for student essays.
Using themes to guide interdisciplinary planning can be an effective strategy
for teacher teams (Post, Ellis, Humphreys, & Buggey, 1997). School-wide
ventures could be co-organized with teacher colleagues who are strong in
science to create such themes as “The Year in Chemistry” that can focus on,
for instance, the Statue of Liberty: how it was designed by Frederic Auguste
Bartholdi, created by Gustave Eiffel during the late 1880s, and made from
copper and iron that through oxidation changed the statue’s outside appearance
from a reddish to a green color. By teaming up with teachers whose expertise
is math, social studies could be well combined with math when discussing
percentages or fractions (e.g., the ratio of people who have migrated to Florida
during peak migration eras, number of tourists who visit Florida theme parks
per month or year, and the impact of migration on Florida businesses, natural
resources, and schools). By working with teachers from the same grade
level, field trips could be arranged to visit out-of-county places such as, St.
Augustine, the site of the first Florida settlement, NASA Kennedy Space
Center in Cape Canaveral, and other nearby historical locations. Moreover,
teachers could invite local guest speakers who could share their Florida
migration experiences, the cultural changes of South Florida they observed
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New Perspectives
over the years, and the evolution of Florida land development and its impact
on wildlife in the Everglades.
Case Study #2
A third-year visual arts teacher working at a large high school (approximately

3,000 students) is planning a thematic unit on multicultural fairy tales and
children’s book illustrations as a potential arts-related career topic. Although
the art teacher has experience teaching similar thematic units, he wants
to implement an interdisciplinary curriculum that engages more students
and teachers across the campus. At first, the art teacher decides to involve
all of his art students in the project, but realizes Advance Placement (AP)
portfolios and art history AP examinations prevent advanced art students from
participating in a large project. The art teacher then decides to focus on Art
1 & 2 courses, which includes students in ninth through twelfth grades, and
who are completing the fine arts credit necessary for graduation in the school
district. Although, some of the students are just beginning their visual art
studies, the art teacher is confident that he can provide instruction that supports
the creative skills and processes necessary to complete the project. The art
teacher asks the ninth and tenth grade language arts/English teacher to team
teach literary genres and writing structures for fairy tales since her classroom
is next to the art studio. How will an English teacher and visual art teacher
effectively teach both subjects (literacy and visual art) to a diverse group of
students? What strategies for team teaching can be utilized? What learning
experiences should be planned for students engaged in an interdisciplinary
curriculum focusing on book arts, illustration, fairy tales, and writing skills?
How can both teachers expand the lessons to include other STREAMSS
disciplines in the thematic unit?
Expanding Through STREAMSS
Teachers with several years of experience and beginning first year teachers
can both benefit from collaborating with other educators. Reaching out to
colleagues encourages professional development and recognizes that everyone
is part of the team that promotes student achievement (Inger, 1993). As briefly
discussed in chapter five, one such strategy for teacher collaboration is team
teaching, a form of cooperation between and among teachers which not only
aids teachers in finding new ways to create invigorating and meaningful
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New Perspectives
multidisciplinary lessons (Game & Metcalfe, 2009), but also sets the path
for teachers to become education leaders as they demonstrate to students,
as well as other colleagues, that teaching and learning should go beyond
the traditional way of teaching and that different disciplines are indeed
interconnected (Whyte, Fraser, & Aitken, 2013). When deciding to team teach,
teachers should consider logistics such as location of instruction to provide
easy access for students with limited time to walk to and from classes (Troen
& Boles, 2011). Thematic units that incorporate a wide variety of subjects,
learning experiences, and expected outcomes can be effectively created and
implemented with the collective effort of teachers in the same grade level,
department, or even the entire school (Post, Ellis, Humphreys, & Buggey,
1997). An interdisciplinary curriculum that focuses on language arts and
visual arts may center on both forms of communication in a variety of media:
drawing, painting, and sculpting, as well as written and oral words. Learning
activities for a thematic interdisciplinary unit on multicultural fairy tales, for
example, may include exploration of cultural versions of common fairy tales,
comparisons of cultural fairy tales with fables, analysis of story characters,
settings, plots, research of illustrated children’s books and artistic processes,
writing of creative stories using literary structures, and experimenting with
different artistic media to create illustrations. Students can also explore
alternative endings of well-known stories and refocus perspectives of main
characters (Towell, Powell & Brown, 2018). As an example of changing
perspectives, Jon Scieszka’s (1996) The True Story of the Three Little Pigs,
illustrated by Lane Smith, provides a humorous tale from the perspective of
the wolf, rather than the three little pigs. There are many other children’s
books that provide creative endings that are different from well-known tales
of traditional conclusions. By expanding to other disciplines beyond language
arts and visual art, a thematic unit on fairy tales could include technology
such as film, photographs, videos, and website development programs or apps
that could create multimedia presentations of students’ creative work. Since
social studies, the study of people, places, and events, has the potential to be
naturally integrated into virtually any discipline or topic, interpreting fairy
tales from around the world could offer students a multicultural perspective
(Flack, 1997). Book designing, as well, requires various aspects of engineering,
particularly when creating a pop-up book. Pop-up books use a variety of
structures that involve cutting and folding paper to create movement beyond
the pages. Students can create books using different structures including: flip
books (each page captures movement when turned quickly) and accordion
or concertina books (pages are created from a single folded length of paper).
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Designing book structures to match the content and illustrations of the story
presents unique engineering problem-solving situations that can be creatively
resolved through the research and practice of creating models or mock-ups
before final design decisions are made. When effectively designing books
and exhibition displays, aesthetic decision-making can occur as it relates to
the mathematical processes of measurement and estimation. Further, when
teaching students to divide space and utilize the dimensional qualities of
3D artistic work, students are engaging in the application of mathematical
conceptual thinking skills. Students may plan and display creative work
throughout the school such as, a literary and visual art installation in a high
school hallway featuring paper trees that represents an enchanted forest
featured in a large-scale illustrated book, or post student-written fairy tales
on school walls (see Figure 1).
Based on how a teacher plans a lesson, takes into account pedagogy, and
includes meaningful resources, first-year, as well as veteran, teachers have
the power to create a STREAMSS curriculum, engage students, and allow
students to construct their own knowledge. By taking abstract concepts from
a multitude of sources and offering students different perspectives, students
will be able to understand how concepts that first appear unrelated can fit
together and form a bigger picture (Fogarty, 1991). To make the most of
Figure 1. Fairy tales installation in high school hallway
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21st century students’ learning, STREAMSS lessons should include an

abundance of reading materials such as primary historical documents, books,
and magazines, and visual images such as photographs, illustrations, and
works of art. A STREAMSS curriculum offers a multitude of opportunities
for students to write, role play, sing, dance, and use technology, in addition
to engaging in a host of hands-on activities that include math, science, and
engineering-related inquiry and problem-solving practices. With a plethora
of multidisciplinary resources available today on the Internet, teachers
have the ability to expand their content knowledge, find novel resources,
brainstorm fresh ideas, and build exciting lessons that capture the essence and
interconnections of STREAMSS subjects. To introduce the idea of analyzing
Table 1. Interdisciplinary online resources
100 People: A World Portrait: http://www.100people.org/ • History/global issues

A Global Education Toolbox • Technology/photos, videos, statistics,
Language arts/cultural text
A Walk Through Time: http://www.nist.gov/pml/time-and- • History/ancient calendars, science,
The Evolution of Time frequency-division/popular-links/ Technology/timekeeping
Measurement through the Ages walk-through-time • Engineering/measurement
(National Institute of Standards • The Arts/calendar designs
& Technology)
American Folklife Center http://www.loc.gov/folklife/ • Technology/archived recordings
(Library of Congress) • Language Arts/storytelling/lyrics
• History/folk life
• The Arts/folk music
America: The Story of Us http://www.history.com/shows/ • History/historical events/immigrants
america-the-story-of-us • Science/Albert Einstein
• Engineering/Industrial Revolution
American Memory (Library of http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/ All STREAMSS subjects
Congress) index.html
Annenberg Learner (Annenberg www.learner.org All STREAMSS subjects
Foundation)
Crash Course https://www.youtube.com/user/ • History
crashcourse • Technology
• Science
• Language Arts
Currents of Change http://www.currentsofchange.net/ • History/primary sources
• Technology/photos & videos
• Geography/interactive maps/timeline
Digital Public Libraryof https://dp.la/ • Technology/archived materials
American (DPLA), • Government/local/state/national/global
iCivics www.icivics.or/terachers • Civics/citizenship
• Technology/gaming
• Government/Constitution
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Table 1. Continued
Kids can make a difference www.kidscanmakeadifference.org • Math/Data/problem solving

(iLearn) • Economics/production/consumption
• Government/policies
• Literature/diaries
• Globalization
• Civics/community engagement
• Technology/videos/digital photos
Library of Congress www.loc.gov • History/primary documents
• Language Arts/research
• Technology/digital collections
• Government/copyrights
• Law/government documents
2. Living Tongues (Institute for http://livingtongues.org/ • Language Arts/languages/dictionaries
Endangered Languages) • Geography/global regions
• History/history of languages
• Anthropology/field work/research
• Technology/online “talking”
National Archives https://www.archives.gov/education All STREAMSS subjects
National Council for http://www.ncge.org/ Geography
Geographic Education
National Humanities Center- http://americainclass.org • Technology/Webinars
America in class • History/primary & secondary sources
• Language Arts/Essays
Newseum: There’s More to http://www.newseum.org/ • History
Every Story • Government
• Constitutional Law
• Language Arts/Storytelling
Public Broadcasting System www.pbslearningmedia.org All STREAMSS subjects
(PBS) Learning Media
ProCon.org www.procon.org • History/Pros & Cons of Issues
• Current Events
• Economics
Smithsonian for Educators https://www.si.edu/Educators • Science
• Engineering
• Technology
• History
• The Arts (visual images)
Statue of Liberty (Ellis Island http://www.libertyellisfoundation. • History/immigration
Foundation) org/ • Government/regulations/quotas
• Math/population
• Multiculturalism/ancestry
• Technology/archived records
StoryCorps https://storycorps.org/ • History/oral histories
• Technology/Smartphone usage
• Language Arts/storytelling
Teaching Tolerance (Southern http://www.tolerance.org/ • The Arts/film
Poverty Law Center) • Technology/archived articles
• Language Arts/publications
• Multiculturalism/diversity
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Table 1. Continued
Ted Talks Education https://www.ted.com/about/ All STREAMSS subjects

programs-initiatives/ted-talks-
education
Time for Kids (TPK) http://www.timeforkids.com/news • History/past & present issues
• Language Arts/Kid Reporter Scoops,
Science
• Technology/photos & videos
United States Environmental www.epa.gov/students/teachers.html • Science/environment
Protection Agency (EPA) • Government/agencies
We the Economy: 20 Short www.wetheeconomy.com • Economics/the economy
Films You Can’t Afford to Miss • Math/problem solving
• Technology/video
• The Arts/film
classroom practice, a list of online resources has been provided for readers’
use. The importance of using this list of resources is that teachers can add to
the list with their own finds (see Table 1).
Through perusing new online resources, educators have the ability to
conduct ongoing research in effective teaching practices and be kept up-
to-date on different strategies that could make a STREAMSS curriculum
possible in their classrooms.
KEY CONCEPTS FOR EFFECTIVE

CURRICULUM INTEGRATION
As effective teaching practices are based on the different strategies teachers

use in their instruction, in order for teachers to make an interdisciplinary
STREAMSS lesson conceivable, the authors have provided an extensive
list of suggested teaching and learning strategies that could be used in the
classroom during a STREAMSS lesson. Designing an interdisciplinary
curriculum requires teachers to consider concepts, skills, and pedagogical
practices that could effectively support all students’ abilities and learning
styles (Fogarty, 1991). The many strategies featured on the list could be
integrated with ease and adapted by teachers to meet their unique students’
needs and strengths (see Table 2).
As each school district, as well as individual schools, often require teachers
to create written lesson plans, teachers’ lesson plan designs may differ in
structure depending upon state and national standards and guidelines, the
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Table 2. STREAMSS teaching and learning strategies
Debate Read-alouds Guest Speakers Charts/Tables/Graphs

Class discussion Trade Books Interview Pamphlets
Articles Socratic Seminar Pair-Share Mobiles
Diary Entry Journal Entry Exit Slip Flashcards
Mnemonic Games Write Lyrics/Songs Oral Report Gaming
Problem-Solving Forums/Discussion Book Report Create Time Period Attire
Panels
Ranking Paragraph Writing Research Projects Cultural Music
Case Studies Essay Writing Surveys Cultural Dance
Artifacts Skype Graffiti Walls Checkpoint Questions
Posters Murals Collages Primary Documents
Videos Audio Books Television Analogies
Documentaries Radio Idioms Fairy Tales
Folktales/Legends Service Projects Scrapbooks Foldable
Field Trips Statistics Timelines Cause & Effect
Detect Bias Sequencing Compare/Contrast Fact/Opinion
T-Charts Word Walls Open Book Test Quiz
Write Headlines/Captions Student-Created Test Graphic Organizers Bubble Maps
Venn Diagram Mock Vote Campaigns Concept Maps
Create Constitution Create Short Story Mock Trial KWL Chart
Resume School Newspaper Letter to Editor Letter to Politician
Newscast Barter/Trade Mock City Council Create video
Meeting
Virtual Field Trips Mapping Archaeological Dig Exhibits
Presentations Speeches Play Dough/Salt Sugar Cube Pyramids
Dough
Compare Perspectives Poetry Reader’s Theater Analyze Census
Summarize Reflect Create Game Computer Games
Advantages/Disadvantages Political Cartoons Photography Create Models/Inventions
Oral Histories Tape Recordings Outlines Book Reviews
Create Books Create Monuments Advertisements Create a Treaty
Flip Charts Create a Petition Create Magazine Four Corners
Covers
Create Sculpture I Think, I Feel, I Jeopardy Gallery Walk
Wonder
Create TV Talk Show Current Events Create Comic Book Create Dictionary
Students Teach Chapter Entrance Cards Index Card Questions Jigsaw
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disciplines being taught, and the focus on student needs (Swartz & Parks,
1994). Interdisciplinary lesson plans, as well, may have a variety of structures
needed in order to accommodate the different content and pedagogical
needs of diverse students (Drake & Burns, 2004). For teachers to acquire an
overall view of a STREAMSS lesson plan and recognize the various topics
and resources that can be used to infuse subjects and accommodate diverse
learners, two examples that illustrate STREAMSS lesson plans have been
shared with the reader (See Appendix 1 and 2).
Visualizing the details of a STREAMSS lesson plan requires teachers to
expand their lesson plan structure to include a variety of concepts, skills,
and practices that are inherent within the different disciplines. For example,
scientific experiments can find a place in the language arts classroom, just as
engineering and technology can be taught in the visual arts studio with students
of all ages. To create an interdisciplinary lesson, educators can begin with
a traditional lesson plan and expand the lesson with the infusion of related
STREAMSS concepts and resources that are connected to the unit of study. For
multidisciplinary lessons to reach their upmost potential, collaboration with
other teachers may enhance a lesson as team members add their know-how
and imagination. As teaching and learning strategies are regularly adapted to
meet students’ diverse needs, an interdisciplinary curriculum approach would
not only interconnect learning through all disciplines, but also connect to the
overall school culture (Drake, 1998).
CONCLUSION: TEACHING AND LEARNING IN

THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY AND BEYOND
Since the world is ever changing and education reflects change through
technological advances and new discoveries, depending upon the evolution
of school initiatives, teacher preparation, standards, and guidelines that
impact K-12 classrooms, the many educational issues described in this book
may continue or shift the landscape of teaching and learning. The skills
and learning processes found in traditional lesson plans are expandable to
interdisciplinary lesson plans, as are the relationships between subjects of
study. As educators are responsible to meet students’ needs and to support and
develop students’ strengths through effective pedagogical practices, a teacher’s
goal is to encourage each student to reach his or her full potential or ability
for achievement (Drake, 1998). Therefore, if educators design curriculum
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that cultivate students’ 21st century skills, students will be better prepared
to work in a global setting. Twenty-first century skills include an extensive:
Set of knowledge, skills, work habits, and character traits . . . [needed] in

today’s world, particularly in collegiate programs and contemporary careers
and . . . [which] can be applied in all academic subject areas, and in all
educational, career, and civic settings throughout a student’s life. (Great
School Partnership, 2016)
Since educational and career issues influence the future workforce in the
United States, the importance of twenty-first century skills should be promoted
daily in today’s classrooms. Given the importance of establishing a curriculum
that offers students problem-solving opportunities, it is vital that students
have the tools, knowledge, attitudes, ethics, and values that promote a better
future throughout the world. As educators have a responsibility to support
student learning that focuses on twenty-first century skills, the STREAMSS
approach to curriculum design is one model that could effectively address
the goal of developing twenty-first century skills. Teachers should be aware
of the possible academic and societal confines students may face in their
future careers if teachers are not prepared to teach students advanced skills.
Students might be required to learn research methods that can also be applied
in other disciplines; articulate technical scientific concepts in verbal, written,
and graphic forms; present lab results to a panel of working scientists; or
use sophisticated technologies. (Great School Partnership, 2016)
By interconnecting disciplines within lessons, students may be able to

develop the ability to connect their learning with real world experiences and
eventually fine tune necessary skills in their respective careers. As the global
economy and workforce is changing rapidly, teachers who are content with the
traditional way of teaching and learning may not have a clear picture of the
types of jobs young students may someday hold as adults. Lack of creativity
and imagination, often displayed in the traditional curriculum, may provide
limitless possibilities of careers that currently do not exist but may in the
future. Teaching students to be flexible and creative problem-solvers in a
variety of learning situations (collaborative and individual) could develop
the abilities students need for future work. Looking beyond what exists and
into the future and realizing the needs of a global society is an important
goal of education. Educators have the opportunity to mold young minds to
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form a better future (Taylor, Carpenter, Ballengee-Morris, & Sessions, 2006).

Therefore, the authors of this book believe that in order to prepare students
for beneficial educational and career possibilities, students should acquire
learning experiences that value the unique contributions of all disciplines.
Planning and implementing a STREAMSS curriculum is one strategy that
can be employed to reach the common goal of effectively preparing students
for the future. It is also the authors’ hope that this book inspires teachers
to share their expertise and passions with one another and persevere in
the rewarding task of changing students’ lives for the better. Kindergarten
through grade twelve teachers should be encouraged and supported through
the information discussed in the book to design and implement a meaningful
interdisciplinary curriculum, and for teachers to become instructional leaders
in their respective schools.
REFERENCES
Almega Projects. (2010a). WASTE LAND catadores. Retrieved from http://

www.wastelandmovie.com/catadores.html
Almega Projects. (2010b). WASTELAND Vik Muniz. Retrieved from http://
www.wastelandmovie.com/vik-muniz.html
Brown, S. (2015). Creativity, social justice and human rights within adult
education. International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and
Technology, 6(2), 1–12. doi:10.4018/ijavet.2015040101
Brown, S., & Towell, J. (2015). Engaging young writers through book design.
Record. Kappa Delta Pi, 51(4), 185–189. doi:10.1080/00228958.2015.108
9622
Calderhead, J., & Shorrock, S. B. (1997). Understanding teacher education:
Case studies in the professional development of beginning teachers. Bristol,
PA: Falmer Press.
Development.
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New Perspectives
Flack, J. D. (1997). From the land of enchantment: Creative teaching with

fairy tales. Englewood, CO: Teacher Ideas Press/Libraries Unlimited.
49(2), 61–65.
Game, A., & Metcalfe, A. (2009). Dialogue and team teaching. Higher Education
Research & Development, 28(1), 45–57. doi:10.1080/07294360802444354
Great Schools Partnership. (2016). The glossary of education reform for
journalists, parents and community members: 21st century skills. Retrieved
from http://edglossary.org/21st- century-skills/
Inger, M. (1993). Teacher collaboration in secondary schools. Centerfocus
Number 2. Berkeley, CA: National Center in Research for Vocational Education.
Kino, C. (2010). Where art meets trash and transforms life. Retrieved from
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/24/arts/design/24muniz.html
Prentice Hall.
Taylor, P. G., Carpenter, B. S., Ballengee-Morris, C., & Sessions, B. (2006).
Interdisciplinary approaches to teaching art in high school. Reston, VA:
National Art Education Association.
Towell, J. L., Powell, K. C., & Brown, S. L. (2018). Creative literacy in
action: Birth through age nine. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Troen, V., & Boles, K. C. (2011). The power of teacher teams: With cases,
analyses, and strategies for success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Scieszka, J. (1996). The true story of the three little pigs. London, UK: Puffin
Books.
Swartz, R. J., & Parks, S. (1994). Infusing the teaching of critical and creative
thinking into content instruction: A lesson design handbook for the elementary
grades. Pacific Grove, CA: Critical Thinking Press and Software.
Walker, L. [Director], Jardim, J., Harley, K. [co-Directors], & Muniz, V.
[Artist]. (2010). WASTELAND [motion picture]. London: Almega Projects
and O2 Films.
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Whyte, B., Fraser, D., & Aitken, V. (2013). Connecting curriculum, linking
learning. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Council for Educational
Research.
Kino, C. (2010). Where art meets trash and transforms life. Retrieved from
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/24/arts/design/24muniz.html
Walker, L. [Director], Jardim, J., Harley, K. [co-Directors], & Muniz, V.
[Artist]. (2010). WASTELAND [motion picture]. London: Almega Projects
and O2 Films.
Connelly, O. (n.d.). Harlem Renaissance and new inventions. Retrieved from
http://oliverconnelly.weebly.com/harlem-renaissance--new-inventions.html
CPalms. (2017). Educator toolkits. Florida State University. Retrieved from
http://www.cpalms.org/Public/
Ford, T. M. (n.d.). The five w’s of the Harlem Renaissance. Ford Learning
Company. Retrieved from http://fordlearning.com/the-five-ws-of-the-harlem-
renaissance.html
Graham, M. (2011). The new negro renaissance: Africana age: African &
diasporan transformations in the 20th century. Andrew W. Mellon Foundation,
a project of the Schomburg-Mellon Humanities Summer Institute: Schomburg
Center for Research in Black Vulture, The New York Public Library. Retrieved
from http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-renaissance.html
McMillian, A. (2017). Guide to Harlem Renaissance materials. Library
of Congress. Retrieved from https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/harlem/
harlem.html
Accordion Books: A book structure that includes front and back covers
with attached pages created from a single length of paper that folded back
and forth in a zig-zag pattern.
Alternative Ending: A literary adaptation in which the author changes
the ending of a well-known story to a different character’s perspective.
Cross-Disciplinary: A curriculum approach that supports learning across
two different disciplines.
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Flip Books: A book structure that includes multiple images with slight
movements of objects, people and settings illustrated on each page causing
the illusion of action when pages are quickly flipped, much like the concept
of film.
Learning Styles: Different approaches or ways of learning including
multiple representations of knowledge.
Pop-Up Books: A book structure that includes paper engineering
of structures that physically extend beyond the page, usually including
illustrations.
Teacher Leaders: Educators of all disciplines and at all grade levels, who
develop leadership qualities in areas such as, curriculum design, creative
daily scheduling, community outreach, school wide projects, extra-curricular
activities, and co-curricular programs.
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APPENDIX 1: STREAMSS LESSON PLAN

WITH A FOCUS ON SOCIAL STUDIES
• Subject: Social Studies, United States History

• Topic: Harlem Renaissance
• Grade: 9
• Time: Four-day unit plan, 40 minutes per day
• Objective: Recognize the major artistic, literary, cultural, social,
and technological contributions of individuals during the Harlem
Renaissance (CPalms, 2017).
• Opening: Teacher will instigate a classroom discussion by asking
students “What do you know about the Harlem Renaissance?” After a
synopsis of students’ prior knowledge, teacher will briefly explain the
historical background of the 1920s to 1930s Harlem Renaissance and
how the word renaissance means “rebirth.”
• Procedure: Teacher will introduce students to major Harlem
Renaissance STREAMSS concepts and guiding questions that by the
end of the four-day lessons, students will have mastered and answered.
Guiding questions will include:
◦◦ In what geographical location did the Harlem Renaissance occur?
◦◦ What historical events and societal situations caused the Harlem
Renaissance to occur?
◦◦ How did art (e.g., painting, illustrating, sculpture) influence the
Harlem Renaissance?
◦◦ How did theater (e.g., dance and drama) contribute to the Harlem
Renaissance?
◦◦ How did music (musicians, singers, and lyricists) contribute to the
Harlem Renaissance?
◦◦ How did writers, poets, and playwrights stimulate the Harlem
Renaissance?
◦◦ How did technological advancements affect the Harlem
Renaissance?
◦◦ How did scientific inventors and inventions impact the Harlem
Renaissance?
◦◦ What engineering innovations kindled the Harlem Renaissance?
◦◦ What economic factors played a role in the Harlem Renaissance?
◦◦ How did culture influence the Harlem Renaissance? (Ford, n/d).
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Figure 2. Example of STREAMSS classroom centers
• Activity: Students will be heterogeneously grouped by academic,

language, and social skills. Desks will be joined to create STREAMSS
“centers” (e.g., Social Studies center, Language Arts center, Science
center, Technology center, Engineering Center, Arts center, and Math
Center). Through the guidance of the teacher, student group members
will be stationed at different subject “centers,” examine the online or
literary materials found at each center, and answer the above list of
guiding questions on a teacher-created question/answer worksheet.
Groups will rotate from center to center every 20 minutes for a duration
of 40 minutes per day (two center visits per day for three days). The
fourth and final day of the unit plan will consist of students visiting
their last center for 20 minutes and then engaging in a 20-minute unit
plan debriefing session with the entire class.
◦◦ Social Studies Center: Students will examine an interactive
online map of the U.S. and determine the relative location of the
upper Manhattan borough of New York City, NY, and the absolute
location of Harlem, NY. Students will use classroom computers
to research information about the Harlem Renaissance: how it
was an era of African American heritage, culture, art, literature,
music, and drama, how the Harlem Renaissance evolved after
the Great Migration, or migration of African Americans from
the southern United States to northern cities such as New York
City in search of social and economic opportunities, and how the
Great Migration that began in the early 1900s played a major role
in the development of the Harlem Renaissance. The teacher will
also connect U.S. History to World History by comparing and
contrasting the Harlem Renaissance to the European Renaissance
that took place during the 13th to 18th centuries.
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◦◦ Language Arts/Literature Center: Through the use of literary

materials such as books, magazines, diaries, journal articles, and
poems written by significant figures who artistically, politically,
socially, and economically inspired the Harlem Renaissance,
students will examine key literary figures such as Langston
Hughes, Claude McKay, Wallace Thurman, James Weldon
Johnson, Georgia Douglas Johnson, and Zora Neale Hurston who
wrote fiction and nonfiction novels, poetry, articles, and plays
that often focused on everyday life, self-importance, and valor
(McMillian, 2017).
◦◦ Science Center: Students will view video clips of pioneering
Harlem Renaissance inventors such as Willis Carrier who
developed the air conditioner, Garrett Morgan who invented the gas
mask and traffic signal, Earle Dickerson who created the band-aid,
and Frederick Banting and Charles Best who discovered insulin
for diabetics, and recognize how their revolutionary scientific
inventions subsequently transformed the world (Connelly, n/d).
◦◦ Technology Center: By using an assortment of online materials
such as audio clips and documentaries that highlight technological
advancements during the Harlem Renaissance, students will view
examples of media and communication (publishing) innovations
and listen to jazz, blues, and gospel musical recordings that were
often used as a platform for promoting African American rights.
◦◦ Engineering Center: This center will showcase engineering
innovations such as the design of the Apollo Theater and Cotton
Club, two historic night clubs that not only contributed to the
growth of jazz during the Harlem Renaissance, but also sparked
successful music careers for African American musicians, singers,
and songwriters.
◦◦ Arts Center: Students will peruse through visual images of
paintings and sculptures created by Harlem Renaissance artists
such as Lois Mailou Jones, William H. Johnson, Jacob Lawrence
Archibald Motley, Hale Woodruff, Palmer Hayden, Augusta
Savage, and Aaron Douglas (Graham, 2011), view online video
clippings of Harlem theater and dance performers such as
Josephine Baker, Billy “Bonjangles” Robinson, and Charles S.
Gilpin, and listen to online recordings by prolific singers and
musicians such as Duke Ellington, Count Basie, Bessie Smith,
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Billie Holiday, Ella Fitzgerald, Chick Webb, Ethel Waters, Louis

Armstrong, and Cab Calloway (McMillian, 2017).
◦◦ Math Center: Students will be provided charts and graphs to
determine the number of African Americans who migrated to
northern U.S. cities during the early 1900s Great Migration,
the percentages of people who settled in Harlem, how Harlem’s
economy increased during the 1920s with profitable business
establishments such as nightclubs, theaters, cinemas, and concerts,
and how Harlem’s economy decreased during the late 1930’s
(Graham, 2011).
• Assessment: Students will be informally assessed through teacher
observation, students’ effort to research information about the Harlem
Renaissance, and students’ accuracy in answering the guiding questions
posed at the start of the unit plan.
APPENDIX 2: STREAMSS LESSON PLAN

WITH A FOCUS ON THE ARTS
• Topic: New York based visual artist, Vik Muniz works with Brazilian
people who live at the Jardim Gramacho, the world largest garbage
dump site just outside of Rio de Janeiro. Using recycled materials on-
site, several large scale portraits inspired by historical paintings are
created, photographed and filmed. Catadores, people who live and
work at Jardim Gramacho, worked with Vic Muniz on the artistic
creations. Vik Muniz exhibited the photographs, which sold in the U.S.
with proceeds going back to the catadores through the Association of
the Recycling Pickers of Jardim Gramacho and produced the film,
WASTELAND (Walker, Jardim, Harley, & Muniz, 2010) to explain
the artistic process and shed light on their plight.
• Interdisciplinary Focus: Visual Art, Social Studies, Mathematics,
Language Arts, and Technology
• Context: Contextual Stories of three artists/pickers from Jardim
Gramacho
“Suelem Pereira Dias, a young woman who along with her two children
inspired Muniz to create a large scale portrait from recycled items, had been
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working at the Jardim Gramacho since she was seven years old. The money
shared from the sale of the artwork that portrayed her in a Madonna and child
pose, helped her to build a better life for herself and her children, eventually
allowing her to move away from the Jardim Gramacho. Another young woman
portrayed in an artwork, Isis Rodrigues Garros used what she learned about
art to create jewelry from recycled items. When the work with Muniz was
completed, she began a new job designing and selling jewelry. The economic
support from the artwork sale allowed her to move from the Jardim Gramacho”
(Brown, 2015, p. 10). Magna de França Santos purchased a house and moved
from the Jardim Gramacho using the profits from the sale of her portrait with
the help of Vik Muniz. More examples can be found on the WASTELAND
website (Almega Projects, 2010a). Students use contextual information and
research to better understand how creativity and technology through art can
inspire people to attain new skills and utilize artistic techniques to make a
better future for themselves and others throughout the world.
• Visual Art Concepts:

◦◦ Art Criticism: Student discuss and critique work of Vik Muniz
through description, analysis, interpretation, and evaluation.
◦◦ Art History: See Context.
◦◦ Aesthetics: Students discuss whether or not garbage can be art.
◦◦ Art Production: Photography skills on creating portraits and
collage composition skills are utilized.
• Vocabulary:
◦◦ Recycling: To treat or process waste materials to make them
suitable for reuse.
◦◦ Catadores: A Portuguese word for the people who collect
recyclable materials at the garbage dump site.
◦◦ Photography: The process of recording images on sensitized
material by the action of light.
◦◦ Social Action: Individual or group behavior that involves
interaction with others especially organized action toward social
reform.
◦◦ Texture: How something feels to the touch or is implied to feel
to the touch.
◦◦ Shading: Using value tones from dark to light for artistic effect.
◦◦ Series: A group of artistic works on the same theme or topic.
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• Instructional Objectives: By the end of the first class period (55

minutes), students will complete critique of Vik Muniz work, research
about and watch the film WASTELAND, and discuss artistic guidelines
for portrait art.
◦◦ By the end of one studio class period, students will photograph
using digital cameras another student to create a portrait using the
criteria discussed through the presentation and group assignments.
◦◦ By the end of studio class period 2, students will critique several
portrait photographs, select one to develop into a collage and
transfer selected portrait in larger scale using the grid method to
poster board.
◦◦ By the end of studio class period 3, 4, & 5, students will create a
portrait collage using a variety of materials (recycled and found
objects).
◦◦ By the end of class period 6 & 7, student will critique portrait
collages, discuss community issues and possible solutions, and
create an action plan to address community issues.
Note: Independently, students will form groups or work individually to take

action based upon the plan written in class. This may take many forms such
as, implement a school wide recycling program, survey students on a specific
issue, or create an artistic installation that educates about a specific problem
in the community.
• Lesson Initiating Activity: Students will be introduced to the

biography and artwork of Vik Muniz.
“Vik Muniz was born into a working-class family in Sao Paulo, Brazil in 1961.
As a young man he was shot in the leg whilst trying to break up a fight. He
received compensation for his injuries and used this money to fund a trip to
New York City, where he has lived and worked since the late 1980s. He began
his career as a sculptor but gradually became more interested in photographic
reproductions of his work, eventually turning his attention exclusively to
photography. He incorporates a multiplicity of unlikely materials into this
photographic process. Often working in series, Vik has used dirt, diamonds,
sugar, string, chocolate syrup and garbage to create bold, witty and often
deceiving images drawn from the pages of photojournalism and art history.
His work has been met with both commercial success and critical acclaim,
and has been exhibited worldwide. His solo show at MAM in Rio de Janeiro
165
New Perspectives
was second only to Picasso in attendance records; it was here that Vik first
exhibited his ‘Pictures of Garbage Series’ in Brazil” (Almega Projects, 2010b).
Students will watch the film WASTELAND. During the film, students will
take notes and use the critique form to learn about the artworks. After the
film, students will discuss in small groups the aesthetic question of whether
or not art can be made from garbage. Class ideas will discussed, while the
teacher records ideas on the Aesthetics chart displayed in the room.
Through group discussion, students will discuss the composition of portraits.
The teacher will lead a critique of two different portraits (selected by the
teacher) and question students about effective composition and portrait
structure (facial symmetry and measurement).
• Questions: Do think what Muniz created was art? Why or Why not?
Do you think the catadores are artists? Why or Why not? Do you think
it was okay for Muniz to ask the catadores to work with him to create
art? How did the catadores create their own community? What were
some of the roles in this community? What did the catadores do to help
themselves and other community members?
• Core Activities: Guided practice: Together with the teacher
demonstrating, students will sketch a portrait guideline to keep in
their sketchbooks. Using pencil, students draw an oval shape, then
divide into half vertically and horizontally. Measurements are marked
for facial features (eyes, nose, mouth, and ears) to demonstrate facial
symmetry. Students will place drawing in sketchbooks.
◦◦ Next, students will divide into small groups (4 or 5 students in
each group). One digital camera will be assigned to each group
to take portrait photographs. Students may use props or costumes
from the class costume box.
◦◦ Students use computers to view, crop and print out one selected
portrait that the group decides to use for the collage.
◦◦ Students use the grid method to transfer the portrait to a large
poster board.
◦◦ Students collect meaningful recycled materials and found objects
for the portrait collage.
◦◦ Students begin to collaboratively glue materials to the collage.
Some areas may be colored with paint, markers, colored pencils
or crayons to add contrast and emphasis to the collage.
◦◦ Once the group has completed the collage and the supplies have
been put away (clean-up), each member writes a critique of the
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New Perspectives
work using the format given in class. Each collage is shared with
the whole class during a teacher led critique. Students are given
time in small groups to add or change any part of the design based
upon the critique.
• Questions: What is a portrait? What qualities make a good composition
for portraiture? How did you select one photograph for the collage?
What criteria did your group use to select the portrait to be enlarged
and replicated into a collage? Was this selection process fair in your
opinion? If not, what could be done to make the decision process
more equitable for all in the group? Describe the collaborative process
of making the collage. What artistic processes did you use to create
the collage? What materials were used? Why did you select these
materials? Do the materials relate to the personality of the portrait?
Explain why or why not? What could be changed to make the portrait
collage more effective?
• Closure Activities: Students work in same small groups to discuss
issues in the community that are important to them. Collaboratively
or independently one issue is selected to discuss and an action plan is
written to creatively solve the issue. Each student must write an action
plan. Students implement the action plan and report the results to the
class.
• Questions: Describe the social issue. Who is involved in the issue?
What ideas were discussed when brainstorming solutions to the issue?
How will you implement a creative solution? What resources, materials
and approvals (know who would approve) do you need to implement
the solution? Did you solve the problem? What could you do next?
• Materials and Equipment: Digital cameras, memory card, computer,
computer printer/paper/ink, computer projector with speakers,
Recycled materials (collected by students), Poster boards for each
portrait, glue, pencils, erasers, rulers, examples of portraits (historical
and contemporary) in different artistic media, critique forms (copies
for each student), action plan forms (copies for each student), class
costume box with hats, scarves, glasses, props, colorful fabric, etc.
• Assessment/Evaluation: All students are expected to achieve a
satisfactory rating on all areas or they will need to resubmit the
unsuccessful part of the assignment. This type of grading process
allows for success by all motivated students. Failure to resubmit results
in a loss of points for the final project grade. One point is given for the
following criterion:
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New Perspectives
◦◦ Student participated in the group discussion of the video and

artwork of Vik Muniz by answering and posing questions during
the critique.
◦◦ Student worked collaboratively with the group to create digital
photographs (portraits).
◦◦ Student participated in the group discussion to select one portrait
photograph for the recyclable materials collage.
◦◦ Student used the grid method to enlarge the scale of the portrait
onto large poster board.
◦◦ Student used effective composition and artistic suggestions from
others in the group and teacher to strengthen work.
◦◦ Student used recycled and found materials to complete the portrait
on poster board.
◦◦ Student participated in the presentation and discussion of class
artworks.
◦◦ Student identified at least two different community issues and
discussed with small group possible solutions to a selected issue.
◦◦ Student wrote an action plan using the format given in class to
outline the steps of creatively solving the selected issue.
◦◦ Student implemented the action plan independently or with a small
group and reported results to the class in a presentation format.
Grading Scale- 10 points=A, 9 points=B, 8 points = C, 7 points=D, 6 points

or less=F
• Teacher Self-Reflection: To improve this lesson for the future, I will

reflect upon the lesson with regard to the following items:
◦◦ Effective assessment of prior knowledge of students;

◦◦ Timely, sequential presentation and organization of materials;
◦◦ Student involvement in pre-activity task, brainstorming, and guide
practice session;
◦◦ Demonstration of studio techniques and process to students;
◦◦ Effective and clear communication of procedures and expectations;
◦◦ Ability to assist learners with formalistic (elements of art and
principles of design) as well as, contextual (social and cultural)
issues in their artwork;
◦◦ Effective clean-up and closure procedures.
168
169
Related Readings
To continue IGI Global’s long-standing tradition of advancing innovation

through emerging research, please find below a compiled list of recommended
IGI Global book chapters and journal articles in the areas of teaching practices,
professional learning, and curriculum integration. These related readings will
provide additional information and guidance to further enrich your knowledge
and assist you with your own research.
Abdelaziz, H. A. (2014). Creative Design of Interactive eLearning Activities

and Materials (IEAM): A Psycho-Pedagogical Model. International Journal
of Technology Diffusion, 5(4), 14–34. doi:10.4018/ijtd.2014100102
Abdelmalak, M. M., & Parra, J. L. (2016). Expanding Learning Opportunities
for Graduate Students with HyFlex Course Design. International Journal
of Online Pedagogy and Course Design, 6(4), 19–37. doi:10.4018/
IJOPCD.2016100102
Abera, B. (2014). Applying a Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
Framework in Ethiopian English Language Teacher Education. In T. Issa,
P. Isaias, & P. Kommers (Eds.), Multicultural Awareness and Technology
in Higher Education: Global Perspectives (pp. 286–301). Hershey, PA: IGI
Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-5876-9.ch014
Adegbenro, J. B., Gumbo, M. T., & Olugbara, O. O. (2015). Exploring
Technological Knowledge of Office Data Processing Teachers: Using Factor
Analytic Methods. In M. Niess & H. Gillow-Wiles (Eds.), Handbook of
Research on Teacher Education in the Digital Age (pp. 548–576). Hershey,
PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-8403-4.ch021
Related Readings
Amador, F., Nobre, A., & Barros, D. (2016). Towards a Model of a Didactics
of eLearning: An Application to Education for Sustainable Development.
In M. Pinheiro & D. Simões (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Engaging
Digital Natives in Higher Education Settings (pp. 396–415). Hershey, PA:
IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-0039-1.ch019
Amador, J. M., Kimmons, R., Miller, B. G., Desjardins, C. D., & Hall, C.
(2015). Preparing Preservice Teachers to Become Self-Reflective of Their
Technology Integration Practices. In M. Niess & H. Gillow-Wiles (Eds.),
Handbook of Research on Teacher Education in the Digital Age (pp. 81–107).
Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-8403-4.ch004
Archambault, L. (2014). Teaching Virtually: Strategies and Challenges in the
21st Century Online Classroom. International Journal of Online Pedagogy
and Course Design, 4(1), 1–15. doi:10.4018/ijopcd.2014010101
Arinze, B., Sylla, C., & Amobi, O. (2016). Cloud Computing for Teaching
and Learning: Design Strategies. In L. Chao (Ed.), Handbook of Research
on Cloud-Based STEM Education for Improved Learning Outcomes (pp.
159–171). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-9924-3.ch011
Aşık, A. (2016). Digital Storytelling and Its Tools for Language Teaching:
Perceptions and Reflections of Pre-Service Teachers. International Journal
of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching, 6(1), 55–68.
doi:10.4018/IJCALLT.2016010104
Attard, C. (2015). Introducing iPads into Primary Mathematics Classrooms:
Teachers’ Experiences and Pedagogies. In M. Meletiou-Mavrotheris, K.
Mavrou, & E. Paparistodemou (Eds.), Integrating Touch-Enabled and Mobile
Devices into Contemporary Mathematics Education (pp. 193–213). Hershey,
Baert, H. (2015). Technology Tools, Proficiency, and Integration of Physical
Education Teacher Educators. In M. Niess & H. Gillow-Wiles (Eds.), Handbook
of Research on Teacher Education in the Digital Age (pp. 223–254). Hershey,
Banas, J. R., & York, C. S. (2014). The Impact of Authentic Learning Exercises
On Pre-service Teachers Motivational Beliefs towards Technology Integration.
International Journal of Information and Communication Technology
Education, 10(3), 60–76. doi:10.4018/ijicte.2014070105
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Barakat, M., & Weiss-Randall, D. N. (2016). Through the Eyes of Students

and Faculty: A Conceptual Framework for the Development of Online
Courses. In V. Wang (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Learning Outcomes
and Opportunities in the Digital Age (pp. 557–584). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-9577-1.ch025
Baran, M. L., & Jones, J. E. (2014). Online Learning: Guidelines for Team
Effectiveness. In C. Stevenson & J. Bauer (Eds.), Building Online Communities
in Higher Education Institutions: Creating Collaborative Experience (pp.
Barbour, M. K., Adelstein, D., & Morrison, J. (2014). The Forgotten Teachers
in K-12 Online Learning: Examining the Perceptions of Teachers Who Develop
K-12 Online Courses. International Journal of Online Pedagogy and Course
Design, 4(3), 18–33. doi:10.4018/ijopcd.2014070102
Boboc, M. (2014). Connecting Communication to Curriculum and Pedagogy
in Online Environments. In C. Stevenson & J. Bauer (Eds.), Building Online
Communities in Higher Education Institutions: Creating Collaborative
Experience (pp. 132–156). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-
4666-5178-4.ch007
Borasi, R., Fredericksen, E., & Miller, D. (2017). From 0 to 60: The Case Study
of a School of Education’s Successful “Online Start-Up”. In K. Shelton & K.
Pedersen (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Building (pp. 60–83). Hershey,
Bowers, J., & Kumar, P. (2015). Students Perceptions of Teaching and Social
Presence: A Comparative Analysis of Face-to-Face and Online Learning
Environments. International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching
Technologies, 10(1), 27–44. doi:10.4018/ijwltt.2015010103
Bozoglan, B., & Demirer, V. (2015). The Association between Internet
Addiction and Psychosocial Variables. In J. Bishop (Ed.), Psychological
and Social Implications Surrounding Internet and Gaming Addiction (pp.
Breen, P. (2014). Philosophies, Traditional Pedagogy, and New Technologies:
A Report on a Case Study of EAP Teachers’ Integration of Technology
into Traditional Practice. In P. Breen (Ed.), Cases on Teacher Identity (pp.
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Societies with E-Service-Learning. In C. Crosby & F. Brockmeier (Eds.),
Student Experiences and Educational Outcomes in Community Engagement
for the 21st Century (pp. 150–172). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-
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Brunvand, S. (2016). Facilitating Student Interaction and Collaboration in a
MOOC Environment. In R. Mendoza-Gonzalez (Ed.), User-Centered Design
Strategies for Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) (pp. 1–14). Hershey,
Bull, P. H., & Patterson, G. C. (2016). Strategies to Promote Pedagogical
Knowledge Interplay with Technology. In J. Keengwe & G. Onchwari (Eds.),
Handbook of Research on Active Learning and the Flipped Classroom Model
in the Digital Age (pp. 255–271). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-
1-4666-9680-8.ch013
Bush, S. B., Driskell, S. O., Niess, M. L., Pugalee, D., Rakes, C. R., & Ronau,
R. N. (2015). The Impact of Digital Technologies in Mathematics Pre-Service
Teacher Preparation over Four Decades. In M. Niess & H. Gillow-Wiles
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Byrd-Poller, L., Farmer, J. L., & Ford, V. (2017). The Role of Leaders in
Facilitating Healing After Organizational Trauma. In S. Háša & R. Brunet-
Thornton (Eds.), Impact of Organizational Trauma on Workplace Behavior
and Performance (pp. 318–340). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-
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Cacho-Elizondo, S., Shahidi, N., & Tossan, V. (2015). Giving Up Smoking
Using SMS Messages on your Mobile Phone. In A. Mesquita & C. Tsai (Eds.),
Human Behavior, Psychology, and Social Interaction in the Digital Era (pp.
Card, S., & Wang, H. (2015). Taking Care to Play: Meaningful Communication
in Dementia Care in Chinese Culture. In C. Dick-Muehlke, R. Li, & M. Orleans
(Eds.), Psychosocial Studies of the Individual’s Changing Perspectives in
Alzheimer’s Disease (pp. 76–103). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-
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Carrasco, G., & Kinnamon, E. (2017). An Examination of Selfish and Selfless

Motives: A Review of the Social Psychological and Behavioral Economics
Literature. In R. Ianole (Ed.), Applied Behavioral Economics Research and
Trends (pp. 93–109). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-
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Cejka, P., & Mohelska, H. (2017). National Culture Influence on Organisational
Trauma: A Conceptual Framework Review. In S. Háša & R. Brunet-Thornton
(Eds.), Impact of Organizational Trauma on Workplace Behavior and
Performance (pp. 162–186). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-
5225-2021-4.ch007
Chen, C. (2016). Effective Learning Strategies for the 21st Century: Implications
for the E-Learning. In M. Anderson & C. Gavan (Eds.), Developing Effective
Educational Experiences through Learning Analytics (pp. 143–169). Hershey,
Chen, C., Chiu, P., & Huang, Y. (2015). The Learning Style-Based Adaptive
Learning System Architecture. International Journal of Online Pedagogy
and Course Design, 5(2), 1–10. doi:10.4018/IJOPCD.2015040101
Chen, R., Lin, T., & Xie, T. (2015). Towards Intelligent Window Layout
Management: The Role of Mental Map. In A. Mesquita & C. Tsai (Eds.),
Human Behavior, Psychology, and Social Interaction in the Digital Era (pp.
Cheng, H. (2017). A TL-TPACK Model on CSL Pre-Service Teachers’
Competencies of Online Instruction. In C. Lin, D. Zhang, & B. Zheng (Eds.),
Preparing Foreign Language Teachers for Next-Generation Education (pp.
Chuang, S., Lin, S., Chang, T., & Kaewmeesri, R. (2017). Behavioral Intention
of Using Social Networking Site: A Comparative Study of Taiwanese and
Thai Facebook Users. International Journal of Technology and Human
Interaction, 13(1), 61–81. doi:10.4018/IJTHI.2017010104
Cialdella, V. T., Lobato, E. J., & Jordan, J. S. (2017). Wild Architecture:
Explaining Cognition via Self-Sustaining Systems. In J. Vallverdú, M.
Mazzara, M. Talanov, S. Distefano, & R. Lowe (Eds.), Advanced Research
on Biologically Inspired Cognitive Architectures (pp. 41–62). Hershey, PA:
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Natives in Higher Education Settings (pp. 374–395). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-0039-1.ch018
Cleve, R. A., Işık, İ., & Pecanha, V. D. (2017). Sexual Identities in the
Workplace: Avoiding Organizational Trauma When Disclosure Occurs
– Current Perspectives. In S. Háša & R. Brunet-Thornton (Eds.), Impact
of Organizational Trauma on Workplace Behavior and Performance (pp.
Conrad, S. S., & Dabbagh, N. (2015). Examining the Factors that Influence
how Instructors Provide Feedback in Online Learning Environments.
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Contier, A. T., & Torres, L. (2017). Neuroaesthetics: Insights into the Aesthetic
Experience of Visual Art. In R. Zuanon (Ed.), Projective Processes and
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Courey, S., LePage, P., Blackorby, J., Siker, J., & Nguyen, T. (2015). The
Effects of Using Dynabook to Prepare Special Education Teachers to Teach
Proportional Reasoning. International Journal of Web-Based Learning and
Teaching Technologies, 10(1), 45–64. doi:10.4018/ijwltt.2015010104
Cranton, P., & Thompson, P. (2014). Creating Collaboration in Global
Online Learning: Case Studies. In V. Wang (Ed.), Handbook of Research
on Education and Technology in a Changing Society (pp. 92–103). Hershey,
Crawford, C. M., & Smith, M. S. (2015). Rethinking Bloom’s Taxonomy:
Implicit Cognitive Vulnerability as an Impetus towards Higher Order Thinking
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and Social Cognitive Processes (pp. 86–103). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
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de Groot, C., Fogleman, J., & Kern, D. (2015). Using Mobile Technologies to
Co-Construct TPACK in Teacher Education. In J. Keengwe & M. Maxfield
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Trauma: Trauma in Contemporary French Theory. In S. Háša & R. Brunet-
Thornton (Eds.), Impact of Organizational Trauma on Workplace Behavior
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Delgado, J. J. (2017). How Is the Personality of Facebook Customers?:
Cloninger’s Psychobiological Model of Temperament as a Predictor of SNSs.
In M. Dos Santos (Ed.), Applying Neuroscience to Business Practice (pp.
Dentale, F., Vecchione, M., & Barbaranelli, C. (2015). Applying the IAT
to Assess Big Five Personality Traits: A Brief Review of Measurement and
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Memory, and Social Cognitive Processes (pp. 1–15). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
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Deyoe, M. M., Newman, D. L., & Asaro-Saddler, K. (2014). Moving from
Professional Development to Real-Time Use: How are we Changing Students?
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Dick, T. P., & Burrill, G. F. (2016). Design and Implementation Principles for
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Díez, J. C., & Saiz-Alvarez, J. M. (2016). Leadership in Social Entrepreneurship:
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Dikici, A. (2017). Revisiting the Relationships between Turkish Prospective
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Farmer, L. (2014). Technology Impact on New Adult Behavior about Health
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Fasko, D. (2017). Creativity in the Schools: Educational Changes Lately?
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Fazio, S., & Mitchell, D. B. (2015). Self-Preservation in Individuals with
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190
About the Authors
Susannah Brown is an Associate Professor of Art Education in the Col-

lege of Education at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida.
Dr. Brown works with all ages, PreK-adults, to inspire academic excellence
and a commitment to the community through arts engagement for the past
twenty-seven years. Dr. Brown has published book chapters, scholarly articles
and textbooks, Teaching Art Integration in the Schools (Cengage, 2013),
and Creative Literacy in Action: Birth Through Age Nine (Cengage, 2017),
which all incorporate creative engagement activities in teaching practice.
Cross disciplinary expertise in the arts and education along with teaching
experience with diverse learners, propels Dr. Brown forward as an engaged
faculty member and mentor for her students. She is primarily a watercolor
artist who loves to also sculpt with clay. Recently, she has been training with
premier book artists through the Jaffe Center of Book Arts on traditional
printing and binding. Sharing her passion for the arts drives her teaching
and personal work.
Rina Bousalis is an Assistant Professor of Social Studies Education in the

College of Education at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida.
Her previous experience includes teaching elementary school (fourth and fifth
grades) and high school (ninth through twelfth grades) in courses such as U.S.
History, World History, U.S. Government, Sociology, Advanced Placement
(AP) Human Geography, and Dual-Enrollment (college-high school partner-
ship). She has authored articles for peer-reviewed journals and presented at
state, national, and international conferences. Her research interests include
multicultural, global, and civics education.
191
Index
21st Century Skills 50, 155 Compartmentalization 5-6, 9, 11

compassion 36, 48, 63
A concern 7, 9, 30-31, 33, 36, 43
Creativity 15-16, 21, 31-35, 41, 99, 104,
Accordion Books 158 120, 126, 155, 164
Aesthetic Experience 28, 41, 111-112, 123 Cross-Disciplinary 158
Aesthetics 95, 97, 99-100, 102-103, 111- Cultural Landscape 94
114, 118, 120, 123, 166 Culture 3, 6, 10, 18, 20-21, 34-35, 37, 46,
Alternative Ending 158 50, 52, 63, 78-79, 97, 100-101, 103,
Anthropology 50 106, 108, 111, 113-114, 117, 131, 154
art education 8, 97, 99, 101 Curriculum 1-16, 18-21, 23, 26-30, 33-43,
Art for Life 123 48, 50, 53-54, 56-57, 63, 73, 77, 81,
Arts Advocacy 99, 124 83, 86-87, 95-99, 101-102, 114, 118,
Arts Criticism 95, 97, 102, 105-107, 120, 120, 123, 125-133, 141, 143-150, 152,
124 154-156, 158-159
Arts History 95, 97, 107-109, 111, 120, 124
Arts Integration 14, 26, 95-99, 114, 118 D
Arts Performance 124
Arts Production 95, 100, 120, 124 Dance 16, 26, 41-42, 79, 96, 99, 101-104,
Autonomy 54, 57, 66 109, 118, 150
Delegate 94
C democracy 30, 33, 71, 82
Democratic Education 30-31, 48
capacities 13, 40 dialogue 29, 33-35
Cape Canaveral 146 Discipline 2, 6, 9-10, 12-13, 15-16, 20-21,
capitalism 38 26, 49, 53, 63, 75, 77, 98-99, 101-102,
care perspective 28, 36 105, 111, 114, 129, 131, 148
Case Study 144-147 Drama 3, 16, 26, 81, 96, 99, 102-104, 117
Checks and Balances 68, 94
Citizenship 50, 68, 71, 74, 84 E
Civics 50, 71, 73, 87
cognitive development 39 Earth 49, 63, 65-66
Collaboration 5-6, 10, 15, 21, 23, 31, 127- economics 20, 50, 52-53, 74-77, 84, 86-87
128, 132, 147, 154 economy 45, 67, 74-76, 85, 155
common good 38-39
Index
Empathy 36, 41, 46, 48, 52, 63, 79 M

Ethics 22, 35, 48, 155
Everglades 147 Marginalization 6, 98, 126
Media 9, 16, 19, 21, 27, 41, 43, 56, 66,
F 72, 82, 103-105, 110-113, 116-117,
128, 146, 148
Federal 68-69, 74, 76 multicultural 28, 34-35, 78, 117-118,
Federalism 69 147-148
Flip Books 148, 159 Multicultural Fairy Tales 147-148
Fragmentation of Knowledge 5, 11 Multicultural Perspective 148
multiculturalism 34-35, 77-79
G multidisciplinary 20, 28-29, 43, 57, 73,
77, 86-87, 125, 130-131, 134, 141,
Geography 20, 30, 49-50, 52, 63-64, 66-67, 144-145, 148, 150, 154
76, 84, 86-87, 117 Multiple Forms of Knowledge 4, 21
Multiple Intelligences 13, 39-41
H musical 12, 23, 104-105, 109, 117-118, 120
Hidden Curriculum 12, 38, 48

High Stakes Testing 5, 7-8, 98, 125, 131
N
Historical Empathy 63 NASA 146
human capital 39 Nel Noddings 28, 35
I P
Inquiry-Based Curriculum 132, 143 Paul Duncum 18
interdisciplinary 1-6, 8-13, 15-16, 18-23, perspective 20, 28, 36-37, 41-42, 59, 62-
26-29, 39-42, 44, 66, 95-98, 116, 125- 63, 107, 111-113, 117, 126, 148, 158
134, 141, 143, 145-148, 152, 154, 156 Pop-Up Books 148, 159
Interdisciplinary Curriculum 1-4, 6, 8-13, Primary Sources 60, 62, 79, 82
15-16, 19-21, 23, 26-29, 40-42, 96, Professional Learning Communities 127,
98, 125-127, 129-133, 143, 147-148, 143
152, 154, 156 Progressive Education 28, 30
interpersonal 3, 13, 41 Progressivism 48
intrapersonal 41 Psychology 50
K R
Kennedy Space Center 146 Real World Connections 23
Reflection 12, 15, 41, 44, 80, 95, 111-115,
L 117-118
Resources 9, 17, 39, 44, 54, 56, 60, 63, 66,
learning abilities 40 74-76, 80, 82, 84-85, 99, 109, 111,
Learning Styles 144, 152, 159 118, 125, 133, 141, 143-146, 149-
150, 152, 154
192
Index
S The J. Paul Getty Museum 99

Thematic Units 128-131, 143, 147-148
School Programs 126, 141, 143 theories 1, 15, 20, 28, 37, 39, 42, 44, 100,
Self-Contained Classroom 130, 143 104, 111-113
Self-contained Classrooms 130 traditional curriculum 36, 43, 141, 155
single-subject 30, 36-40, 146 Transfer of Knowledge 3, 12, 130
Social Activism 33, 48, 102
social interaction 29, 31-33, 35, 38, 48 V
social justice 35, 67
social norms 37 Visual Art 2-3, 6-7, 19, 104, 110, 116,
Social Studies 3, 5-6, 8, 16, 19-21, 26-27, 120, 147-149
30, 36, 43-44, 49-59, 63, 66, 73, 75- visual-spatial 19
77, 79-87, 95-97, 117, 125-126, 131,
133, 145-146, 148, 160 Z
Socialization 29, 37-38, 48
society 5, 9, 16, 18, 31, 33, 36-39, 44, 50- zone of proximal development 28, 31
52, 73, 76, 78-79, 87, 97, 101, 103,
106-107, 111-114, 116, 155
sociology 28, 37, 50, 75
Sovereignty 66, 70
St. Augustine 146
STEM 9, 13-14, 54, 57-58, 63, 73-74, 77,
97-98, 108, 129
STREAM 16, 18-19, 49-50, 53, 80, 84-
85, 87
STREAMSS 19-23, 27, 95, 97, 114, 118,
120, 125-127, 130, 132-133, 141, 147,
149-150, 152, 154-156, 160-161, 163
Supplementary Resources 133, 143
T
Teacher Leaders 159
Teaching 1-12, 17, 19-22, 27-30, 34, 36-40,
42-44, 53, 55-57, 64, 66, 75-77, 79-80,
83, 86-87, 95-96, 98-102, 104, 114-
115, 120, 123, 125-128, 130, 132-134,
141, 143-149, 152, 154-155
Team Teaching 127-128, 130, 141, 143, 147
Technology 13-14, 21, 27, 41, 43-44, 49-
50, 53, 56, 58, 66, 76, 80-82, 85, 95,
97, 100, 110-111, 115-116, 120, 125,
132-133, 141, 145, 148, 150, 154, 164
193

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Curriculum Integration in

A volume in the Advances in Early

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Brown, Susannah, 1968- author. | Bousalis, Rina, 1959- author.

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material.

For electronic access to this publication, please contact: eresources@igi-global.com.

Editor-in-Chief: Jared Keengwe, University of North Dakota, USA

Managing Self-Directed Learning in Primary School Education Emerging Research ...

Advanced Concept Maps in STEM Education Emerging Research and Opportunities

Challenges Associated with Cross-Cultural and At-Risk Student Engagement

Supporting the Education of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Optimizing K-12 Education through Online and Blended Learning

Revolutionizing K-12 Blended Learning through the i²Flex Classroom Model

For an enitre list of titles in this series, please visit:

701 East Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033, USA

Related Readings............................................................................................... 169

About the Authors............................................................................................. 190

The purpose of writing Curriculum Integration in Contemporary Teaching

K-12 strategies, practices, and models of instruction, and assist educators in

A UNIQUE APPROACH TO TEACHING AND LEARNING

Curriculum Integration in Contemporary Teaching Practice: Emerging

Chapter 1, “Interdisciplinary K-12 Teaching and Learning: Rationale,” begins

learning should include real-world instruction, a connection to students’

improvement, and continued professional development, and case studies

would also like to thank my daughters who always encourage me to go

Interdisciplinary K-12 teaching and learning involves purposeful planning

• Define interdisciplinary K-12 teaching and learning.

An element of the interdisciplinary approach is the connection to standards

3, 4, and 5 may form an intermediate elementary team). Curriculum teams

the authors support the pedagogical approach of interdisciplinary learning

THE RATIONALE FOR K-12 INTERDISCIPLINARY

Common questions about interdisciplinary learning include:

• Why should K-12 teachers integrate curriculum?

Although teachers have many other questions when designing innovative

Active engagement in meaningful lessons that include multiple forms of

innovative ways. These concepts lie at the heart of interdisciplinary teaching

Issues, Controversies, and Problems

A characteristic or result of compartmentalization involves teacher isolation.

Marginalization and Devaluing of Disciplines

High Stakes Testing

Proponents of high stakes standardized testing advocate raising standards

Learning Not Related to Students’ Lives

Although critics and proponents of school reform accountability differ on

respective community, schools need to embrace communities by involving

The Challenge of Time

Another issue that impedes interdisciplinary curriculum is time. Teachers

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

teacher professional development and collaboration, connected knowledge with

Professional Development to Increase

As school reform initiatives continue, student achievement is expected to

Connecting Knowledge and Valuing All Disciplines

School reform efforts often include an end to fragmentation of knowledge or

Another aspect of interdisciplinary curriculum is knowledge transfer. By

Elaborative and creative thinking, fluency, originality, focused perception, and

These characteristics are considered higher order competencies and usually

Beginning with the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and

A bipartisan team of members of Congress launched the Congressional STEAM

The Congressional STEAM Caucus (2013) initiative revealed that a focus

1. Build collaboration between different approaches;

5. Widen the focus of evidence gathering about arts education (President’s

According to Julia Marshall (2005) in support of interdisciplinary

Marshall (2005) challenged educators to more fully integrate the arts in

Dramatic gains in elementary schools where principals have readjusted