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Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 000 (2018) 1–9

www.elsevier.com/locate/proci

Three-dimensional numerical thrust performance

analysis of hydrogen fuel mixture rotating detonation
engine with aerospike nozzle
Nicolas Jourdaine a,∗, Nobuyuki Tsuboi a, Kohei Ozawa a,
Takayuki Kojima b, A. Koichi Hayashi c
a Department of Mechanical and Control Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Kitakyushu 804–8550 Japan
b Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Chofu, Tokyo 182–8522, Japan
c Aoyama Gakuin University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa 252–5258, Japan

Received 30 November 2017; accepted 15 September 2018

Available online xxx

Abstract

The propulsive performance for an H2 /O2 and H2 /Air rotating detonation engine (RDE) with conic aerospike
nozzle has been estimated using three-dimensional numerical simulation with detailed chemical reaction
model. The present paper provides the evaluation of the specific impulse (Isp ), pressure gain and the thrust co-
efficient for different micro-nozzle stagnation pressures and for two configurations of conic aerospike nozzle,
open and choked aerospike. The simulations show that regardless of the nozzle, increase the micro-nozzles
stagnation pressure increases the mass flow rate, the pre-detonation gases pressure and consequently the
post-detonation pressure. This gain of pressure in the combustion chamber leads to a higher pressure thrust
through the nozzle, improving the Isp . It was also found that the choked nozzle increases the chamber time-
averaged static pressure by 50–60% compared with the open nozzle, inducing higher performance for the
same reason explained before.
© 2018 The Combustion Institute. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Detonation engine; Numerical simulation; Aerospike nozzle; Shock wave

1. Introduction tion promises an increase of the thermodynamic

cycle efficiency of 20% comparing with a con-
Detonation is a combustion phenomenon in- stant volume combustion engine. Two main types
volving high pressure, high temperature and super- of detonation engine are studied: the RDE and
sonic propagation. Applied to an engine, detona- the PDE. However, the rotating detonation engine
provides several advantages in comparison with
pulsed detonation engine. It should be compact,
∗ Corresponding author.
simple and able to provide continuous thrust result-
E-mail address: Nicolas.jourdaine8@etu.univ-
ing in higher performances. The first prototype of
lorraine.fr (N. Jourdaine).
RDE was developed by Voiseknovskii et al. [1]. In

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2018.09.024
1540-7489 © 2018 The Combustion Institute. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: N. Jourdaine et al., Three-dimensional numerical thrust performance analysis of
hydrogen fuel mixture rotating detonation engine with aerospike nozzle, Proceedings of the Combustion
Institute (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2018.09.024
JID: PROCI
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2 N. Jourdaine et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 000 (2018) 1–9

1967, Adamson and Olson [3] performed a theo-

retical analysis of RDE. Nicholls et al. [2] studied
stabilization of the detonation and experimented
for hydrogen/oxygen mixture and methane/oxygen
mix ture. Zhdan et al. [4] carried out experiments
and performed a numerical simulation in order
to evaluate a suitable length of the combustion
chamber. More recently, RDE were studied experi-
mentally [5–7], numerically [8–15] and theoretically
[16,17] by several groups in the world to under-
stand and clarify the performance and efficiency of
this kind of engine. In detailed structure numeri- Fig. 1. Physical calculation domain for the H2 /O2 mix-
cal soot formation and detonation front structure ture. H2 /Air domain obtained multiplying by a factor of
[18–20], were captured. It is possible to attach a 13.3.
nozzle to the engine in order to improve thrust.
Rankin et al. [21] have experimentally studied RDE
with a converging-diverging nozzle to reduce oscil- a factor of 13.3. The difference in configuration be-
lation in the exhaust flow and Yi et al. [22] car- tween both nozzles is the addition of a convergent
ried out numerical simulations of RDE with sev- zone reducing the channel area by a factor of 0.8.
eral exhaust nozzles to increase the performance The area ratio of the exit and the throat (Ae/At) is
of the engine for its propulsion application. Fotia 2.77 in the open and 3.47 in the choked configura-
et al. [23] experimented RDE with different config- tion.
urations of aerospike nozzle to evaluate their spe- Figure 2 shows the ignition and injection mod-
cific thrust and specific impulse by modifying the els. The fuel supply is mostly supersonic but sub-
mass flow rate or equivalence ratio. In order to un- sonic inlet appears locally due to the high-pressure
derstand the unclear behavior of the anisotropic region generated by the circulation of the deto-
internal flow, the effects of aerospike nozzle ge- nation wave near the exit of the micro-nozzles.
ometry with open and choked flow on the thrust Therefore, the mixture injection is managed by two
performance, the present study performed a three- boundary conditions system summarized in a four
dimensional simulation of a RDE with a conic steps method proposed by Zhdan et al. [4].
opened and choked aerospike nozzle for two mix-
tures, H2 /O2 and H2 /Air.
2.3. Grid system and numerical conditions

Figure 3 shows the three-dimensional computa-

2. Computational method
2.1. Numerical method
The governing equations are the three dimen-
sional Euler equations with 9 species (H2 , O2 , H,
O, OH, HO2 , H2 O2 , H2 O, and N2 ) mass conser-
vation equations integrated explicitly by the third
order TVD Runge–Kutta method. The effects of
the viscosity, thermal and mass diffusion will be as-
sumed negligible.
The kinetic chemical reaction for the detona-
tion including 21 elementary reactions is solved by
the UT-JAXA [24] model and source terms avoid
the stiffness problem using a linearly point-implicit
method. The numerical flux of the convective terms
is treated using a second-order AUSMDV scheme
[25].
2.2. Computational domain
The present RDE is composed of two parts,
the combustion chamber, and the conical aerospike
nozzle. Figure 1 gives a representation of the physi-
cal model of the RDE with the nozzle for the H2 /O2
mixture. The domain for the H2 /Air mixture can be
found by multiplication of its geometrical values by
tional domain split into three computational zones.
Table 1 gives the dimensions of grid points for
each nozzle and mixture. The first, second and third
value are respectively the number of point in the ax-
ial, radial and circumferential direction. The reso-
lution is higher in the first zone because of the need
for a fine mesh to solve the detonation front.
Interpolation coefficients allow the connection
of the different grids. The ambient conditions be-
hind the aerospike nozzle are a pressure of 0.1 MPa
and a temperature of 300 K. The micro-nozzle area
ratio (A∗ /A) is set at 0.2. Table 2 summarizes the
rest of the numerical conditions.
3. Results and discussions
The real performances of the engine are depen-
dent on many parameters such as the injection, ge-
ometry, and detonation stability. The current paper
presents a simple calculation model which has the
merit to improve the understanding of the phenom-
ena occurring in the RDE. First, the flow-field will
be discussed, then the Isp and pressure gain accord-
ing to the geometry, and finally, a method to try to
evaluate the c∗ efficiency of the engine the nozzle.

Please cite this article as: N. Jourdaine et al., Three-dimensional numerical thrust performance analysis of
hydrogen fuel mixture rotating detonation engine with aerospike nozzle, Proceedings of the Combustion
Institute (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2018.09.024
JID: PROCI
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N. Jourdaine et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 000 (2018) 1–9 3

Fig. 2. Injection model of RDE.

Fig. 3. Three computational grids.

Table 1
Computational grids.
Open Choked
Mixture Zone 1 2 3 1 2 3
Grids dimension 63x21x601 129x11x151 189x71x71 63x21x601 266x31x151 189x91x101
H2 /O2 Axial 5 μm 8.5 μm 6.1 μm 5 μm 0.5 μm 4.9 μm
Min grid width Radial 4.4 μm 6 μm 9.1 μm 4.4 μm 2.3 μm 3 μm
Circumferential 3.7 μm 15 μm 33.2 μm 3.7 μm 15 μm 23 μm
H2 /Air Axial 65 μm 113 μm 8.1 μm 65 μm 6.7 μm 65 μm
Min grid width Radial 58 μm 80 μm 121 μm 65 μm 31 μm 40 μm
Circumferential 50 μm 200 μm 440 μm 3.7 μm 200 μm 306 μm

Please cite this article as: N. Jourdaine et al., Three-dimensional numerical thrust performance analysis of
hydrogen fuel mixture rotating detonation engine with aerospike nozzle, Proceedings of the Combustion
Institute (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2018.09.024
JID: PROCI
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4 N. Jourdaine et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 000 (2018) 1–9
Table 2
Numerical conditions.
Mixture Case P0 (MPa)  Figure 4 is the time-averaged exhaust flow for
H2 /O2 Open-choked 2–5 1 ture. The behavior of the flow is relatively the same
H2 /Air Open-choked 3 0.8–1.4
Table 3
CJ velocity results in function of the micro-nozzle stag-
nation pressure and the equivalence ratio.
Mixture Case  P0 CFD(m/s) CJ%
H2 /O2 Open 1 2–5 2693–2827 96–99
H2 /O2 Choked 1 2–5 2781–2907 95–97
H2 /Air Open 0.8–1.4 3 1853–2057 95
H2 /Air Choked 0.9–1.4 3 1856–1994 97
3.1. Flow-field
The current simulation is set for one detonation
wave by using 1D results. Though, in contrary with
experiments, only one detonation wave will propa-
gate in the annulus regardless of the mixture equiv-
alence ratio () and the mass flow rate. Tsuboi et al.
[27] studied the effects numerically of the detona-
tion wave number and suggests an increase of the
mass flow rate when increasing the number of det-
onation wave after several detonation cycles. More-
over, two detonation waves impact the efficiency
since a 10% Isp reduction was observed. A higher
entropy loss caused by the shock wave number in
the chamber and a lower detonation velocity could
explain the variation of Isp obtained. Simulation for
2 waves was completed, but no difference was no-
ticed in terms of performance even after 68 deto-
nation cycles although the oscillations of mass flow
rate injection appear. The first zone resolution was
raised from 63 x 21 x 601 to 63 x 21 x 1201 points
to verify these results. It appears with this fine mesh
that after 15 detonation cycles only one detonation
remained, but the mechanisms of creation and dis-
appearance of detonation wave are not fully under-
stood as well as the effects of the grid resolution on
the stability of two detonation waves.
Table 3 gives the detonation velocity and the
percentage of this velocity comparing with the
Chapman Jouguet (CJ) velocity. Results are close
to the ideal CJ velocity due to the idealized in-
jection and homogeneous pre-mix mixture model
used. The curvature effects of the wall along the cir-
cumferential direction can explain the velocity loss.
The flow-field in the combustion chamber is modi-
fied according to the configuration but is similar for
both mixtures. For the open configuration, the gas
expands downstream and is principally sonic or su-
personic before entering the nozzle. For the choked
configuration, the flow is essentially subsonic in the
combustion chamber due to the throat at the exit.
The oblique shock wave generated by the detona-
Please cite this article as: N. Jourdaine et al., Three-dimensional numerical thrust performance analysis of
hydrogen fuel mixture rotating detonation engine with aerospike nozzle, Proceedings of the Combustion
Institute (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2018.09.024
[m;October 1, 2018;20:26]
tion is reflected on the throat and progresses back-
ward into the engine.
a stagnation pressure of 3 MPa and a H2 /O2 mix-
for both configurations. The exhaust flow is under-
expanded, and at the exit of the detonation cham-
ber, an expansion fan is observed to be followed by
a free jet boundary and a compression fan. The flow
turns inward and creates a shock triple point and
therefore a high-pressure area. The flow turns then
parallel and expands again. This configuration is
typical of a shock under-expanded supersonic di-
amonds.
3.2. Effects of the nozzle on Isp
The following three equations expressed the
thrust for a complete aerospike nozzle:
.
Fexit =m Vexit + (Pexit − Pin f )Aexit (1)

Framp = (Pramp − Pin f )dAramp (2)
F = Framp + Fexit (3)
.
where m is the mass flow rate, Vexit the exhaust
velocity, Pexit the exhaust pressure, Pinf the ambi-
ent pressure, Pramp , the pressure on the spike, Aramp
the projected spike surface on the radial plan, and
Aexit the area at the exit of the chamber for the
open nozzle and at the exit of the internal diver-
gent for the choked nozzle. Equation (1) is the clas-
sic thrust equation for a nozzle. In an aerospike
nozzle, the exhaust gas expands against the spike
center-body rather than outer walls. Consequently,
this exhaust gas expansion exerts a thrust force that
we call Framp . With the cycle average thrust, the Isp
is calculated as:
F
Isp = . (4)
m g0
where g0 is the standard gravity. The specific im-
pulse provides an easy method to calculate the mix-
ture mass flow usage in the creation of thrust.
First, the H2 /O2 simulations will be discussed.
Figure 5 gives the comparison of Isp for the mass
flux corresponding to the micro-nozzles stagnation
pressures of both configurations. The mass flow
rate increases as increase the micro-nozzle stagna-
tion pressure. The observations indicate a 30.8s im-
provement of the Isp for a mass flow rate from 495
to 1260 kg/s/m2 for the open flow and by 22.4 s
for the choked flow. In terms of performance, for
a given mass flow rate and a constant equivalence
ratio, the choked aerospike improves from 4 to 7%
of the specific impulse. The gain of performance
can be explained through the isotropic flow theory.
The higher combustion chamber pressure when in-
creasing the mass flow rate or decreasing the throat
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Fig. 4. Time-averaged exhaust flow structure in 3D RDE with open (left) and choked (right) aerospike nozzle.
Fig. 5. Specific impulse against mass flux, H2 /O2 mixture.
area results in an addition of pressure thrust by
the nozzle and consequently, a rise in Isp . In order
to compare values with a classic rocket engine, the
ideal case was evaluated applying the Gordon and
McBride method [26]. We assumed an infinite com-
bustion chamber area and the chemical equilibrium
state under an atmospheric environment to obtain
a Isp varying from 287 to 307 s for fixed area ratio.
Considering those results, the Isp computed during
the simulation stay much under the values of an
idealized classic rocket engine for the same config-
uration.
Secondly, the results for H2 /Air simulations will
be presented. The performance of the engine for
air-breathing configuration is described by the spe-
cific thrust and by the specific impulse in terms
of fuel. They are defined by m.F and Isp = m .F g ,
air f uel 0
respectively. Figures 6 and 7 show the results ob-
tained for both configurations, an equivalence ra-
tio varying from 0.8 to 1.4 with a mass flux
of 1010 ± 40 kg/s/m2 . The simulation for the 0.8
Please cite this article as: N. Jourdaine et al., Three-dimensional numerical thrust performance analysis of
hydrogen fuel mixture rotating detonation engine with aerospike nozzle, Proceedings of the Combustion
Institute (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2018.09.024
[m;October 1, 2018;20:26]
5
equivalence ratio of the choked nozzle is not pre-
sented for a question of computation time. The
trends of curve agree well with the experiments by
Fotia et al. [23]. We observed that the specific im-
pulse is higher when the equivalence ratio is low,
contrary to the specific thrust that increases with
it. Also, its performances are higher for the choked
nozzle than for the open nozzle regardless of the
 variations. The growth of the thrust can be un-
derstood as for the hydrogen/oxygen mixture. Nev-
ertheless considering the efficiency of the engine in
terms of fuel consumption, according to the equiv-
alence ratio, an increase in specific thrust costs in
Isp . However, A gap separates the values obtained
by the simulations and the experiments. The reason
could be thought by the oversimplified numerical
model. A realistic simulation should take into ac-
count the variation of detonation waves, the multi-
port injection, and non-homogeneity of the mix-
ture as well as the effect of the viscosity and non-
adiabatic walls.
3.3. Pressure gain
The difficulty in the evaluation of pressure gain
is to define the combustion chamber pressure (Pc )
in the unsteady environment of the RDE combus-
tion chamber. A simple method is considering Pc
as the static time-averaged pressure in the com-
bustion chamber. The static time-averaged pressure
distributions along the axial direction for the dif-
ferent numerical conditions are given in Fig. 8. Pc
is determined considering its averaged value at the
downstream of the detonation wave and at the exit
of the detonation chamber. It is observed that for
the detonation chamber pressure gain is about 50%
for the H2 /O2 mixture and 60% for H2 /Air mix-
ture. For each configuration, a lower micro-nozzle
stagnation pressure leads to a lower mass flow rate
and lower pre-detonation pressure, reducing the
time-averaged combustion chamber pressure. Vary-
ing the equivalence ratio also modifies the pressure
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6 N. Jourdaine et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 000 (2018) 1–9

Fig. 6. Specific thrust against equivalence ratio, H2 /Air.

Fig. 7. Specific impulse against equivalence ratio, H2 /Air.

Table 4 of the nozzle. Another zone can be observed in the

Time average pressure for H2 /Air mixture. choked configuration. A compression zone around
 0.8 0.9 1 1.2 1.4 x=1 mm for H2 /O2 and 12 mm for H2 /Air. This
compression is the result of the interaction of the
Pc (MPa) Open 0.83 0.86 0.88 0.87 0.86 oblique shock wave and a shock wave reflected
Pc (MPa) Choked 1.35 1.40 1.40 1.38
on the throat of the nozzle propagating upstream
in the channel. Figure 9 shows this interaction.
The flow inside the combustion chamber is mainly
subsonic in the choked configuration allowing the
slightly in the detonation chamber. Table 4 gives the
shock wave to propagate backward in the channel
results for  from 0.8 to 1.4.
and interact with the upstream flow.
The graphs allow interpretation of the pressure
in the detonation chamber. We can determine three
zones: The first zone is the one where the deto- 3.4. Thrust coefficient and engine efficiency
nation occurs followed by the zone where gas ex-
pands downstream and the zone where the flow ex- The thrust coefficient is a parameter indicat-
pands quickly, corresponding to the starting point ing the performance of the nozzle. It represents

Please cite this article as: N. Jourdaine et al., Three-dimensional numerical thrust performance analysis of
hydrogen fuel mixture rotating detonation engine with aerospike nozzle, Proceedings of the Combustion
Institute (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2018.09.024
JID: PROCI
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Fig. 8. Time-average static pressure distribution along axial direction.

various back pressure. The definition of the thrust

coefficient is:
F
Cf = (5)
At Pi
where Pi is the combustion chamber stagnation
chamber. The problem is to find a method to com-
pare the different configuration of nozzle which is
drastically changing the internal flow nature in the
combustion chamber. As already discussed above,
it is difficult to justly define the chamber pressure in
a detonation chamber with a broad range of pres-
sure distribution.
Another interesting parameter is the character-
istic exhaust velocity c∗ which is one index to eval-
uate the combustion chamber design performance.
c∗ is defined as follows:
√
At Pi Isp g0 γ RTi
c∗ = . = =  (6)
m Cf γ +1
Fig. 9. Internal flow structure in 3D RDE. γ ( γ +1 )
2 γ −1

where γ is the heat capacity ratio, R the gas con-

the additional thrust induced by the gas expansion
through a supersonic nozzle compared to a noz-
zle “cut-off” at the throat. It also gives an easy ap-
proach to analyze the performance of the nozzle at
stant and Ti and Pi the stagnation temperature and
pressure, respectively.
From c∗ , the c∗ efficiency is computed to express
the degree of completion of the energy released
by the combustion. This efficiency is calculated

Please cite this article as: N. Jourdaine et al., Three-dimensional numerical thrust performance analysis of
hydrogen fuel mixture rotating detonation engine with aerospike nozzle, Proceedings of the Combustion
Institute (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2018.09.024
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8 N. Jourdaine et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 000 (2018) 1–9

Fig. 10. c∗ efficiency for each case.

by employing a simulated and an idealized c∗ from Table 5

the third version of the equation (6). The ideal- Cf for the H2 /Air mixture.
ized Ti , R and γ were determined using the CJ det-  0.8 0.9 1 1.2 1.4
onation problem from the Gordon and McBride
method [26]. The initial condition applied in the F (N) open 60.7 61.9 62.2 61.8 60.9
Pi (MPa) open 1.39 1.43 1.46 1.46 1.43
CEA code are the fresh gas pressure and tempera- Cf open 1.11 1.10 1.09 1.08 1.08
ture conditions upward the detonation wave in the F (N) choked 63.9 65.4 64.8 63.8
simulation. We assumed the ideal temperature Ti Pi (MPa) choked 1.73 1.79 1.77 1.75
constant inside the combustion chamber. The sim- Cf choked 1.18 1.17 1.17 1.16
ulation combustion chamber stagnation tempera-
ture and pressure were determined by the same
method as the one utilized to calculate Pc but with
the time-averaged stagnation values. The c∗ effi- The identical conclusions are found concerning the
ciency is defined as: η = cc∗∗RDE × 100. c∗ efficiency and the global performance of com-
ideal
First, the H2 /O2 case will be discussed. For bustion chamber but Fig. 10 also slightly reveals a
the 2 MPa and 5 MPa micro-nozzles stagnation peak of efficiency at the equivalence ratio equal to
pressure, Cf are respectively 1.00 and 1.07 for the unity corresponding to the highest stagnation tem-
open nozzle and 1.18 and 1.21 for the choked one. perature into the combustion chamber. The c∗ effi-
As it could be presumed, a higher chamber pres- ciency decreases for a lean or rich fuel as the stagna-
sure leads to a higher thrust coefficient. Hence the tion temperature, generated by weaker detonation,
choked configuration for the identical initial condi- drops with the amount of unburned gas.
tions get larger Cf . Nevertheless, the values are par-
ticularly small, notably for the open configuration
where the nozzle almost does not produce any addi- Conclusions
tional thrust. Both nozzles have a simple geometry
and are not optimized resulting to these poor per- Three-dimensional numerical simulations of ro-
formances. Figure 10 gives the c∗ efficiency. With tating detonation engines for a H2 /O2 and H2 /Air
this method, it appears that a choked flow more ef- mixture have been carried out using a detailed
ficiently manages the energy released by the detona- chemistry model. The study of flow structure into
tion for a fixed mass flux. It returns a better global the engine and through the choked nozzle re-
efficiency. Though, the values are slightly low since veals a reflected shock wave propagating backward
the ideal stagnation temperatures are from about 14 into the chamber and interacting with the oblique
to 19% larger than in the simulations. shock wave. The interactions induce triples points
Secondly, the H2 /Air case will be discussed. which may create high heat flux on the wall. The
Table 5 gives the Cf for the range of equivalence time-averaged exhaust flow is similar to a classic
ratio. As the case above, the values are small for axis-symmetric steady exhaust flow suggesting that
the same reasons. The combustion chamber stag- classic design method for aerospike nozzle could
nation pressure and thrust ratio drop continuously be used with RDE. The analysis suggests that a
from a lean to a rich fuel mixture. Hence, the high- choked aerospike nozzle globally improves the per-
est value of Cf is for a lean fuel mixture and the formance of a rotating detonation engine. For an
thrust coefficient decreases when  is increasing. equal H2 /O2 and H2 /Air mixture mass flux, the

Please cite this article as: N. Jourdaine et al., Three-dimensional numerical thrust performance analysis of
hydrogen fuel mixture rotating detonation engine with aerospike nozzle, Proceedings of the Combustion
Institute (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2018.09.024
JID: PROCI
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N. Jourdaine et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 000 (2018) 1–9
static pressure gained for a choked flow are respec-
tively 50% and 60% leading to a better manage-
ment to the energy. Consequently, the Isp is about
5% higher and combustion chamber c∗ efficiency of
about 2% for H2 /O2 and 4% for H2 /Air. The trend
of Isp and specific thrust are close to the experi-
ments, however, the absolute values are completely
different since the mathematical model is simple
and the RDE domains are not at scale.
Acknowledgments
This research is in collaboration with Cyberme-
dia Center of the Osaka University.
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