11.
3 SEA STATE
Waves
Sea state is the result of weather conditions. The
friction between the wind and the sea surface slows
the wind and the energy produced becomes a wave.
Waves at sea travel in the same general direction
as the wind which causes them, although the water
itself makes little forward progress. Waves can be
compared to a stretched out rope which is given an
upward flick- a wave travels along the rope which
itself does not move forward (Fig. 1).
As a wave undulates past, each particle describes a
circular path. The circles diminish as they descend
from the surface (Fig. 2). In deep water its effect is
felt to a depth equal to about half the wave length.
Fig. 1 Energy waves
The energy wave travels
along the rope but the rope
itself does not move forward
Fig. 2 Wave structure and terminology
1-4----------Wave length--------......;
·.,..- ___ -;- ___ - -
·. . Wave
··... height Still water level
""'"; --------
~-------+- Trough ~
(j) Depth
m wave length
.-::>
Orbital movement of water below the surface
Wave Form. The curve of the surface of the sea seen
in elevation. Any one wave form extends from a point
on a wave surface (such as the crest) to the equivalent
point on the next wave.
Wave length. The horizontal distance between one wave
crest and the next along the line of wave advance.
Wave height. The vertical distance from trough to crest
on one wave form.
Maximum wave height. The greatest wave height
measured over a ten-minute period.
Significant wave height. The average height of the
largest one third of all waves recorded over a ten-
minute period.
Wave Speed. The speed at which the wave form is
moving relative to the undisturbed body of water. It is
270 THE PROFESSIONAL DIVt:RS HMJDBOOI<
For example, a wavelength of 20m (66ft) may
cause turbulence down to 10m (33ft).
In shallow water the surface wave energy cannot be
absorbed in this way and breakers result.
Much of the measurable properties of a wave,
such as its length, height, shape and speed may be
changed by the nature and situation of the wave.
The only relationship is that wave speed is equal to
the wave length divided by the period.
There is a common belief that every seventh wave is
larger than the rest. There is no 'law' about this but it
can sometimes happen when two nearby wave trains
mix together. The pattern arising from several waves
becomes complex because of the many and varied
influences on them. However, considered generally,
some useful predictions can be made.
When a wind of constant velocity blows for a long
time across an ocean unaffected by other wave
trains, the waves will reach their maximum size. In
such conditions the average wave height (in metres)
will be equal to half the wind speed (in knots). The
largest waves will attain a height of 2.5m (8ft) for
every lOkt of wind. A strong wind of 50kt (Beaufort
Scale Force 9) has been known to produce a largest
storm wave of some 12m (40ft) high.
Wave direction =::i>
:::..;;oo....--- Peak of crest
I
half
j
measured horizontally in the direction of the wave
advance.
Still Water Level. The level which a body of water will
assume when unaffected by wave forms.
Wave Train. A succession of waves proceeding as a
group in a given direction.
Period of a wave. The time interval between the
passing of two successive crests or troughs.
Swell. Slow, regular, rolling, non-breaking wave
movement caused by past wind or distant wind.
Fetch. The distance over which the wind has blown
before reaching a given point.
Wave Climate. Average wave conditions for any
locality for any time of the year
WEATHER AND THE SEA

Recording data
Fig. 4 The Ekman Spiral Surface current
The standard repot1ing units are the knot (kt), the 45° to wind direction
second (sec), the foot (ft), metre (m) and nautical
mile (nm). World Meteorological Organisation
reports are coded in half metres of wave height.
When measuring wave height observers should
note that the fore-shortening effect of looking
down from the deck of a vessel or structure
is considerable. Eye-ball estimates can be very
inaccurate. A convenient scale should be marked
on one or more legs of the structure to aid accurate
assessment. Although significant wave height is
defined as the ::~verage he ight of the largest one
third of all waves recorded over a 10-minute period,
it should be noted that a close approximation can be
obtained by recording the highest wave in any two-
minute period.

Sea and Swell

\
Direction of current
spirals with depth
For those working on or below the sulface of the
sea the most important aspect of the weather is
likely to be its effect on the surface of the sea. Apat1
from the tides and currents, all the sea's activities
are the result of the effect of the wind. It affects the
sea in three different ways:
1. By the speed of the wind.
2. By the length of time the wind has been blowing.
3. By the distance that the wind has blown over the
water (ie, the fetch).
Locally-produced disturbances are called 'seas' and
are different from remotely-produced ones called
'swells' (Fig. 3). Swells may be the product of a past
wind or a weather system from across the ocean. This diagram
A cross-swell is caused by a fresh swell being illustrates the Ekman Spiral
for the northern hemisphere.
formed from a different direction from the residual
swell. The result can produce a most uncomfoJ1-
able motion whic h may complicate shallow water
operations. direction is known as the Ekman Spiral (Fig. 4) and
its effect becomes more marked with increasing
Fig. 3 Wind generation of waves, seas and swell distance from the equator.
Except in very shallow water the sulface current
speed is equivalent to approximately 3% of wind
Wind=:>
speed. It decreases, however, at a rate which
depends on the stability of the entire water column,
the length of time the wind has been blowing, the
fetch and the size of the waves present.

Sea State Tables

Wind-driven currents
The wind also causes the sea surface to move as a
c urrent. The d irection of this wind-driven surface
c urrent is not the same as that of the wind but is
at an angle of 45° to it (Fig. 4). In the northern
hemisphere it is 45° to the right of the wind
direction, while in the southern hemisphere it is 45°
to the left. This effect is due to the earth's rotation
and is called the Coriolis effect.
The strength of the wind-driven cunent lessens with
increasing depth. Also the direction of travel turns
progressively away from the direction of the wind.
For example, at 11m (36ft) the current direction is
90° to the wind direction. This spirall ing change of
Sea states are normally expressed in tabular form
and usually correspond quite closely to the Beaufort
Wind Scale which uses sea state conditions to
assess the strength of the wind. It should not be
used in reverse, ie, to report sea state.
The Beaufm1 Scale refers to the sea condition in a
fully arisen sea. This can take hours to achieve in
any wind condition . Sea State Scales describe actual
sea conditions at the time of the observation.
There are several different Sea State Scales in use.
It is therefore important to specify the scale being
used when quoting any particular sea state value.
Fig. 5 compares two widely used sea state scales
with the Beaufort Wind Scale.

THE PROFES:.IONAL 01 ER 5 HANDBOOK 271

 \VEATHERANDTHESEA

Fig. 5 US Navy and RN Sea State Scales compared with the Beaufort Wind Scale

Average Beaufort Wind Royal Navy

US Navy
Description of sea state wave height Wind Scale Speed
Sea State Scale Sea State Code
It m kt

0 10- Calm 0-1 0 Calm (glassy)

Sea like a mirror 0
-0 Calm
Light airs to
r--
1 Calm (ripple)
Ripples without crests 0.10 0.03 1 Light air 1-3 1
Small, smooth wavelets 0.37 0.1
1-
4-6 Light breeze '2 Smooth (wavelets)
~ Light breeze
- r--
Large wavelets, scattered 2 0.6 2 Gentle breeze 3 Slight
3 Gentle breeze 7-10
white caps f-
r--- f-
Small waves, lrequtlnt 3.5 1 3 Moderate breeze 4 Moderate
4 Moderate breeze 11-16
white caps f-
I-- f-
Moderate waves, many 6 1.8 4 Fresh breeze
5 Fresh breeze 17-21 5 Rough
white caps, some spray
I-- f- r--
Large waves, extensive 9.5 3
foam crests, some spray 6 Strong breeze 22-27 5 Strong breeze 6 Very rough
r--- f-
Heaped-up sea, foam starts 13.5 4 r--
7 Near gale 28-33 6 Moderate gale
to be blown in streaks
r--- r-- 7 High
Moderately high waves, 18 5.5
8 Gale 31-40 7 Fresh gale
spindrift, spray affects viz. -
- r--
High waves, dense foam 23 7
9 Severe gale 41-47 8 Strong gale to 8 Very high
streaks, sea starts to roll
Very high waves, sea 8.8
- Whole gale
29
appears white 1~ Storm 48-55 -
Exceptionally high waves, 37 11.3
- r--

dense foam , frothy crests ~ Violent storm 56-63 9 Phenomenal

9 Storm to
Sea completely white with 45+ 13+ Hurricane
driving spray 14 Hurricane 1 64+

11 .4 TIDES AND TIDAL STREAMS

Tides
Tides are periodic vertical movements of the sea,
and tidal streams are its horizontal movements
resulting from the tides. Both arc caused by the
attraction of the moon and sun.
The result is that the tidal range varies from small
(neap tides) to large (spring tides) (see Fig. 1).
ln operational terms, underwater visibility can be
better at high water when clearer water is brought
in by the incoming tide.
Some important terms which are used to describe
various tidal levels arc shown in Fig. 2.
Tides are of little concern to the offshore deep water
diver as the rise and fall is usually insignificant to
diving operations. To the inshore or shallow water
offshore diver, however, determining the height and
duration of the tide at a given time and place may
be of great importance, for example, when repairing
the piles of a pier or salvaging a sunken object. For
this information it is necessary to find the time of

Fig. 1 Tidal ranges

Half moon New moon Half moon Full moon

HIGH :,D (: Q, 0
Q)
Cl
Springs
c
co
a: --------- ---------- -

LOW
Approximately 1 month

Neap tides have longer slack water periods and less strong tidal streams.
Spring tides have shallower water at low water and higher at high water and provide greater lift height for tidal lilt operations.

272 THE PROFESSIONAL OlVER S HANDBOOK

WEATHER AND THE SEA
Fig. 2 lide levels
Mean high water neap tide MHNT
MEAN SEA LEVEL MSL
Lowest astronomical tide LAT
(also approximately Chart Datum level)
the next hioh or low water at the nearest standard or
secondary Port and to extrapolate the exact details by
a simple calculation. High water times and heights
may be obtained from the Admiralty Tide Tables or
most nautical almanacs.
Tidal stream information normally refers only to
the surface water layer.
EFFECf OF WIND ON TIDES
The sea level tends to be raised in the direction
in which the wind is blowing and lowered in
the direction from which it is blowing. A strong
southerly wind blowing in the North Sea, for
example, may cause lower low waters in the
Thames Estuary. Strong winds may also have the
effect of advancing or delaying the time of high
water by as much as I hour.
When a wind blows in the opposite direction to the
tide a rough, choppy sea is generated.
Tidal Streams
Tidal streams are a horizontal movement of water
which usually flow in one direction for a known
period of time and then return along much the same
path for another period. The two periods may not
be the same.
Tidal stream direction depends on the direction of
the flood tide and usually it flows the opposite way
on the ebb. Slack water is the time of change of
flow from one direction to its opposite. Although
this often coincides with high or low water, it need
not necessarily be so.
The greatest rate of rise or fall, and consequently
the fastest tidal stream, occurs half way through the
tide in open water. The ' Twe lfths Rule'(Fig. 3) is
used to estimate the amount of rise or fall in each of
the 6 hours of ebb and flow. The bigger the range,
the faster the tidal stream. Tidal streams are strong-
est during spring tides and weakest during neaps
and are usually strongest in inshore areas.
Fig. 3 The Twelfths Rule
Hour 1
Hour 2
Hour 3
Hour 4
Hour 5
Hour 6 of the range
The velocity or rate of the stream is influenced by
the shape of the adjoining land and the configuration
of the bottom. For example, tidal streams can
increase in speed round headlands and in narrow
channels. Fig. 4 illustrates the tidal streams of the
North Sea. In the southern North Sea strong streams
are caused by the funnel effect of the English
Channel. As a result of these strong streams dive
times are considerably restricted. usually between
45 minutes and an hour). In the northern North
Sea, north of latitude 56°N, tidal streams arc not so
affected and dive times are only limited by diver
endurance levels.
Tidal streams on the bottom in deep water often
differ in strength and direction from those on the
surface. Information on bottom tidal streams and
currents can often be obtained from the client's
records. However, in some areas information may
only be built up from practical experience.
Tidal streams concern all divers in the sea because
they can affect working capacity and safety. Any
stream in excess of I kt will make underwater
swimming difficult, especially when hauling an
umbilical. In streams in excess of lkt the diver
may have to wear additional weights or find some
shelter from the main force of the stream. (/)
~
~
Determining the Rate and Direction of Tidal w
0::
Streams f-
(/)
Tide tables, which provide diurnal high and lo:v ...J
<:
water times for given ports, can be found m Q
almanacs, newspapers and on the intemet. The i=
Q
UK Hydrographic Office website (www.ukho.gov. z
<:
uk) provides tidal information for 6,000 ports u:
worldwide for 7-14 days in advance. Long-range
(annual) tide tables can also be purchased for
individual p011s. There is also a wide range of tide
prediction software which can provide useful long-
term predictions for a large number of ports.
There arc two ways of determ ining the rate and
direction of the tidal stream at the surface in any
area (in each case the time of local high water must
be known):
I. Refer to an appropriate tidal atlas.
2. Using a local chart, find the tidal stream diamond
nearest to the dive site. Note the lcuer in the
diamond and find the information that relates to
it by referring to the tidal stream table positioned
near the edge of the chart (Sec Fig. 5).
ti ROFE ;:,1 t!'.!AL ER HANDBOOK 273
 WEATHER AND THE SEA

Fig. 4 Tidal streams in the North Sea

Key: - weak streams - - - . strong streams (=) slack water

-1
0
m
en
)>
z
0
-f
0
)>
r-
en
-;
JJ
~
!:
en

2 hr after HW at Dover 3 hr after HW at Dover 4 hr after HW at Dover 5 hr after HW at Dover

274 THE PROFESSIONAL DIVERS HANDBOOK

WEATHER AND THE SEA

Fig. 5 Typical chart showing tidal stream diamond and related information as it would appear on a nautical chart.

In this imaginary example, diamond B is closest to the

proposed dive site. Refer to Column B of the tidal stream
table on the chart which provides data on direction and
speed of
KEY ~ 55° 26'36N the
Hours ()Geographical 5° 26'02W current,
POSition hr c»grM kt kt at hourly
6 -6 201 1.0 0.5 times
!::
I
5 - 5 309 0.1 0.0 in rela-
Ci)
Q) 4 Q) -4 006 1.0 0.5 tion to
.E 3 ~
C) ~ c
Ci)
0
- 3 011 1.4 0.7 the high
&l 2 ~ Q)
~ c - 2 015 1.5 0.8 water
1 tJ)
~ - 1 022 1.5 0.7 mark for
tJ) tJ)
Q)
High E :g
0 028 1.2 0.6 a given
Q)
Locate tidal <0 "0
diamond closest to Water
~ C) ·= local
c Q.
dive site. 1 tJ) ·;:: <0 +1 030 0.5 0.2 port.
Q. Q)

Then find the tidal !:: 2 0c tJ) c +2 202 0.4 0.2

stream information
I 3 .Q <ii <ii +3 196 1.2 0.6
~4 t5~
tJ) tJ)
+4 195 1.7 0.9
for the appropriate
<( 5 ~ 2<0 +5 197 1.6 0.8
diamond. i:5 a: a:
6 +6 202 1.2 0.6

Determining Slack Water using Charts and
Tide Tables
The following example is based on the information
shown in Fig. 5, above.
Having found the chart diamond nearest to the dive
site, use the tidal stream table (in this case, column
B) to find where the current is least. ln this case it
at 5 hours before high water (see - 5 hours: 0.0 on
neaps; 0.1 on springs). T he second lowest speed is
at 2 hours after high water (see +2: 0.2 on neaps;
0.4 on springs).
Slack water at the dive site can be calculated by sub-
2. Weather-generated currents. These are usually
the result of meteorological conditions such as
wind, or the geographical nature of the adjacent
land and the sea bottom. The speed of a wind-
generated current is usually about 3% of the
wind speed. A Force 7 wind (28- 33kt), there-
fore, will generate a surface current of about I
knot; a Force 5 wind ( 17- 2 Jkt) will generate a
current of about 0.6 knots.
DIVING IN CURRENTS AND TIDAL STREAMS
IMCA (The International Marine Contractors

tracting 5 hours from (or adding 2 hours to) the time
of high water at the designated port. A local tide table
or almanac wi ll provide the high water times at the
port for the relevant day. The most suitable time of
day (either 5 hours before or 2 hours after HW) can
then be chosen for diving operations. Since UK tide
tables arc usually written in Greenwich Mean Time
(GMT), remember to make adjustments for British
Summer Time (or equivalent) if necessary.
Once the time of slack water has been established, it
is advisable to check the rate of the curTent either side
of slack water to calculate the safest time to dive.
ln this instance, assume that 2 hours after HW is the
most suitable time and that the day fall s in a period
of neap tides. From the chart data (in Fig. 5) it can
be seen that current speed is 0.2kt one hour after
HW but leaps to 0.6kt three hours after HW (see +1
and +3 for rates at neap tides). The best time to start
diving is, therefore, I hour after HW.
Currents
Currents in the sea are not the same as tidal streams.
Currents are different in that they are an onward
flow of water, not an oscillating one. They are of
two types:
I . Ocean currents, which include regu Jar hotizontal
movements of water in one direction , such as
the Gu lf Stream.
I
Association) has drawn up a list of suggested resttic-
tions on working in tidal streams and currents (see Fig.
6). Since conditions vary enormously, Lhe restrictions
should be applied nexibly, taking into account diver
feedback and operational requirements .
GULF OF MEX£CO
The range of tides in this area is small (on average
0.6m/2ft) and the tides have a marked diurnal
inequality - ie, one high water of the day is much
higher than the other. Tidal streams in general are
weak and in many places there is only one stream a
day running for about 12 hours continuously in one L...
direction. As a general rule the streams offshore set 0
I-
to the northward and westward on the rising tide
and vice versa on the falling tide.
Comparatively strong currents tend to predominate
in the Gulf. The main cun·ent is the Equatorial
which circuits the Gulf in three main branches
before flowing out to become the Gulf Stream.
Fig. 7 shows the general current c irculation through-
out the year. To a very large extent the flow of water
within this area is very variable and dependent on
the prevailing winds.
INDIAN OCEAN
Prevail ing winds can have a significant effect on
surface currents. The monsoon winds of the north

THE PROFf >IONAL DillER S HANDBOOK 275

 WEATHER AND THE SEA

Indian Ocean dramatically Fig. 6 Suggested restrictions on working in currents and tidal streams.
change the direction of surface
cu1Tents twice a year ( Fig. 8). Current Surface-supply Surface-supply Bell or Wet Bell Bell or Wet Bell
(knots) in mid-water on bottom in mid-water on bottom
Specialist information -------r--------~r---------~

Specialist advice and published

oceanographic information or
numerical data relating to the
marine environment can be
obtained from marine research
establishments such as the
Marine Information Advisory
Service {MIAS) at the South-
ampton Oceanography Centre,
Normal work
UK (www.soc.soton.ac.uk).
;-..:..:==::::;; Light work
The Centre can advise on any Observation only
location worldwide and can iliiiiiConsult and reconsider. The diving supervisor should consult
provide customised informa-
tion for specific sites.
Such information can include,
•n• divers and others as necessar~ about how best to proceed. _ _
Do not dive unless pre-planning has taken into account the
presence of high current from the early stages of the project.
for example, details of bottom- Special solutions involving equipment, techniques and
currents for a particular procedures should have been evolved to overcome (or protect
pipeline inspection area for a the diver from) the effects of current and provide contingencies
given period. Inshore tidal data for foreseeable emergencies.
can be processed to provide
local tidal stream atlases for port operations. provided to assist in submersible operations and/or
Specific information on the nature of the seabed, the installation of subsea structures.
its structure and strength of bottom currents can be

Fig. 7 Prevailing surface currents, Gulf of Mexico

Branch 1.
Mean rate: 1/2-1 1/2
kt increasing with
southerly winds in
summer.
Branch 2.
-1 Mean rate: 1 kt
0 increasing with east·
m erly winds, decreasing
(f)
with westerlies.
~
0 Branch 3.
-1
a Mean rate: 1- 1 1/2 kt.
;!:: There is a westerly
(f) set off the della.
-1
:rJ
rT'I General surface current circulation throughout the year Winter (Janu81)', Febru81'f, MarCh)
?:
(f)

Spring (April, May June) Summer (July, August, September) Autumn (October, November, December)

276 THE PROFESSIONAL DIVERS HANDBOOK

WEATHER AND THE SEA

Fig. 8 General direction of main surface currents in the Indian Ocean

The North Indian Ocean Is the only ocean where the surface current pattern changes twice a year (due to the
influence of the monsoon winds). The south-westerly summer monsoon winds drive surface currents northwards
along the coast of Somalia and thence clockwise around the northern ocean. By November the south-westerly
winds cease and are replaced by the north-easterly monsoon which reverses the pattern and surface currents
circulate in a generally anti-clockwise direction in the nor1hern part of the ocean.

11.5 TEMPERATURE , THERMOCLINES AND HALOCLINES

Temperature
Fig. 1 Average temperature variation of the North
Water temperature is a significant factor in diving
Sea at selected depths
since it can influence the type of equipment used
and, possibly, the duration and safety of the dive.
Because the temperature at the sutface of the sea is
affected by the air temperature, the sea temperantre
can range from sub-zero at the poles up to 27°C
(80°F) at the equator (Figs. 2a & b). The deeper one
goes the less the temperature varies until eventually
a depth is reached where it can be constant all year
round (Fig. I). J F M A M J J A S 0 N 0 (/)
w
There can be a sandwich-like layering of cold and z
warm water masses. The warmer layers lie on top of At the surface, the sea temperature varies markedly -'
CJ
colder layers which get colder as the depth increases. throughout the year. AI 100m (330ft) depth the
variation is less pronounced. At 300m (985ft)
3<1:
Because the lowering temperatures make each layer I
denser than the one above it, each layer rests stably depth the temperature of the sea remains constant 0
upon the one below. There is little mixing. throughout the year.
<t

Thermoclines
The boundaries between the layers of different
water temperatures are called thermoclines. These
may occur at any level and the temperature may
vary from layer to layer by as much as 7°C (20°F).
Thus, even if the surface conditions indicate a
warm dive, the bottom conditions could result in a
much sho11er and colder dive.
The other effect on divers is currents. The
layers of water between the thermoclines can
move independently of each other so that a freely
descending diver may drift in several different
directions on his way down.
It is important to note that the direction of the
current on the surface is not necessarily the same
as the current near the sea bed. Consequently, if the
direction of the cun·em is to be used for navigation
purposes (eg, in order to keep close to the divers)
it must be determined according to the direction on
the bouom, not the surface.
Haloclines
Different layers of water can also be formed by
differences in water salinity. A mass of fresh
water can form a layer over denser salt water.
The boundaries between such layers are called
haloclines. As with thermoclines, these layers can
be moving in different directions causing the diver
to drift in different directions on his way to the
bottom. There may also be a significant difference
in visibi lity between layers of different salinity.

THF RO [ ltJIIJ