19

Chapter-VI
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
CHAPTER–I
INTRODUCTION AND DESIGN OF THE STUDY

INTRODUCTION

To many in the world of work, absenteeism is one of those stubborn problems for which “. . . .

there is no clear culprit and no easy cure” Rhodes & Steers (1990)1. Further more, as a general

phenomenon it does not discriminate against individuals on the basis of sex, race and religion. Bydawell

(2000)2 postulates that “employers have the right to expect good attendance from their employees as

employment is a contract between two consenting parties”. The author further states that absentee

issue will undoubtedly arise within the employment relationship, and should be resolved in a manner

which is fair and equitable to both the employer and the employee. Absenteeism can be very costly to

organization and enormous savings can be realized through effective management of non-attendance at

work.

1. Rhodes, S.R., and Steers, R.M., (1990), Managing Employee Absenteeism,

Addison: Wesley Publishing Company.
2. Bydawell, M., (2000), “Managing People Who Don‟t Come To Work”, People
Dynamics, 18 (2), pp.15-19.
 20
Besides the cost implications, absenteeism is influenced by dozens of interrelated factors which

make it even more difficult to “quantity, qualify, or rectify” Tylezak (1990)3. One of these factors which

have been cited by different researchers is an employee’s level of job satisfaction in the workplace. In

conjunction with this, George and Jones (2002)4 maintain that “. . . .many researchers have studied the

relationship between absenteeism and job satisfaction in an attempt to discover ways to reduce

absenteeism”. Early job satisfaction research has emphasized the underlying assumption that job

dissatisfaction represents the primary cause of absenteeism Steers, et al (1996)5. They supported the

notion that employees who are dissatisfied with various aspects of their jobs are more likely to be

absent. They found “job satisfaction to be more highly related to frequency of absences than to number

of days lost”.

Rhodes and Steers (1990)6 propose that employee attendance is based on an employee’s

motivation to attend as well as their ability to attend. According to George and Jones (2002)7 job

satisfaction is one of the factors affecting an employee’s motivation to attend. It becomes important to

measure the strength of the relationship between absenteeism and job satisfaction as “. . .positive

attitudes can at times serve to “pull” the individual towards the organization and the reverse can be

expected when attitudes are more negative”.

3. Tylezak, L., (1990), “Attaching Absenteeism: Positive Solutions To Art Aged Old
Problem-A Practical Guide To Help Slash Absenteeism”, Monlo Park, California:
CRISP Publication, Inc.
4. George, J.M. and Jones, G.R. (2002), Organizational Behaviour, (3rd ed.), New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
5. Steers, R., Porter, L. and Biglay, G. (1996), Motivation and Leadership at
Work, (6th ed.), Mc Graw Hill Companies, Inc.
6. Rhodes, S.R., and Steers, R.M., (1990), Op.cit, p.1.
7. George and Jones, (2002), I bid, p.2.
 21
An employees ability to attend is influenced on the other hand by factors such as family

responsibilities, transportation problems, accidents and the like. Once all these variables are identified,

managers may begin to understand why employees sometimes choose not to come to work when they

are fully capable of attending. By the same token, it is “equally important for managers to understand

those circumstances in which people, for whatever reason (illness or otherwise), are genuinely unable to

come to work Rhodes & Steers, (1990)8.

Motivation of the Study

Spinning mills have experienced repeated negative press with respect to their performance and

productivity. In terms of efficiency and productivity, the spinning mills were found at less than their

bench markings. This problem is caused by men, machine, material and management. The cost of raw

material is growing at a faster rate with lesser quality compared with the quality maintained by foreign

countries. The machines are not updated properly because of mismanagement. The problem related

to human aspects is the absenteeism among their employees. Absenteeism is found in two forms:

avoidable and unavoidable. In the unavoidable focus of absenteeism, the situation is unplanned and is

governed by external factors, thus it is beyond one’s control and has to be managed differently. Control

of absenteeism can be exercised by the immediate manager through the human resources section

regarding the duration and terms of absence pertaining to salary and other aspects. Because of the

mismanagement of human resources, there is a loss of productivity and performance among the

employees and also the mills. This situation has motivated the researcher to focus on the absenteeism,

causes of absenteeism, consequences of absenteeism and control measures on absenteeism in the

spinning mills of southern districts of Tamilnadu.

RELATED REVIEWS

8. Rhodes and Steers (1990), Op.cit.P.1.

 22
Various studies have attempted to examine the relationship between absenteeism and job

satisfaction as absence is commonly viewed as one of the means of withdrawal from stressful work

situations. According to Luthans (1995)9 research has generally revealed a consistent inverse

relationship between job satisfaction and absenteeism, i.e., when satisfaction is high, absenteeism tends

to be low and when satisfaction is low, absenteeism tends to be high. Even though this correlation has

been found to be rather moderate, the underlying assumption is that absence is at least in part, the

result of dissatisfaction on the job Anderson, (2004)10, Hardy, et al., (2003)11.

There is a further suggestion that the effects of job satisfaction will be more evident from the

frequency of absences rather than from the total number of days absent Johns, (1996)12. However, even

though it makes sense that dissatisfied employees are more likely to miss work, absenteeism is a

complex variable and is influenced by multiple factors Robbins (1998)13; Robbins, et al., (2003)14;

Spector, (1997)15. Looking at absence policies, it is expected that “the satisfaction-absenteeism

relationship would be weaker in organizations with a clearly communicated absence policy entailing low

9. Luthans, F., (1995), Organizational Behaviour, (7th ed.), Mc Graw Hill, Inc.,
p.86.
10. Anderson, A.E., (2004), “What‟s Absent in Absence Management”, Employee
Benefits Journal, 29 (1), pp.25-30.
11. Hardy, G.E., Woods, D. and Wall, T.D., (2003), “The Impact of Psychological
Distress on Absence from Work”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 88 (2),
pp.306-314.
12. Johns, G., (1996), Organizational Behaviour: Understanding and Managing
Life at Work, (4th ed.), Harper Collins College Publisher, pp.113-117.
13. Robbins, S.P., (1998), Organizational Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies and
Applications (4th ed.), New Jersey, Prentice Hall, p.66.
14. Robbins, S., Odendaal, A. and Roodt, G., (2003), Organizational Behaviour–
Global and South African Perspectives, South Africa: Pearson Education,
pp.126-129.
15. Spector, P.E., (1997), Job Satisfaction: Application, Assessment, Causes and
Consequences, USA: SAGE Publications, pp.29-31.
 23
tolerance for absenteeism, close monitoring of absence behaviour and discipline action Brief (1998)16.

On the other hand, Robbins (2002)17 note that organization with liberal sick leave benefits might be

encouraging their employees to take sick leave. It is important for organization to understand the

implications of satisfaction on the job as it might lead to absenteeism, which in turn can become a costly

problem to employers.

Absenteeism
Unscheduled absences affect almost every type of organization. Hoque and Islam (2003)18

describe absenteeism as a “subject to be studied, matter to be thought over and a problem to be

solved”. Besides the direct costs associated with absenteeism, there are also indirect such as hiring of

casual staff, reduced productivity, turnover and potential loss in revenue Cole (2002)19; Mason & Griffin

(2003)20. Robbison (2005)21 further notes that the indirect costs of absenteeism can be up to three times

higher than the direct costs of absenteeism. It therefore becomes vital that organizations recognize the

extent of this problem due to the high costs associated with continued unscheduled absences.

16. Brief, A.P., (1998), Attitudes in and Around Organization, USA: Sage
Publications, pp.40-43.
17. Robbins, B., (2002), “An Integrated Approach to Managing Absence Supports
Greater Organizational Productivity”, Employee Benefits Journal, 27 (2), pp.7-
11.
18. Hoque, E. and Islam, M., (2003), “Contribution of Some Behavioural Factors to
Absenteeism of Manufacturing Units in Bangladesh”, Pakistan Journal of
Psychological Research, 81 (3 & 4), pp.81-96.
19. Cole, C.L., (2002), “Sick of Absenteeism? Get of Sick Days”, Workforce, 89 (9),
pp.56-60.
20. Mason, C. and Griffin, M., (2003), “Group Absenteeism and Positive Affective
Zone: A Longitudinal Study”, Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 24 (6),
pp.667-684.
21. Robbison, S.P., (2005), Essentials of Organizational Behaviour, (8th ed.), New
Jersey: Prentice Hall, pp.56-59.
 24
22
According to Aamodt (2004) a 2002 survey conducted by the Common Clearing House (CCH)

revealed that employees in the United States of America took an average of 6.2 sick days per annum. He

further states that this figure is standing at about 7.8 days for the United Kingdom. Aamodt (1996)23

notes that these figures are alarmingly high, hence the increased focus on absenteeism in organizations.

In South Africa, absenteeism in the workplace is receiving increasing attention and organizations are

taking a closer look at the costs of absenteeism as well as issues such as employee loyalty and

commitment Du Plessis, Visser & Farrie, (2003)24. It is estimated that about 4.5 per cent of the South

African workforce are absent on any given day, and in certain companies this figure is as high as 18 per

cent

22. Aamodt, M.G., (1996), Applied Industrial/Organizational Psychology, (2nd ed.),

USA, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, pp.117-119.
23. Aamodt, M.G., (2004), Applied Industrial/Organizational Psychology, (4th ed.),
USA, Thomson/Wordsworth, pp.11-13.
24. Du Plessis, A., Visser, D. and Farrie, L., (2003), “Die Omvang en and van af
wesigheid in die weskplek:; „nsuid-Afrikanse gevalstudie”, SA Journal of
Industrial Psychology, 29(1), pp.58-67.
 25
25 26
Vaida (2005) . Ones et al., (2003) indicate that South African managers consider absenteeism their

most serious discipline problem. If not managed and controlled, absenteeism can “spread like an

epidemic, creating a range of disciplinary problems for organizations” Harris (2005)27

According to Butler (2004)28, having sick leave programme in organizations, i.e., providing paid

sick leave, actually enforces the wrong behaviour, which is absence from work. The authors argue that

organizations should rather reward employees for attendance, not for being absent. Moreover, the

importance of good attendance and its benefits should be clearly communicated to all employees

Bydawell (2000)29.

25. Vaida, G., (2005), Stick Leave SA Millions”, Sunday Times, August 25, p.12.
26. Ones, D.S., Visweswran, C., and Schmidt, F.L., (2003), “Personality and
Absenteeism: A Meta Analysis of Integrity Tests”, European Journal of
Personality, 17(2), pp.19-39.
27. Harris, D., (2005), Dealing with Sickness Absence”, Training Journal, 3(1),
pp.63-69.
28. Butler, J., (2004), “To Conduct an Investigation into Absenteeism in Cape Town
Organization”, South African Journal of Business Management, 11(4), pp.67-
76.
29. Bydawell, M., (2000), Op.cit, p.1.
 26
It is however highly unlikely for organizations to completely eradicate absenteeism. Ericson

(2001)30 maintains that organizations should look at ways in which they can accommodate the needs of

their diverse workforce in order to attract and retain the best employees.

Definition of Absenteeism

Owing to the large amount of research conducted on absenteeism there are a plethora of

definitions of absenteeism. Absenteeism is defined as “an unplanned, disruptive incident and can be

seen as non-attendance when an employee is scheduled for work” Van der Merwe & Miller, (1988)31.

Milkovich and Boudreau (1994)32 further define absenteeism as “the frequency and /or duration of work

time lost when employees do not come to work”. Johnson, Croghan and Crawford, (2003)33 project the

view that absence is attributed to illness or injury and accepted as such by the employer.

Cascio (2003)34 defines absenteeism as any failure of an employee to report for or to remain at

work as scheduled, regardless of the reason”.

Rhodes and Steers (1990)35 maintain that people tend to have different perspective or attach

different meanings when viewing the topic of employee absenteeism. To the manager, absence is often

30. Ericson, D., (2001), “Lesson in Absenteeism Management”, Benefits Canada,

25(4), pp.89-91.
31. Van der Merwe, R. and Miller, S., (1988), “Measuring Absence and Labour
Turnover: A Practical Guide to Recording and Control”, JHB: Lexion
Publishers, pp.11-23.
32. Milkovich, G.T., and Boudreau, J.W. (1994), “Human Resource Management”,
(7th ed.), USA: IRWIN Publishers, pp.22-24.
33. Johnson, C.J., Croghan, E. and Crawford, J., (2003), “The Problem and
Management of Sickness Absence in the National Health Service”, Journal of
Nursing Management, 11(2), pp.336-342.
34. Cascio, W.F., (2003), “Managing Human Resources: Productivity, Quality of
Work Life, Profits”, (6th ed.) Mc Graw Hill Irwin, pp.119-124.
35. Rhodes S.R., and Steers, R.M., (1990), Op.cit, p.1.
 27
seen as a problem to be solved, but to the employee it can take on a very different meaning. For the

employee, absenteeism can be symbolic of deeper feelings of hostility or perceptions of inequitable

treatment in the job situation or a way to sabotage the organization for the poor work environment or

other attributes of the job. Attempts to understand and deal with absenteeism will therefore, according

to Winifield (2001)36 depend on the assumption being used. When viewed from an organizational

perspective, the resulting actions/recommendations will more likely focus on absence control policies

within the organizations.

36. Winifield, M.J., (2001), “Absenteeism: The Influence of Potentially Controllable

Factors on Absence Behaviour”, Journal of Public Administration, 22(6), pp.91-
98.
 28
A MODEL OF ABSENTEEISM

Aamodt (1996)37 maintains that before an organization spends time and money trying to stop

absenteeism, it must first understand the theories around why people miss work. Various models have

been developed to explain absence behaviour, but the Integrated Model of Attendance developed by

Rhodes and Steers (1990)38 provides a heuristic framework on the various factors influencing employee

attendance ( Figure 1.1)

37. Aamodt, M.G., (1996), Applied industrial / Organisational Psychology, (2nd

ed.), USA:” Books / Cole Publishing Company.
38. Rhodes S.R., and Steers, R.M., (1990), Op.cit, p.1.
 29
FIGURE 1.1

3. Personal Characteristics
Education
Age
Tenure
Sex
Family size

7. Ability to Attend
2. Employee Values and Illiness and Accidents
Job Expectations Family Responsibilities
Transportation Problems

1. Job Situation
Job Scope 4.Satisfaction 6.Attendance 8.Employee
Job Level With Job Motivation Attendance

Role Stress Situation

Work Group Size
Leader Style 5. Pressure To Attend
Coworker Economic and Market
Relations Conditions
opportunity for Work-Group Norms
Advancement Personal Work Ethic
Organisational Commitment

Source: Rhodes & Steers (1990) Op.cit, p.1.

Figure 1.1 suggests that an employee’s attendance (Box 8) is primarily determined by two

important variables: 1) an employee’s motivation to attend (Box 6), and (2) an employee’s ability to

attend (Box 7). The authors further suggest that the employee’s motivation to attend is influenced by
 30
two factors: (1) satisfaction with the job situation (Box 4), and (2) pressure to attend (Box 5). In the

context of this model, the job situation refers to the general working environment and not only the

nature of the tasks.

Rhodes and Steers (1990)39 list seven factors related to job situation that could lead to increased

job satisfaction, namely job scope, job level, role stress, size of the work group, style of the leader, co-

worker relation and the opportunity for advancement. Johns (1996)40 argues that group norms have a

strong impact on attendance levels. Haswell, (2003)41 found that a ‘culture’ of absenteeism amongst one

group of employees might affect work values and commitment of other employees. New employees

seem to adopt the existing culture, values, norms and standards of the organization which they join, i.e.,

they might be influenced by the current absenteeism norms in the organization Rauch, (2005)42. Lau, et

al., (2003)43 found that industries with a high group absence rate also had higher levels of individual

absences. Organisations are therefore faced with the challenge of managing absence behaviours within

groups as it influences the behaviour of employees entering the organization.

Attitudes, values and goals differ considerably from person to person, depending on what is

important for the individual at a particular point in time. They postulate that ‘work related attitudes (for

example, job involvement) can play a significant role in determining how employees view the

39. Rhodes S.R., and Steers, R.M., (1990), Op.cit, p.1.

40. Johns (1996), Organisational Behaviour: Understanding and Managing Life
at work, (4th ed.), Harper Collins College Publishers.
41. Haswell, M., (2003), “Dealing with Employee Absenteeism”, Management
Services, 47(12), pp.29-36.
42. Rauch, M., (2005), “Strong Relationship Shown between Morale, Absenteeism”,
Incentive 1.79(5), p.8.
43. Lau, V.C., Au, W.T. and Ho, J.M., (2003), “A Qualitative and Quantitative
Review of Antecedents of Counter Production Behaviour in Organization”,
Journal of business and Psychology, 18(1), pp.73-93.
 31
psychological contract between employees and management, as well as how committed they are

coming to work. “Further variables cited by these authors include personal work ethics and the

centrality of work which refers, how important work is in a person’s life goals. The decision by an

employee to absent him/herself is thus related to the importance attached to work.

Another factor influencing attendance is the personal characteristics and backgrounds of

employees. Tylczak (1990)44 terms this category ‘employee specifies and includes things like gender

roles, desire to spend time with friends and hobbies. An example, older and more established

employees might be more stable and might report fewer sick leave incidents than younger employees

who do not mind risking their jobs due to absence.

Closely related to this is the question of whether lifestyle choices influence absenteeism.

According to Popp et al., (2001)45, lifestyle choices such as smoking, drinking and other substances could

influence absenteeism. Common in organizations is the trend of employees taking sick leave either on a

Friday or on a Monday due to alcohol and other substance abuse. They maintain that “the area of

lifestyle choice is probably the hardest part of absenteeism management to address, as it blurs the lines

between personal habits and the workplace”. An organization can offer counselling services to help

solve these personal problems in an effort to reduce absenteeism levels. These programmes are

generally referred to as employee assistance programmes (EAP’s) and is defined as ‘a confidential

counselling and referral service provided by organizations as an employee benefit” Strazewski (2005)46.

44. Tylczak, L., (1990), Attaching Absenteeism: Positive Solutions to An Age Old
Problem–A Practical Guide to Help Slash Absenteeism; Menlo Park,
California: CRTSP Publications, Inc.
45. Popp, P.O., Belohlav, J.A. Orpen, C., (2001), “Absenteeism in a Low Status Work
Environment”, Academy of Management Journal, 25(2), pp.677-683.
46. Strazewski, L., (2005), “Investing in EAP‟s–Employee Assistance Programmes”,
Business, 148(7), pp.52-54.
 32
Finally, the model suggests that there are certain ‘pressure to attend’ which has an influence on

an employee’s motivation to attend and these include the economic/market conditions (like

unemployment) incentive and reward systems, personal work ethic and organizations commitment.

Hence, if unemployment levels are high, people might be less willing to take sick leave for fear of losing

their jobs. There are also factors that constrain an employee’s ability or capacity to attend. They include

(a) genuine illnesses and (b) family related and transportation problems. A brief discussion of these

factors is given below.

Illnesses

According to Lambert et al., (2005)47, the stresses and strains of modern working life have been

advanced as a reason why employees take sick leave. From an employer’s perspective, they do not have

much control over employees becoming ill and taking sick leave for this purpose. However,

organizations can exercise some control over illnesses by ensuring a safe and healthy workplace, proper

ergonomic design, health and safety management policies/practices to address absenteeism in the

workplace. These can facilitate healthier working environments and provide conductive conditions to

reduce absenteeism and enhance satisfaction and productivity.

47. Lambert, E.G., Camp, S.D., Edwards, C. and Saylor, W.G., (2005), “Absenteeism
and its Antecedents among Federal Correctional Staff”, Journal of Criminal
Justice, 33(2), pp.165-175.
 33
Family Related and Transport Problems

Sanders (2004)48 notes that the leading cause of absenteeism is due to personal or family

related issues. Increasingly organizations are being characterized by issues such as child and eldercare

and single-parent families, which can all have an impact on the absenteeism levels in organizations. One

of the strategies available to organizations to address absence resulting from family related problems, is

the introduction of flexible work practices. These include alternative working arrangements such as a

few hours leave for school functions, telecommuting and also compressed work weeks Rauch, (2005)49.

Telecommuting is a practice where employees do their work at home, mostly on a computer that is

linked to their office Venne, (1997)50. A compressed work week is a four-day week, with employees

working ten hours a day, therefore allowing employees more time off to tend to family related

responsibilities Saal & Knight (1988)51. According to Martocchio (2005)52, these flexible work schedules

are the most successful in stemming unscheduled absences.

Another contributing factor to absenteeism in the workplace is when employees are presented

with transportation problems, for example, a car breaking down en route to work Rhodes & Steers,

48. Sanders, K., (2004), “Family and Absenteeism”, Journal of Management

Psychology, 19(1).
49. Rauch, M., (2005), “Strong Relationship Shown between Morale and
Absenteeism”, Incentive, 179(5), p.8.
50. Venne, R.A., (1997), “Telecommunicating Practice and Absenteeism”, Industrial
Relations, 52(1), pp.382-398.
51. Saal, F. and Knight, P., (1988), “Industrial / Organisational Psychology Science
and Practice California: Books/Cole Publishing Company.
52. Martocchio, J.J., (2005), “The Control System on Absenteeism and Tardiness”,
Journal of Organisational Behaviour Management, 13(2), pp.51-70.
 34
53
(1990) . From the employees’ perspective, it is important to inform the relevant manager/supervisor on

time so that the necessary work schedules can be adapted.

Based on the discussion, the Integrated Model of Rhodes and Steers (1990) provided useful

insight into the causes of both voluntary and involuntary absence. The model does not address the

relationship between personality and absenteeism, even though “….prior absence has been established

as an efficient predictor of further absence” Judge, et al., (1997)54. The relationship between personality

and absence is therefore briefly discussed below.

53. Rhodes S.R., and Steers, R.M., (1990), Rhodes S.R., and Steers, R.M., (1990),
Op.cit, p.1.
54. Judge, T., Martocchio, J. and Thoversen, (1997), “Five Factor Model of
Personality and Employee Absence”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(5),
pp.745-755.
 35
Personality and Absenteeism

Nord (2004)55 advances an interesting theory of absenteeism, which argues that absenteeism is

a result of an individual’s personality traits. Certain types of people will therefore more likely miss work

than other types of people. Porters and Steers (1973)56 supported this theory and espouse the view that

employees with extreme levels of emotional instability, anxiety, aggression, independence and self-

confidence are more prone to absenteeism than employees with more moderate personality

characteristics. Ferris, et al., (1988)57 maintain that past absenteeism has been found to predict future

absenteeism. Ones, Viswesvaran and Schmidt (2003)58 state that if more research supported this theory,

taking cognizance of personality dispositions in placement decisions may become a feasible

organizational intervention in combating the costly and disruptive problem of absenteeism.

Impact of Demographic Variables on Absenteeism

Demographic variables are widely used in the study of absenteeism and turnover Goldberg &

Waldman (2000)59, Price (1995)60further postulates that demographic variables can assist in the

55. Nord, (2004), “Personality of Employees and their Absenteeism”, Personnel

Administration, 6(1), pp.26-32.
56. Porter, W.X. and Steers, S.W., (1973), “Personality Inventory of the Employees”,
Journal of Personnel Administration, 11(2), pp.73-76.
57. Ferris, T. Bergin, S. and Wayne, Z. (1988), “Relationship between the Past and
Present Absenteeism among the Workers”, Journal of Organisational
behaviour, 2(1), pp.19-27.
58. Ones, D.S. , Viswesvaran, C., and Schmidt, F.L., (2003), “Personality and
Absenteeism–A Meta Analysis of Integrity Tests”, European Journal of
Personality, 17(2), pp.19-39.
59. Goldberg, C. and Waldman, D., (2000), “Modelling Employee Absenteeism:
Testing Alternative Measures and Mediated Effects Based on Job Satisfaction”,
Journal of Organisational behaviour, 21(2), pp.665-676.
 36
construction of casual models and assist in the management of organizations. Information of this nature

can, for example, assist with recruitment and selection decision in organizations.

One of the goals of the present study is to investigate the relationship between absenteeism

and demographic variables, hence a brief discussion will be provided in the next section. The most

common demographic variables used in research will be discussed, namely age, tenure, marital status,

number of dependents, gender and job level.

Age

The impact of the aging workforce on organizations has become an important research area.

This is mainly due to recent legislation, such as the Labour Relations Act 66(1995), which practically

outlaws mandatory retirement Kacmar & Ferris (1989)61. In addition to this, the continuing threat of

potential age discrimination law suits has created awareness around the aging work force. Moreover,

Robbins et al., (2003)62 maintain that in South Africa, the impact of the HIV and the AIDS will have a

crippling effect on the labour force in the 20-29 year age group.

Currently , the literature posits that absenteeism is negatively related to age Johnson et al.,

(2003)63; Voss, et al., (2001)64. This implies that absenteeism is higher amongst younger employees.

60. Price, J., (1995), “A Role for Demographic Variables in the Study of Absenteeism
and Turnover”, The International Journal of Career Management, 7(5), 26-32.
61. Kacmar, K. and Ferris, G., (1989), “Theoretical and the Methodological
considerations in the Age-Job Satisfaction Relationship”, Journal of Applied
Psychology, 74(2), pp.201-207.
62. Robbins, S. Odendeal, A. and Roodt, G., (2003), “Organisational behaviour
Global and South African Perspectives; South Africa: Pearson Education.
63. Johnson, C.J., Groghan, E. and Crawford, J., (2003), “The Problem and
Management of Sickness Absence in the National Health Service”, Journal of
Nursing Management, 11(1), pp.336-342.
 37
65
According to Martocchio (1989) , the rationale for this has been attributed to greater job commitment

amongst older employees. Furthermore Pedaline and Gamboa (2004)66 found that short periods of sick

leave are more common among younger employees, probably because older employees usually take up

higher responsibility at work and will not request sick leave for minor illnesses.

In contrast to the above view, Siu (2002)67 found that older workers are more prone to sickness

absence than younger workers. The most common reasons cited are health deterioration of the older

employees and longer recovery when injured Schumacher, (2004)68.

Another contradiction to the age-absenteeism relationship has been reported in a study

conducted by Narayanan and Nath (2003)69. They found a non significant relationship between age and

absenteeism. Martocchio and Jimeno (2007)70 concluded that the relation between age and

absenteeism may depend on things such as the type of absence measures used, whether the job is

physically demanding the employee’s gender and inconsistencies in absence classification. According to

64. Voss, M., Floderus, B. and Diderichsen, F., (2001), “Changes in Sickness
Absenteeism following the Introduction of a Qualifying Day for Sickness Benefit-
Findings from Sweden Post”, Journal of Public Health, 29(2), pp.166-174.
65. Martocchio, J., (1989), “Age-related Differences in Employee Absenteeism: A
Meta-Analysis”, Psychology and Aging, 4(4), pp.409-414.
66. Pedalino, E. and Gamboa, V.U., (2004), “Behaviour Modification and
Absenteeism: Intervention in One Industrial Selling, Journal of Applied
Psychology, 59(2), pp.694-698.
67. Siu, O., (2002), “Predictors of Job Satisfaction and Absenteeism in Two Samples
Hongkong Nurses”, Journal of Advance Nursing, 40(2), pp.218-229.
68. Schumacher, J., (2004), “Mitigating Sick Leave Costs”, Credit Union Magazine,
70(5), pp.62-71.
69. Narayanan, V.K., and Nath, R., (2003), “The Age-Related Absenteeism among the
Workers in SSI Units”, Indian Journal of Personnel Management and
Industrial Relations, 3(2), pp.117-138.
70. Martocchio, J.J. and Jimeno, D.I., (2003), “Employee Absenteeism as An
Affective Event”, Human Resource Management Review, 13(2), pp.227-241.
 38
these researchers, employees’ absences will therefore be dependent on these type of factors, and not

necessarily on their age. Research on the relationship between age and absenteeism is, at best,

equivocal.

Tenure

Tenure is generally defined as the length of employment for which an employee has worked for

an organization. Dalton and Perry, (2003)71, studies consistently demonstrate an inverse relationship

between tenure and absenteeism, which means that employees with higher work experience will be less

absent than those with lower work experience or length of employment. Employees who have been in

employment for long periods, tend to express higher levels of job satisfaction and organizational

commitment, resulting in lower rates of absenteeism Lambert et al., (2005)72.

On the other hand, study by Nicholson, et al., (2006)73 found that workers with higher work

experience report higher levels of absenteeism than workers with lower work experience. The authors

attributed this to the fact that employees with higher work experience believe they have been loyal to

their organization and are entitled to a few days of sickness absence.

71. Dalton, D.R. and Perry, J.C., (2003), “Absenteeism and Length of Employment
among the Employees”, Academy of Management Journal, 24(2), pp.425-431.
72. Lambert, E.G., Camp, S.P. Edwards, C. and Saylor, W.G., (2005), “Job
Satisfaction and its Linkage with Absenteeism”, Journal of Criminal Justice,
21(2), pp.51-70.
73. Nicholson, N., Brown, C.A., and Chadwick-Jones, J.K., (2006), “Absence from
Work and Service of the Employees”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 61(2),
pp.728-737.
 39
Another contradiction in the tenure-absenteeism relationship has been reported by Lau et al.,

(2003)74 who found there is no association between tenure and absenteeism. Research in this regard is

thus contradictory.

Marital Status

According to Steers and Rhodes (2003)75 available research indicates that married employees

have fewer absences than their unmarried co-workers. The authors postulate that marriage imposes

increased responsibilities that make a job more valuable and important, therefore married employees

will be less likely to miss work. Consistent with this Sanders (2003)76 found that marital status is not a

significant factor in determining the proneness of an employee for absenteeism.

Number of Dependents

Many times employees report absence because of events or conditions that are beyond their

control. It is estimated that 40 per cent of absenteeism is unavoidable. One such unavoidable event is

when employees’ children suddenly become ill and they have to report an unscheduled absence Brooke

and Price, (2003)77.

74. Lau, V.C., Aa, W.T., and Ho, D.M., (2003), “A Qualitative and Quantitative
Review of Antecedents of Counters Productive Behaviour in Organizations”,
Journal of Business and Psychology, 18 (1), pp.73-93.
75. Steers, R.M. and Rhodes, S.R. (2003), “Major Influences on Employee
Attendance: A Process Model”, Journal of Applies Psychology, 63 (3), pp.391-
407.
76. Sanders, A., (2003), “Marital Status and Absenteeism among the Employees”,
Journal of Management Psychology, 19(1), pp.136-155.
77. Brook, P.P. and Price, J.L., (2003), “Family Size and Absenteeism among the
Employees”, Journal of Occupational Psychology, 62 (4), pp.1-19.
 40
Research on the relationship between number of dependents and absenteeism is contradictory.

In their research, Farnell and Stamon (2003)78 found a non-significant relationship between absenteeism

and number of dependents. This could be attributed to the fact that many employees invest in after-

care and day-care facilities for their dependents.

On the other hand, Goldberg and Waldman (2000)79 found a modest relationship between

absenteeism and number of dependents. A logical explanation, according to Brooke (2003)80 is that

when a small child is ill, parents would normally stay home to either take them to a doctor or place them

in someone else’s care.

Gender

There has been an influx of women into the labour force over the last number of years and in

South Africa women constitute about 54 per cent of the labour force Gross et al., (2003)81. The authors

postulate that women’s preferences are significantly different to men in that they would prefer part

time work and flexible work schedule in order to accommodate their family responsibilities. It is

therefore possible that if these options are not available to women, it could influence their absence

patterns within organizations.

78. Farnell, D. and Stamon, C.L., (2003), “Correlates of Employee Absence and
Population in Workers Family”, Human Relation, 41 (2), pp.211-227.
79. Goldberg, C. and Waldman, D., (2000), “Modelling Employee Absenteeism:
Testing Alternatives Measures and Mediated Effects Based on Job Satisfaction”,
Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 21 (2), pp.665-676.
80. Brooke, P.P., (2003), “A Study in Employee Absenteeism and its Antecedents”,
Journal of Organizational Psychology, 62 (4), pp.1-19.
81. Gross, G.R., Larson, S.J., Urban, G.O., and Zupair, L.L., (2003), “Gender
Differences in Occupational Stress and Absenteeism”, American Journal of
Criminal Justice, 18 (2), pp.219-234.
 41
A large body of research indicates that absenteeism is higher among women than men

Fried et al., (2002)82 and Mathieu & Kohler, (2000)83. Explanations for these findings are that

working women have multiple roles as home makers, careers of children and sometimes caring for the

elderly. Hardy, et al., (2003)84 support this theory as their research also reports that women are

generally more absent than men due to domestic problems as well as general health issues.

Furthermore, Kim and Campagna (2002)85 found that differences in absenteeism among women and

men hold even if both are doing the same job.

However, Orpen (2003)86 postulate that the historical role of women in caring for children has

changed in the last generation and that men are nowadays taking responsibility for problems associated

with child care. Differences in absenteeism, based on traditional female roles will therefore disappear

as more women join organizations and follow long term careers.

Consequences of Employee Absenteeism

82. Fried, Y., Melamed, S. and Ben-David, H., (2002), “The Joint Effects of Noise,
Job Complexity and Gender on Employee Sickness Absence: Exploratory Study
Across Organizations-the CORDIS study”, Journal of Organizational and
Organizational Psychology, 75 (2), pp.131-144.
83. Mathieu, W.N., and Kohler, G., (2000), “Absenteeism: A Gender Focus”, Journal
of Organizational and Organizational Psychology, 69 (3), pp.277-293.
84. Hardy, G.E., Wools, D. and Well, T.D., (2003), “The Impact of Psychological
Distress on Absence from Work”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 80 (2),
pp.306-314.
85. Kim, J.S. and Campagna, A.F., (2002), “Effects of Gender on Absenteeism”,
Academy of Management Journal, 24 (2), pp.729-741.
86. Orpen, C. (2003), “The Effect of Gender on Attendance Behaviour and Behaviour
Modification”, Journal of behavioural Science, 2 (1), pp.249-252.
 42
87
Rentsoch and Steel, R.P (2003) suggest that absenteeism can have both positive and negative

consequences for different groups. These groups include the individuals themselves, their co-workers,

the larger work group, the organization and management, trade unions, the family and the society at

large. The proposed consequences of absenteeism are presented in Table 1.1. Furthermore, it is noted

that this list is not comprehensive as situations do vary and “… the effects may not always be felt

immediately and absence duration could determine different outcomes” Winfield (2001)88.

87. Rentsoch, J.R. and Steel, R.P., (2003), “Consequences of Absenteeism: An

Empirical Research”, Human Management Review, 13(2), pp.185-202.
88. Winifield, M.J., (2001), “Absenteeism: The Influence of Potentially Comfortable
Factors on Absence Behaviour”, Journal of Public Administration, 22(6), pp.91-
98.

TABLE 1.1
Consequences of Absenteeism
Positive
Individual  Reduction of job related
stress
 Meeting of non-work role
obligations
 Benefit from compensatory
non work activities
Co-workers  Job variety
 Skill development
 Overtime pay
Work Group  Work group’s knowledge of
multiple jobs
 Greater flexibility in
responding to absenteeism
and to production problems
Organisation/  Greater job knowledge base
Management in work force
 Greater labour force
flexibility
Union Officers  Power positions
strengthened as they are
often seen by management
as a means to get employees
back to work
Family  Opportunity to deal with
health or illness problems,
marital, child and other
family related issues
Society  Reduction of job stress and
mental health problems
 Participation in community
political processes
Source: Goodman and Atkin (1984) as cited by Winfield (2001).
43
Negative
 Loss of pay
 Discipline, formal and
informal
 Altered job perception
 Increased work load
 Undesired overtime
 Increased accidents
 Conflict with absent worker
 Increased accidents
 Decreased productivity
 Increased costs (overtime,
etc.)
 More grievances
 Increased accidents
 Where absence is high, lose
credibility for being unable
to control their members
 Increased costs in processing
grievances
 Less earnings
 Decline in work reputation
 Loss of productivity
 44
The Cost of Absenteeism

Absenteeism is costly and managers are constantly exploring ways to reduce it. Bydawell

(2000)89 highlights the growing concern that employees who absent themselves and present doctor’s

certificates, are actually absent for non-health related matters.

Haswell (2003)90 maintains that it is unlikely that absenteeism can be completely eradicated in

organizations, hence, financial provision should be made for sick benefits. To determine whether

absence is really a problem to be addressed, the organisation has to assess the costs of absence to the

organization.

A number of studies have attempted to determine the financial implications of

absenteeism.Butler (1994)91 estimated that “one day’s absence by an employee costs the organization

one and a half times the daily rate of pay of that employee”. However, according to Butler (1994) there

are a few ways to estimate absenteeism costs.

Goodman and Atkin (2000)92 indicate that the cost therefore of recruiting, selecting, training and

paying these additional employees represents one way in which the costs of absenteeism can be

estimated.

Another approach estimates the incremental costs per day associated with the absent

employee, for example, salary and pension that still have to be paid during the employee’s absence.

89. Bydawell, M., (2000), Op.cit, p.1.

90. Haswell, M., (2003), “Dealing with Employee Absenteeism”, Managing Services,
47(12), pp.117-123.
91. Butler, J., (1994), “To Conduct An Investigation into Absenteeism in Cape
Town Organization”, Unpublished Master Thesis, University of Cape Town.
92. Goodman, G. and Atkin, (2000), “The Cost of Absenteeism and Its
Consequences”, Public Personnel Management, 3(1), pp.51-63.
 45
93
According to Butler (1994) , “if an employee is absent and a casual/temporary employee is hired, the

task of management is to compare the costs that would have been involved if the absent employees had

come to work, plus the additional costs of hiring a replacement employee”. It is important then for

organizations to have a proper system in place to determine the costs of absenteeism, so that it can be

managed effectively.

Strategies to Manage Absenteeism

Most employees expect some degree of absence, but most organizations find the effects on

profitability and employee morale very damaging (Haswell, 2003)94. According to Paton (2004)95,

“sickness absence is no longer a medical issue for employers, it is a strategic one”. Organisations can no

longer wait for employees to come back from sick leave, hoping the problem will disappear. There is a

growing realization that is very much up to employers to get employees back to work as absenteeism is

costly. Bydawell (2000)96 believes that programmes to manage absenteeism should not be initiated with

the intention to pressurize employees to be at work, irrespective of their personal situation. Nor should

employees be unfairly treated when they absent themselves for legitimate reasons.

According to Landau (2003)97 successful absenteeism management strategies begin with the

belief that something can actually be done to reduce absenteeism. Manager need to keep in mind that

93. Butler, Op.cit., p.26.

94. Haswell, M., (2003), “Dealing with Absenteeism”, Management Service, 47(12),
pp.119-127.
95. Paton, N., (2004), “From Absence to Attendance”, Personal Today, 1(1), pp.25-
27.
96. Bydawell, M., (2000), Op.cit, p.1.
97. Landau, J.C., (2003), “Absenteeism Management Strategies in SSI Units”,
Journal of Organizational Behaviour Management, 13(1), pp.51-70.
 46
there is no ‘one-size-fits’ all solution that is appropriate for all organizations. Every organization is

unique and absenteeism reduction strategies should be customized to the particular work environment.
 47
98
Sagie (2005) states that employers should distinguish between short and long term absence

when dealing with the problem of absence. The author mentions that for short-term absence, an

effective sickness absence policy should be implemented. This policy should indicate the procedure to

be followed as well as the possible consequences of unacceptable sick leave levels. For long term

absence an employer should keep record of these events as well as ensuring that medical certificates

are supplied. Other strategies for managing absenteeism are discussed below.

Pooling Leave

Some of the ways in which American companies have tried to deal with the absenteeism

problem is by introducing a system where all the leave categories are ‘lumped’ together and employees

can take their leave as they wish (Schappi, 2002)99. This includes scheduled vacations and unscheduled

events like illnesses. Employees therefore have more control and become more accountable for their

own time, taking as much or as little as they need to tend to personal and family needs.

Record Keeping

According to Paul and Lust (2002)100, organizations need to have a system in place where they

can effectively capture and track absence data. This is key to the success of any absence management

programme. Moreover Jones, et al., (2000)101 state that most organizations fail to track attendance

98. Sagie, A., (2005), “Employee Absenteeism, Organizational Commitment, and Job
Satisfaction: Another Look”, Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 52(1), pp.175-
189.
99. Schappi, J.V., (2003), “Improving Job Attendance”, Journal of Management
Psychology, 19(1), pp.134-147.
100. Leigh, J. Paul and John Lust, (2002), “Determinants of Employees Attendance and
Absenteeism”, Work and Occupation, 15(1), pp.78-95.
101. Jones, J.K., C.A.Brown, and N.Nicholson, (2000), “Absence Frame Work: Its
Meaning Measurement, and Control”, International Review of Applied
Psychology, 22(2), pp.137-155.
 48
adequately. The result is what does not get measured, is not managed. If this happens, ‘excessive

absenteeism escalates to the point that it directly affects productivity, quality and morale and

employing people is eventually seen as a liability”.

Chris (2004)102 further advances that “management must understand the processes and

procedures that are poisoning the workplace and driving up absences across the board”. Useful

measures of absence include frequency and duration of sick leave, reason for sickness absence, seniority

levels and absence data on different departments with in organization (Rice, et al., 2003)103.

According to Hackman (1996)104 “… absenteeism can also be decreased by setting attendance

goals and providing feedback on how well the employees are reaching those goals”. A study by Rick and

Guion (1994)105 found that almost 90 per cent of employees think that their attendance is above average

and they estimate their colleagues’ absenteeism as two times higher than it actually is.

Absence Control Policies

This strategy suggests that managers make use of either positive reinforcement (public

recognition and rewards) or negative reinforcement/ punishment (employee call–in to give notice of

absence, progressive discipline for excessive absence and doctor’s certificates for all illnesses) to shape

employee’s behaviour in the desired direction. It is important that employees are educated in the

102. Clegy, Chris, W., (2004), “Management of Absenteeism: An Empirical Study”,

Journal of Applied Psychology, 68(1), February, pp.88-101.
103. Rice, Robert, W., Dean B., Mc Farlin and Debbie E. Bemelt (2003), “Managing
Employee Absenteeism”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 4(4), pp.591-598
104. Hackman, J.R., (1996), “Motivation Through the Design of Work: Test of A
Theory”, Organisational behaviour and Human Performance, 16(1), pp.117-
123.
105. Rick, D. and R.M. Guion (1994), “A Reevaluation of the Absenteeism-Job
Satisfaction Relationship”, Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision, 35(3),
pp.340-381.
 49
106
company’s expectations/standards of acceptable attendance. Fitzpatrick (2003) maintain that

‘absence policies purely aimed at controlling absence have been found to actually cause higher absence

levels by undermining employee commitment”. According to Edwards and Whitson (1993)107 employees

should rather focus on building a present and committed workforce to reduce the number of absences.

Return to Work Interviews

Under this approach an interview is held with the relevant employee immediately on return to

work, especially for short-term absence O’Reilly (2003)108. The benefit of this strategy is that it provides

an opportunity to identify any long term health issues as well as other personal or family related

problems which might be the cause of absence. Managers should use their discretion with this approach

by only focusing on employees with sickness absence above the required norm Hodgkiss (2004)109. This

approach might help deter employees from taking unnecessary sick leave if they know they will be

having a meeting around their absence on their return to work.

106. Fitzpatrick, M.J., (2003), “Managing Employee Absence for a Competitive

Edge”, Human Resource Management Review, 13(1), pp.203-213.
107. Edwards, P. and Whitson, C., (1993), “Attending to Work: The Management of
Attendance and Shopfloor order”, Academy of Management Journal, 81(1),
pp.47-56.
108. O‟Reilly, S., (2003), “At a Glance Guide to Managing Absence–Effective
Employee Absence Management Policies”, Personal Today, 6(2), pp.23-24.
109. Hodgkiss, K., (2004), “Attending to Staff Absence”, Cabinet Maker, 5(3), pp.9-12.
 50
Attendance Oriented Culture

Organisations should have policies in place that create a work environment where employees

want to work in, including flexible working arrangements and rewards for good attendance, as such
110
policies have been found to reduce sickness absence Evans & Walters (2002) . Cranny and Stone

(1990)111 advance two general strategies that can be employed to develop a work environment that is

more conductive to attendance. First, efforts can be made to create a more inviting workplace which

relates more to the physical environment. Secondly, attention can be given to create a work culture that

fosters attendance rather than absence.

Flexible Work Practices

Many employees care for children or elderly relatives and these responsibilities are a frequent

cause of absence Gragg (2004)112. Family-friendly initiatives by organizations could be effective way of

cutting absence. This may mean providing more flexible working hours, child care facilities and time off

for school events that may help employees strike a balance between their work and personal lives.

Employee Assistance Programmes (EAPs)

An EAP can be described as “a manpower management control system designed to facilitate

early identification of employees with a variety of medical, emotional and financial problems that impair

110. Evans, J. and Walters, P.K., (2002), “Sickness Absence and its Control in
Industries”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(4), pp.544-551.
111. Cranny, C.J., and Stone, E.F., (1990), “Creation of Attendance Oriented Culture
among the Employees”, Employee Benefits, 17(2), pp.19-24.
112. Gragg, E., (2004), “Telecommuting comes of Age”, Office Solutions, 21(4),
pp.46-47.
 51
these employees’ job performance and also to motivate them to receive assistance, thereby improving

their job performance and quality of life” Koen-Muller (2005)113.

A common reason for employing an EAP is to assist employees with problems relating to drug

and alcohol abuse.Typical EAPs entail face-to-face counseling sessions with professional counselors,

however, telephone counselling is also used in some organizations Strazewski (2005)114. According to

Haswell (2005)115, the key principle of an EAP is the referral of employees by their immediate

supervisors, particularly when job performance is affected. Essential to an employee assistance

programme, is the issue of confidentially as well as easy access, follow-up and evaluation.

Employee Incentive Programmes

Oshagbemi (1997)116 indicates that workplace absenteeism is on the increase and reward

systems can be employed to control absenteeism. Different methods could be used by employers to

recognize employees for good attendance. Some of these include publishing their names in the

company newspaper, giving employees a certificate, sending the employee a letter and publicly

presenting awards. Other methods involve paying employees for their unused sick leave and providing a

113. Koen-Muller, M., (2005), “An Analysis of the Key Factors Responsible for the
Rate of Employee Absenteeism in the Construction Section”, Journal of Applied
Psychology, 74(2), pp.201-207.
114. Strazewski, L., (2005), “Investing in EAP‟s–Employee Assistance Programmes”,
Benefits Business, 148(7), pp.52-54.
115. Haswell, M., (2005), “Dealing with Employee Absenteeism”, Training Journal,
17(2) pp.27-36.
116. Oshagbemi, T., (1997), “The Influence of Employee Incentive Programmes on
Absenteeism”, Journal of Managerial Psychology, 12(4), pp.119-128.
 52
117
financial bonus for reaching a certain level of attendance. Pors (2003) note that bonuses given in the

light of good attendance, have proved to reduce absenteeism.

Problem Statement

The productivity and performance of the spinning mills are consistently declining especially after

globalization and liberalization. The research is of the opinion that poor management of human

resources could be attributed to, amongst others, staff shortages due to high absenteeism. The

researcher asserts that high absenteeism has a negative effect on productivity and performance of the

mills. Even the experienced and regular staffs are affected by the absenteeism among the co-staff

because of the unplanned overtime works. This affects the health of the potential staff and also the

performance of the mills. The implementation and maintenance of absence management practices are

the need of the era.

Research Questions

This study considers the following questions:

 Is there a relationship between the absenteeism rate and the profile of the respondents?

 To what extent the various antecedents of absenteeism influence the absenteeism rate among the

respondents?

 What is the linkage between the job description index and the absenteeism rate among the

respondents?

 What is the level of implementation of absenteeism management practices at the mills? And how

these are influencing the absenteeism rate?

117. Pors, N.O., (2003), “Linkage between Rewards and Absenteeism Management”,
The International Journal of Carrier Management, 7(5), pp.26-32.
 53
 What are the consequences of absenteeism at the mills and what are the remedial measures

expected by the respondents to control absenteeism in the mills?

DELINEATION OF THE STUDY

The study will assess the rate of absenteeism among the workers and supervisors working at the

spinning mills in the Southern Districts of Tamilnadu. The interest of the researcher was to analyse the

causes of these absenteeism, implementation of absenteeism management practices at the mills, the

consequences of absenteeism and the expected measures to control absenteeism at the spinning mills.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of this study are confined to:

1. To exhibit the profile of the respondents (Staff);

2. To measure the absenteeism rate among the respondents and its association with their profile;

3. To examine the various antecedents of absenteeism among the respondents;

4. To explain the relationship between the job description index and absenteeism rate among the

respondents;

5. To measure the various consequences of absenteeism among the respondents;

6. To evaluate the expected control measures to manage absenteeism among the respondents;

7. To develop recommendations which address the outcomes of the study.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research methodology enlightens the methods to be followed in research works starting from

the problem identification of research to identification of the solutions to those problems. The research
 54
methodology focuses on the methods to be adopted at the various steps in the research process. It

includes research design, population of the study, sampling procedure, sources of data, collection of

data, analysis of data and limitations of the study.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Since the present study has made on attempt to explain the existence of absenteeism among

the employees at the mills, its causes and consequences, it is descriptive in nature. Apart from this, the

present study has its own objectives and pre-planned methodologies. To fulfill the objectives of

research, it is in descriptive nature. The present study also examines the impact of determinants on

absenteeism and also the impact of absenteeism on the various consequences and so it is in diagnostic

nature. Hence, the applied research design of the study is descriptive and diagnostic research.

Number of Spinning Mills in Southern Districts of Tamilnadu

The spinning mills who have registered their names in the TASMA have been included for the

present study. The included southern districts of Tamilnadu are Dindigul, Madurai, Ramnad, Sivagangai,

Theni, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin and Virudhunagar. The number of spinning mills in the abovesaid districts

are given in Table 1.2.

TABLE 1.2
Number of Spinning Mills in Southern Districts of Tamil Nadu

Sl.No. District Number of Mills Per cent to the Total

1. Dindigul 90 61.22

2. Madurai 5 3.40

3. Ramnad 1 0.69

4. Sivagangai 2 1.36

5. Theni 6 4.08

6. Tirunelveli 9 6.12
 55
7. Tuticorin 5 3.40

8. Virudhunagar 29 19.73

Total 147 100.00

Source: www.TASMA.in. [Tamilnadu Spinning Mills Association, Dindigul].

In total, there are 147 spinning mills in the southern districts of Tamilnadu. Higher numbers of

spinning mills are seen in Dindigul and Virudhunagar districts which constitute 61.22 and 19.73 per cent

to the total. Madurai, Theni and Tirunelveli districts consist of 5, 6 and 9 mills respectively which

constitutes 3.40, 4.08 and 6.12 per cent to the total respectively.
 56
Number of Samples Included for the Study

Since the spinning mills are not ready to disclose the number of employees working in their

mills, the number of workers and supervisors per mill have been selected as 5 each arbitrarily. The

distribution of sampled workers and supervisors for the study is given in Table 1.3

TABLE 1.3
Number of Samples Included for the Study

Number of employees
Sl.No. District Total
Workers Supervisors
1. Dindigul 450 450 900
2. Madurai 25 25 50
3. Ramnad 5 5 10
4. Sivagangai 10 10 20
5. Theni 30 30 60
6. Tirunelveli 45 45 90
7. Tuticorin 25 25 50
8. Virudhunagar 145 145 290
Total 735 735 1470

In total, 735 workers and 735 supervisors have been included for the present study on the basis

of five each from each factory. Higher number of samples are selected from Dindigul and Virudhunagar

districts which consist of 900 and 290 employees (workers and supervisors) respectively. The employees

selected from Tirunelveli, Theni and Madurai districts are 90, 60 and 50 respectively.

Survey Questionnaire

Since the purpose of the study is to investigate and explain the absenteeism rate, the

antecedents of absenteeism rate, implementation of absenteeism management practices,

consequences of absenteeism and the expected measures to control the absenteeism at the spinning

mills, a self administered questionnaire was prepared to collect the data. The questionnaire was
 57
classified into four important parts. The first part of the questionnaire consists of socio-economic and

psychological profile of the respondents. The second part of the questionnaire covers the absenteeism

rate, the antecedents of absenteeism, job description index and absenteeism management practices at

the mills. The third part of the questionnaire includes the consequences of absenteeism whereas the

last past of the questionnaires covers the various control measures to manage the absenteeism among

the respondents. A pilot study was conducted among 100 workers and 100 supervisors at various mills

in the study area. Only 47 workers and 68 supervisors responded to the pre-test.

Based on the feed back from the workers and supervisors, certain modification, addition and

deletions had been carried out. The final draft of the questionnaire had been prepared to collect the

primary data from the respondents.

 58
Responded Samples in the Present Study

The responded samples on the pre-tested questionnaire are lesser than the actual samples

included for the present study. The number of workers and supervisors at the various districts are

summarized in Table 1.4.

TABLE 1.4
Distribution of Responded Samples

Number of employees
Sl.No. District Total
Workers Supervisors

1. Dindigul 193 214 407

2. Madurai 8 10 18

3. Ramnad 3 2 5

4. Sivagangai 7 4 11

5. Theni 12 16 28

6. Tirunelveli 21 17 38

7. Tuticorin 14 13 27

8. Virudhunagar 51 46 97

Total 309 322 631

In Dindigul district, out of the 900 samples, only 407 responded to the questionnaire at the

reasonable level. In the case of Virudhunagar district, it is 97 out of 290 samples. In the case of Madurai

district, it is only 18 out of 50 samples. In total out of 735 workers, the fully responded workers came to

309 workers. Out of the 735 supervisors, the fully responded supervisors came to 322.

FRAMEWORK OF ANALYSIS
 59
The statistical analysis has been selected and used to process the collected data according to the

requirements of the study. The analysis is selected according to the scale of data and the objectives of

the study. The included statistical analysis and its application are presented below:

1. T-test

The ‘t’ test is one of parametric tests to analyse the significant difference among the two group

of samples. It is applied when the criterion variable is in interval scale. The ‘t’ statistics are calculated by

X1 -X 2
t 
(n 1 - 1)   (n - 1) 
2 2
1 1

s1 2 s2
x
n1  n 2
-2 n1 n 2

which is compared with the degree of freedom of (n1 + n2 – 2).

Whereas t = ‘t’ statistics

X1 = mean of the first group of sample

X 2 = mean of the second group of sample

n1 = number of samples in the first group

n2 = number of samples in the second group


2
s1
= variance in the first sample


2
s2
= variance in the second sample

The ‘t’ test has been applied to test the significant differences among the workers and

supervisors regarding their views on the various aspects and outcomes of absenteeism.

2. One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

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The One Way Analysis of variance is applied when the criterion variable is in interval scale and

the number of group of samples included for the study is more than two. The ‘F’ statistics is calculated

by

Trss/dF Greater va riance

F  
Ess/dF Smaller va riance

Compared with the F(K-1;N-k) degree of freedom

Whereas F = ‘F’ statistics

N = Number of sample size

K = Number of groups included

Trss/df = Variance between groups and

Ess/df = Variance within groups.

The One Way ANOVA has been applied to examine the association between the profile of the

employees and their views on the various aspects related to absenteeism, antecedents and the

consequences of absenteeism at spinning mills.

3. Exploratory Factors Analysis (EFA)

The Exploratory Factor Analysis is used when the researcher wants to narrate the variable into

handsome factors and also find the relationship between the variables and narrated factors. It is also

called as narration analysis. Whenever the variables related to a particular event are unmanageable or

plenty and also in interval scale, the factor analysis has to be executed to narrate these variables into

factors. Before applying the factor analysis, the validity of data for factor analysis have to be executed

with the help of the Kaiser-Mayer-Ohlin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy and Bartletts Test of
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Shpericity. The acceptable KMO measure of sampling adequacy is 0.5, whereas the acceptable level of

significance of Chi-Square value is upto 0.05 per cent level. In the present study, the factor analysis has

been executed to identify the important antecedents and consequences of absenteeism at spinning

mills.

4. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

The Confirmatory Factor Analysis has been executed with the help of LISREL 8 software package.

It is applied to test the reliability and validity of the variables included in each construct. In the present

study, the CFA has been applied to test the reliability and validity of variables in antecedents of

absenteeism, explanation of absenteeism practices and various consequences of consequences of

absenteeism at the spinning mills.

5. Discriminate Analysis (Two group model)

The Discriminate Analysis is used when the dependent variable is in nominal scale and the

independent variable is in interval scale. It is used to identify the important discriminate variables

among the two groups formulated in the study. The unstandardized cannon discriminate function was

estimated by

Z = a + b1x1 + b2x2 + b3x3 + b4x4 +……+ baxa + bnxn

Whereas

Z = Discriminant criterion

X1, X2,…Xn = Discriminant variables

b1,b2…bn = Discriminant coefficients

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The Wilks Lambda was calculated as a multi-variant measure of group difference over

discriminating variables. The relative discriminating power of the variables was calculated by

Ij  K j
(X j1 -X j2 )

Whereas

Ij = the important value of jth variable

Kj = unstandardized discriminant co-efficient for the jth variable

Xjk = mean of the jth variable for jth group

The relative importance of a variable Rj is given by

Ij
R j
 n

 Ij
j1

In the present study, the two group discriminant analysis has been administered to identify the

important discriminant antecedents, absenteeism management practices and consequences of

absenteeism among the workers and supervisors at the spinning mills.

6. Multiple Regression Analysis

The Multiple Regression Analysis is applied to analyse the impact, of independent variables on

dependent variable when both the variables are in interval scale. The linear regression model is fitted by

Y = a + b1x1 + b2x2 +……….. + bnxn + e

Whereas Y = Dependent variables

X1,X2….Xn = Independent variables

b1,b2….bn = Regression coefficient of independent variables

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a = intercept and

e = error term

In the present study, the multiple regression analysis has been administered to find out the

impact of antecedents of absenteeism on absenteeism rate, absenteeism on the various outcomes of

absenteeism, rate of implementation of absenteeism management practices on the absenteeism rate

among the employees at the spinning mills.

Problems Encountered during the Research

The problems encountered during the research are summarized below:

1. There is a negative attitude towards completing the questionnaire especially among the workers.

Many of the workers and supervisors were not willing to co-operate. They said that too many

questions were being asked.

2. At the end there were number of unresponded questionnaires from the workers and supervisors.

This forced the researcher to undertake extra fieldwork by doing additional interviews in order to

try and collect more information.

3. The selection of respondents were based on purposive sampling since the mill owners/authorities

were not willing to disclose the number of employees working in the mills. They permitted to give

the address of few workers and supervisors.

4. Since the number of questions are too many, the researcher faced the problems related to coding

of information and also the entry of data in excel format to process it.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The present study is subjected with the following limitations.

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1. The variables related to the concepts used in the present study were drawn from the reviews and

also from the views of the experts.

2. No scientific sampling procedure had been adopted since the spinning mills were not ready to

disclose the details about their employees.

3. The scope of the study is confined to only the southern districts of Tamilnadu and the spinning mills

registered their names in the TASMA (Tamilnadu Spinning Mills Association).

4. The data collected from the respondents might be subjected with personal bias since these data

were drawn from the memory of the respondents.

5. The linear relationship between the dependent and independent variables has been assumed.

6. Only the employees’ views on the various aspects related to absenteeism were focused.

CHAPTER LAYOUT

The present study is designed into six chapters for a clear and neat presentation.

The first chapter namely Introduction and Design of the study explains the introduction,

motivation of the study, problem statement, conceptual framework, research gap, objectives, research

questions, and the method that will be employed in conducting the research.

Chapter two namely Conceptual Frame Work of the study exhibits the definitions, meanings,

measurements and variables in all concepts related with the present study.

Chapter three shows the socio-economic and psychological profile of the respondents and their

absenteeism rate at their work places.

Chapter four analyses the various antecedents of absenteeism, job description index, rate of

implementation of various absenteeism management practices at the work place.

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Chapter five discusses the various consequences of absenteeism and the expected measures to

control the absenteeism among the employees.

Chapter six namely summary of findings, conclusions and recommendation proposed has

recommendations and conclusion based on the analysis and findings of the study.

CHAPTER–II

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

The study consists of various concepts related to absenteeism, absenteeism rate,

antecedents of absenteeism, financial impact, and consequences of absenteeism,

absenteeism management practices and strategies to manage the absenteeism. The

definitions, meaning, measurement and variables used to measure absenteeism are

summarised in this chapter.

Absenteeism

Cascio (2003)118 defined absenteeism as any failure of an employee to report for

or to remain at work as scheduled, regardless of the reason. Milkorich and Boudreau

(1994)119 defined absenteeism from an organisation’s perspective as “the frequency and

/ or duration of work time lost when employees do not come to work. Absenteeism

1. Cascio, W.F. (2003), Managing Human Resources : Productivity, for Quality of

Work Life, Profits (6th ed.,), Mc Graw Hill, Irwin.
2. Milkroich, G.J and Boudreau, J.W. (1994), Human Resource Management, (7th ed.),
USA : Irwin Publishers.