CHAPTER SIX: WAVE ENERGY

6.0 Wave Energy

The energy in ocean waves mainly comes in an irregular and oscillating form
at all times of the day and night. Solar energy causes winds to blow over vast
ocean areas, which in turn cause waves to form, gather, and travel huge
distances to the shoreline of continents. The wave height, period, and
direction are primarily dependent on the wind properties (speed, direction,
and duration) and also the geometry of the sea (fetch length and depth).
There is surprisingly little loss of energy in deep-water ocean waves, so as
they travel to distant shores they continue to collect more and more wind
energy. However, as waves approach relatively shallow water, their energy
is greatly dissipated due to ground effects and this causes the dynamic,
chaotic, and highly variable environment known as wave breaking close to
shore.

Kinetic energy, the energy of motion, in waves is tremendous. An average 4-

foot, 10-s wave striking a coast puts out more than 35,000 horsepower per
mile of coast. Waves get their energy from the wind. Wind comes from solar
energy. Waves gather, store, and transmit this energy thousands of miles
with little loss. As long as the sun shines, wave energy will never be
depleted. It varies in intensity, but it is available all the times.

6.1 GENERAL

Waves get their energy from the solar energy through the wind. Wave
energy will never be depleted as long as the sun shines. Energy intensity
may, however, have variation but it is available 24 hours a day in the entire
year. They are caused by the wind blowing over the surface of the ocean with
enough consistency and force in many areas of the world to provide
continuous waves along the shore line. It contains tremendous energy

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potential and wave power devices extract energy from either the surface
motion of ocean waves or from pressure fluctuations below the surface. The
movement of the ocean water and the changing water wave heights and
speed of the swells are the main sources of wave energy. Kinetic energy in
the wave motion is tremendous that can be extracted by the wave power
devices from either the surface motion of ocean waves or from pressure
fluctuations below the ocean surface.

6.2 MOTION IN THE SEA WAVES

When the wind blows across smooth water surface, air particles from the
wind grab the water molecules they touch. Stretching of the water surface
by the force or friction between the air and the water creates capillary waves
(small wave ripples). Surface tension acts on these ripples to restore the
smooth surface, and thereby, waves are formed.

The combination of forces due to the gravity, sea surface tension, and wind
intensity are the main factors of origin of sea waves as shown in Figure 6.1,
which illustrates the formation of sea waves by a storm. Wave size is
determined by wind speed and fetches (defined as the distance over which
the wind excites the waves) and by the depth and topography of these abed
(which can focus or disperse the energy of the waves). Sea waves have a
regular shape at far distance from the fetch and this phenomenon is called
swell. Wave formation makes the water surface further rough and the wind
continuously grips the roughened water surface, and thus, waves are
intensified.

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Figure 6.1 Sea wave formation by storm

A wave is a forward motion of energy and not the water in deep sea. In true
sense, the seawater does not move forward with a wave. Waves are
characterized by the following parameters, as shown in Figure 6.2.

1. Crest: The peak point (the maximum height) on the wave is called the
crest.
2. Trough: The valley point (the lowest point) on the wave is called the
trough.
3. Wave height (H): Wave height is a vertical distance between the wave
crest and the next trough (m).
4. Amplitude (α): It is defined as H/2 (m).
5. Wave length (λ): It is the horizontal distance either between the two
successive crests or troughs of the ocean waves (m).

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Figure 6.2 Sea wave propagation

6. Wave propagation velocity (v): The motion of seawater in a direction

(m/s).
7. Wave period (T): It measures the size of the wave in time(s). It is the
time required for two successive crests or two successive troughs to
pass a point in space.
8. Frequency (f): The number of peaks (or troughs) that pass a fixed point
per second is defined as the frequency of wave and is given by f = 1/T
(cycle/s).

6.3 POWER ASSOCIATED WITH SEA WAVES

It has been concluded by researchers through linear wave motion theory that
the kinetic and potential energy (E) of a wave per meter of crest and unit of
surface can be approximated as
𝜌𝑔𝑎2
𝐸= (6.1)
2

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where ρ = density of water; g = gravitational acceleration; and a = amplitude

of the wave (approximately equals to half its wave height H).

The power that a meter of crest holds can be obtained by multiplying the
amount of energy transported by the group velocity.

In deep water, dispersion relation (k) is given as

𝜔2
𝑘= (6.2)
𝑔
Further, group velocity
𝜔 𝑔
𝑉𝑔 = = (6.3)
2𝑘 2𝜔
The total power (P) is obtained as
𝜌𝑔𝑎2 𝑔
𝑃 = 𝐸𝑉𝑔 = [ ]( ) (6.4)
2 2𝜔

Further, wave period

2𝜋 2𝜋 𝐻
𝑇= 𝑜𝑟 𝜔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 =
𝜔 𝑇 2
Therefore,
𝜌𝑔2 𝑎2 𝜌𝑔2 𝐻2 𝑇
𝑃= = (6.5)
4𝜔 32𝜋
For irregular waves of height H (m) and period T(s), an equation for power
per unit of wavefront can be derived as
𝑘𝑊
𝑃𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 0.4 ( ) 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 (6.6)
𝑚
From the above mentioned equations, it is seen that the wave power is
directly proportional to the square of wave height.

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Example 6.1
A 2–meter sea wave has a 6 seconds period and occurs at the surface of 100-
m deep water. Assume sea-water density equals to 1,025 kg/m3.

Calculate the energy and power densities of the wave.

Solution
Wavelength of the sea wave,

λ = vT (m) (P6.1.1)

where v is wave propagation velocity (m/s); and T = time period of the wave
(s).The wave time period (T) and wave propagation velocity (v) depend
upon the wavelength and depth of seawater. The relationship between the
wavelength and the time period can be approximated as

λ = 1.56 T2 (P6.1.2)

Therefore,
𝜆 = 1.56𝑥62 = 56.16 𝑚
Therefore, velocity of wave propagation, v = λ/T = 56.16/6 = 9.36 m/s and
height of the wave is the height from the crest to trough, H = 2 m

Wave frequency,

F = 1/T = 1/6

Energy density
1025𝑥4𝑥9.81
𝐸𝑑 = (1/8)(𝜌𝑔𝐻2 ) = = 5027.625 𝐽/𝑚2
8
Power density

Pd = E/T = E x f = 5027.625/6 = 837.9375 W/m2

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6.3.1 Another Wave Power Formula

In deep water, where the water depth is larger than half the wavelength, the
wave energy flux power is
1 𝜌𝑔2 𝐻2 𝑇 𝜌𝑔2 𝐻2 𝑇 𝑘𝑊
𝑃 = ( )[ ]= = 0.5 ( 2 ) 𝐻2 𝑇 (6.7)
2 32𝜋 64𝜋 𝑚

where P = wave power per unit of wave-crest length, (k/m); H = significant

wave height (m); T = wave period (s); ρ = density of water; and g =
acceleration due to gravity.

Example 6.2
An ocean swell, a few kilometres away from the coastline and in deep
seawater, has wave height of 3 meter and wave period of 8 seconds. Obtain
power of the wave energy flux per unit of wave crest length.

Solution
36𝑘𝑊
𝑃 = 0.5𝑥32 𝑥8 =
𝑚

6.4 WAVE ENERGY AVAILABILITY

The density of water is about 800 times higher than air, and therefore, the
energy density of ocean waves are significantly several times more than air.
The amount of energy available in ocean waves is tremendously high, and
hence, it is considered as a renewable, zero emission source of power.
Estimates of the global ocean wave energy are more than 2 TW (which means
17,500 TWh/year) according to the World Energy Council.

It has been reported that the total available US wave energy resource is 23
GW, which is more than twice as much as Japan, and nearly five times as

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much as Great Britain. The West Coast of US is the most promising area with
wave energy densities in the range of 25–40 kW/m.

The ocean wave along the western coast of Europe is characterized by

particularly high energy. It has over half the wave energy potential of
Europe and has power up to extent of 75 kW/m off the coastal area of Ireland
and Scotland.

Wave power is distinct from the diurnal flux of tidal power and the steady
gyre of ocean currents. This huge amount of renewable and environmentally
acceptable wave energy, if extracted and utilized, has competitiveness with
fossil and nuclear fuels. Generally, extreme latitudes and west coasts of
continents are the best wave location. A view of global wave atlas (based on
satellite data) and another world wave map are shown in Figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3 Location of wave power plant

Wave energy is converted into electricity by placing wave energy converter

on the surface of the ocean. The electrical energy generated is the most often

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used in desalination plants, power supply to electrical consumers, and

energizing water pumps.

They are mostly using the first generation oscillating water columns (OWS)
converters. Other technologies such as the Japanese Pendulor and the
Tapchan can also be fit in this category.

These ocean wave energy technologies rely on the up-and-down motion of

waves to generate electricity.

Several installations have been built in Scotland, Portugal, Norway, the USA,
China, Japan, Australia, and India. The next generation of devices comprises
new, modular floating devices, but these require further research and/or
demonstration.

A few installation of wave power converts are as follows:

1. The first wave-power patent was for a 1799 proposal by a Parisian

named Monsieur Girard and his son got patented the first wave power
converter in 1979 to use direct mechanical action to drive pumps, saws,
mills, or other heavy machinery.
2. During the first decades of the 19th century, a device was put in
operation in Algeria that captured wave oscillation and transformed it
into usable form by using a system of cams and gears.
3. A 10-kW complaint flap pilot plant was installed in the Baltic sea in
1917 and later on dismantle.
4. Pelamis became the world’s first offshore wave machine to generate
electricity and fed into the grid, when it was first connected to the UK
grid in 2004.
5. Salter Duck wave converter was developed around 1980 in UK.
6. A 120 kW (Oscillating wave column) prototype (The Mighty Whale)
with 3 OWCs in a row has been operating since 1998 (1.5 km off Nansei
Town, Japan) at 40 m depth

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7. A 2 MW (AWS) system off the coast of Portugal.

8. The prototype (Wave Dragon) is deployed in Nissum Bredning, an
inlet in the northern part of Denmark.
9. A 40 mter long prototype (McCabe Wave Pump) was deployed in 1996
off the coast of Kilbaha, County Clare, Ireland
10.A typical 30 MW (Pelamis) installation would occupy a square
kilometre of ocean and provides sufficient electricity for 20,000 homes.
11.A 750 kW project (Pelamis) off Islay, Scotland.
12.A 2 MW (Pelamis) project off the coast of Vancouver Island, Canada.
13.A 5 MW (perhaps the world’s first commercial wave energy plant)
developed by Wave Gen is located in Isle of Islay, Scotland.

6.4.1 Wave Energy Availability in India

The coastal area of Maharashtra has an annual wave potential ranging

between 4 kW/m and 8 kW/m wavefront, which is quite high as 12–20 kW/m
during the monsoon.

The wave energy potential of the most feasible sites in Maharashtra is given
in Table 6.1 for offshore location.
Table 6.1 Offshore Location of Wave Power in Maharashtra

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Coastal average power location site in Maharashtra is given in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2 Coastal Average Power Location Site in Maharashtra

The Vengurla and Malvan rocks and Redi are on the top among the offshore
locations. In the coastal location, however, Pawa and Ratnagiri top the list
followed by Girye and Miyet point.

Vizhinjam fishing harbour, Kerala, is the site of a unique demonstration

plant that converts sea wave energy to electricity and is given to the local
grid. This plant has oscillating water column (OWC) converter in 1990.

6.5 DEVICES FOR HARNESSING WAVE ENERGY

There are three basic technologies for converting wave energy to electricity.
They are as follows:

1. Terminator devices: It is a wave energy device oriented perpendicular

to the direction of the wave and has one stationary and one moving
part. The moving part moves up and down like a car piston in response

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to ocean waves and pressurizes air or oil to drive a turbine. An

oscillating water column (OWC) converter is an example of terminator
device. These devices generally have power ratings of 500 kW to 2
MW, depending on the wave parameters and the device dimensions.
2. Attenuator devices: These devices are oriented parallel to the direction
of the waves and are long multi-segment floating structures. It has a
series of long cylindrical floating devices connected to each other with
hinges and anchored to the seabed. They ride the waves like a ship,
extracting energy by using restraints at the bow of the device and
along its length. The segments are connected to hydraulic pumps or
other converters to generate power as the waves move across. Pelamis
wave energy converter is one of the known examples of attenuator
devices.
3. Point absorber: It is a floating structure with parts moving relative to
each other owing to wave action but it has no orientation in any
defined way towards the waves instead absorbs the wave energy
coming from any direction. It utilizes the rise and fall of the wave
height at a single point for energy conversion. The pressurized water
creates up and down bobbin-type motion and drives a built-in turbine
generator system to generate electricity. AquaBuOY WEC is an
example of point absorber devices.
4. Overtopping devices: These devices have reservoirs like a dam that
are filled by incoming waves, causing a slight build-up of water
pressure. Gravity causes released water from reservoir to flow back
into the ocean through turbine coupled to an electrical generator.
Salter Duck WEC is the example of overtopping devices.

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6.5.1 Float or Buoy Devices

This system is shown in Figure 6.4. A series of anchored buoys rise and fall
with the wave that creates mechanical energy to drive electrical generator
for generation of electricity, which is transmitted to ocean shore by
underground cables.

Figure 6.4 Float or buoy device

6.5.2 Oscillating Water Column Devices

An oscillating water column device (OWC device) is shown in Figure 6.5. It

is a form of terminator in which water enters through a subsurface opening
into a chamber, trapping air above. The wave action causes the captured
water column to move up and down like a piston, forcing the air though an
opening connected to a turbine to generate power.

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Figure 6.5 Schematic of an oscillating water column device

It is a shoreline-based oscillating water column (OWC) build in UK. Further,

it is installed at Islay. It is a concrete structure partially submerged in
seawater and encloses a column of air on top of a column of water. The water
columns in partially submerged chamber rise and fall, when sea waves
impinge on the device. This wave action alternatively compresses and
depressurizes the air column, which is allowed to flow to and from the
atmosphere via a turbine. The energy can then be extracted from the system
and used to generate electricity.

Wells’ turbines as shown in Figure 6.6 are used to extract energy from the
reversing air flow. It has the property of rotating in the same direction
regardless of the direction to the airflow.

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Figure 6.6 Well’s turbine (a) plan view of blades and (b) velocity and force triangles in
frame of reference of blades

6.5.3 Pendulum System

The pendulum system is a shoreline device that consists of a parallelepiped

concrete box, which is open to the sea at one end, as shown in Figure 6.7.

Figure 6.7 Pendulum devices

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A pendulum flap is hinged over this opening, which swings back and forth
by the actions of the waves. The back and forth motion of pendulum is then
used to power a hydraulic pump and an electric generator.

6.5.4 TAPCHAN (Tapered Channel)

The schematic arrangement of TAPCHAN device (a Norwegian system) is

shown in Figure 6.8. It has a tapered channel connected to a reservoir
constructed above the sea level at a height of 3–5 meters. They are relatively
low power output devices and suitable for deep-water shore line and low
tidal range. It is a very simple device. Waves collect into a channel, which
tapers into a large reservoir. As the wave width decreases, the wave
amplitude increases according to the principles of conservation of energy
and this enables the waves to travel up a ramp and pour into the reservoir
as shown in Figure 6.8.

Figure 6.8 TAPCHAN

The potential energy of water stored in the reservoir is extracted by releasing

the reservoir water back to the sea through a low head Kaplan turbine
coupled to an electrical generator.

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6.5.5 Salter’s Duck System

Salter Duck WEC is the example of overtopping devices. It was invented in

Scotland in 1970 to extract mechanical energy from the ocean waves. The
schematic cross section of Salter Duck is given in Figure 6.9.

Figure 6.9 Salter duck

It is an egg-shaped device that moves with the motion of the waves. The
shape of leading edge of the duck is in such a way that the approaching sea
wave pressure is exerted on the duck. It forces the duck to rotate about a
central axis and the tip of the cam bobs up and down in the water. As the
Salter Duck moves (or bobs or rocks) up and down on the sea waves,
pendulum connected to electrical generator swings forward and backward
to generate electricity. Two sets of cables are attached to the device, one to a
pendulum inside the device and the other to a fixed arm outside the device.
The cables attached to the internal pendulum contain hydraulics that pumps
as the device moves back and forth with the waves. This movement of the
pressurized oil pumped into hydraulic machine that drives electric
generators.

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6.5.6 Offshore Wave Dragon System

The wave dragon is an overtopping device that elevates ocean waves to a

reservoir above sea level as shown in Figure 6.10. Water is let out through a
number of turbines, and in this way, it is transformed into electricity. The
basic idea of this system consists of two large ‘arms’ that focus waves up a
ramp into a reservoir. The water returns to the ocean by the force of gravity
via a low head hydro turbine that drives an electric generator.

Figure 6.10 Offshore wave dragon devices

6.5.7 Bristol Cylinder

The Bristol cylinder operates under the sea level, as shown in Figure 6.11. It
consists of a floating cylinder that collected the wave’s movement. The
cylinder is mechanically connected to the energy unit by flexible joints and
rods. The rods are moving slowly with cylinder and the reciprocating
motion is transferred to the axels in converter unit.

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Figure 6.11 Bristol cylinder devices

When transferring converter movements with mechanical arms and rotation

to the generator, the efficiency should be kept as high as possible.

Figure 6.12 Archimedes waves swing device

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6.5.8 Archimedes Wave Swing Devices

The Archimedes wave swing device (shown in Fig. 6.12) is an underwater

buoy of which the upper part (floater) moves up and down in the wave,
while the lower part stays in position. The floater (air-filled chamber) is
pushed down under a wave crest (top) and moves up under a wave trough
(valley). The interior of the system is pressurized with air and serves as an
air spring. The mechanical power is converted into electrical power by
means of a power take-off system (PTO). The PTO consists of a linear
electrical generator and a nitrogen filled damping cylinder.

It has the advantage of being a ‘point’ absorber that absorbs power from
waves travelling in all directions, and extracts about 50% of the incident
wave power in addition to the advantage of being able to survive despite
rough sea conditions on the surface.

6.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WAVE

POWER

6.6.1 Advantages

1. Sea waves have high energy densities and provide a consistent stream
of electricity generation capacity.
2. Wave energy is clean source of renewable energy with limited
negative environmental impacts.
3. It has no greenhouse gas emissions or water pollutants.
4. Operating cost is low and operating efficiency is optimal.
5. Damage to ocean shoreline is reduced.

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6.6.2 Disadvantages

1. High construction costs.

2. Marine life is disrupted and displaced.
3. Damage to the devices from strong storms and corrosion create
problems.
4. Wave energy devices could have an effect on marine and recreation
environment.

6.7 KEY ISSUES

In general, the key issues affecting wave power devices are as follows:

1. Energy barriers: The main wave energy barriers result from the energy
carrier itself. The peak-to-average load ratio in the sea is very high and
difficult to predict.
2. Navigational hazards: Offshore wave energy devices may be a
potential navigation hazard to ships. Near shore devices will have a
visual impact
3. Survivability in violent storms: The structural loading in the event of
extreme weather conditions, such as hurricanes and Tsunami may be
as high as 100 times the average loading.
4. Vulnerability of moving parts to seawater: Damage due to strong
storms and corrosion is expected.
5. High capital and operational cost: High construction costs induce
high power generation costs, thus making the technology
uncompetitive.

The incidence of wave power at deep ocean sites is three to eight times the
wave power at adjacent coastal sites, but the cost of electricity transmission
from deep ocean sites is often prohibitively high.

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SUMMARY

The sea has long been seen as a source of energy, and the idea of harvesting
energy from sea waves was first patented in 1799, in Paris, by Girard and his
son.

 Blowing wind and pressure fluctuations below the surface are the
main reasons for causing waves. However, consistency of waves
differs from one area of ocean to another. Some regions of oceans
receive waves with enough uniformity and force. Ocean wave energy
can be captured directly from surface waves.
 It is an irregular and oscillating low-frequency energy source that can
be converted to grid frequency and can then be added to the electric
utility grid.
 Energy in waves comes from the movement of the ocean and the
changing heights and speed of the swells.
 Wave power is the transport of energy by ocean sea waves, and the
capture of that energy to do useful work; for example, electricity
generation, water desalination, or pumping of water into reservoirs.
 Machinery able to exploit wave power is generally known as a wave
energy converter (WEC).Large amounts of money and research are
required for wave power to catch up with wind and solar energy.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the principle and working of sea wave energy conversion

system.
2. Discuss the performance and limitations of sea wave energy
conversion plants.
3. State the expression for energy and power in ocean waves.

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4. Discuss limitations of ocean wave energy.

5. Describe principle of oscillating air column ocean wave machine.
6. Describe principle of oscillating hydraulic piston accumulator wave
energy convertor.
7. Describe Dam-atoll concept of wave machine.
8. Compare ocean waves and ocean tides with reference to the period
energy density and energy conversion plants.
9. State main criteria for deciding the location of ocean wave plants.

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