Chapter..

12

REPORT WRITING AND DATA

PRESENTATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, students will be able to:
Know the types and structure of research reports
Know the steps involved in writing the reports.
Know the different techniques of data presentation.

12.1 INTRODUCTION

The last step in the research process is writing the research report. Research report
is

remains
considered a major component of the research study for the research task
to supervisor, readers or
incomplete till the final report has been presented or submitted
have to accomplish the
funding agency. After collecting and analyzing the data, the scientists
task of drawing inferences followed by report writing. The purpose of research is not well
Served unless the findings are made known to others. Research results must invariably enter
the general store of knowledge. Hence, presentation of research results or writing of report is
part and parcel of the research project.
Research report writing must be accurate, clear, logical and concise. The quality of the
esearch report depends upon the knowledge of the project, written communication skills,
clarity of thought and ability to express thoughts in a logical and sequential manner. Every
ESearch report has a specific purpose and these reports can be read by different people.
Kesearch report may be prepared as an academic exercise to be published in a book form, to
be read by University students or it may be submitted to the funding organisation which may
Use it for policy purposes or it may be used tor writing a research paper to be presented at a
professional meeting or it may be used for writing a paper for some academic journal or it
nay be published in a newspaper to be read by the common people.

(12.1)
 Biostatistics and Research Methodology 12.2 Report Writing and Data
Research data is expressed either in quantitative or qualitative form naire)
and used
or secondary
fn
resentation
analysis. Data may be collected from primary sources (interview, questionnaire) or
ed for result
sOurces (publications,
secon
reports). Collected data must be arranged according to ording to th
characteristics and affinities for the classification. Statistician organizes,
summariza
communicatecollected datainform oftext,tables, graphsand diagrams. and
12.2 TYPES OF RESEARCH REPORTS
The results of a research
investigation can be presented in a number of ways sSuch
technical report, popular
report, article, monograph or oral presentation. The method
presentation to be used in a particular study depends on the circumstances
under
study arose and the nature of the results. Banks, financial institutions and which the the
organisations are generally found of the short balance sheet type of annual insurance
customers and shareholders. Mathematicians reports to their
form of algebraic notations. In the field
prefer to write the results of their
study in the
of education and psychology, the
results of experimentation is report on the
accompanied by the detailed statistical tabulations.
Academic institutions mainly
then preparing several research
prefer to write the result in form of a technical report and
papers to be discussed at various forums. In the
report the main emphasis is given on the method used, technica
and the detailed assumptions made in research study
presentation of the findings including their limitations and
Research performed in public supporting data
private organisations are usually presented in the form of
or
technical reports. Technical
report mainly covers summary of results, nature of the
methods used, analysis of data,
conclusions, bibliography, technical appendices, study
The popular report is one which
gives emphasis on practical
index, etc
This report gives aspects and policy implications.
importance for simplicity and attractiveness
minimizing technical details with attractive layout. through clear writing and
Popular report mainly contains the
findings and their implications, recommendations for action,
used, results and technical objective of the study, methods
appendices. There can be several variations of the form
popular report can be in which a
prepared.
Research reports may be classified or
written in form of books,
reports, publication in professional journals, commissioned researcn
for mass media. presentation before audience or report prepared
Books:
Book published on the basis of an empirical study which
qualitative interpretation. Postgraduate thesis or doctoral contain quantitative data ot
books or it may be available in thesis can be published in form or
University
audiences, researchers and members of the
as reference
thesis. Books are written for difterent
research area. public having a particular interest in the specine
The commissioned research reports:
These reports are prepared for the benefit
of
has funded the research project. Scientists or organisation or Government agency vhich
research fellow should write the research
at the end of study to funding agency such as rep
DBT, DST, ICMR, DRDo, AICTE, CSIR etc. The>
 ostatistics and Res arch Methodology
12.3
Report Writing and Data Presentation
borts should
mention the
output of
collaborations, etc. research project in forr
orm of publications, patents,
professional journals:

The research report may be published in form

of
erientific journals. They publish only those
or scientific journa research papers in reputed
professiona
Critical and innovative ideas. papers which are original,
original, concise, present
present
Oral presentation before audience:

The output or findings of research

frences, workshops and seminars. The projects are made available to
researchers through
with only those
those research papers are presented in form of
findings which are relevant to research report
ehadology and new ideas. Oral the theme and based on
on scientific
methe
presentation is effective when
scientifc
visual devices, slides, wall charts
and
blackboards. Written
supplemented by various
ha
th oral presentation and referred to report may be circulated before
enmmonly implemented inacademic research
frequently
during the discussion. This method
institutes to discuss the research is
aliev implications with other scientists or
researcher either in a outputs and
group discussion. conference, seminar in or a

Report prepared for mass media:

Research report may be published in the
newspapers or magazines to know the detailed
fundings of the research to the public. The
reports related to social science, medical
politics, new discovery etc. are sciences,
generally published in newspapers. This
only central facts or major findings or outcomes report should give
without any statistics,
methodological details.
Sometimes, this report may be published in hypothesis or
simple local language.
12.3 STEPS IN WRITING REPORT
Research report is written after
witing a report are: completion of research work. The different
steps for

Logical analysis and preparation of outline.

0)Writing the rough draft.
41)
Listing the references and
Preparation of final draft.
Presentation of research findings or writing the report is the part and parcel of the
ch
e. project.
Lit It requires
requir specific skills to present the research outcome in impressive

Logical analysis and prepand preparation of outline: This is the first step for writing the
research report. Analyse all research findings or subject details by logical or
chronologgical order. Logical analysis consists of designing the subject material from
 Biostatistics and Research Methodology 12.4 Report Writing and Data Presentation
the
simple to the complex structures. Chronological order is best way for makina
something sequential in occurrence. Preparation of complete outline of project is
most important to remember and cover all
important points in logical order. This is a
step to decide the sequence and points which will cover in the final report.
(ii) Writing the rough draft: Researcher should write the details of
project in given
format or self-designed format. It should cover
introduction, procedures used,
analysis or statistical techniques and final outcome of project in form of publications
or patent. Final
report should be corrected by supervisor or any expert from the
same field.
(ii) Listing the references: List all the references used for research
study directly or
indirectly. It should cover the references from books, journals, review articles or
conference proceedings. Follow the specific
style of reference writing such as
Harvard system or Vancouver system.
(iv) Preparation of final draft: Correct the
rough draft very carefully and design the
final draft for submission to the
specific agency. The final draft should be in concise
and simple form without any grammatical or spell mistakes. Diagrams,
and
figures, charts
examples must be added in final draft because these are most effective ways tor
communicating the research findings to readers. A research report should show
originality of work and maintain the interest of researcher. Research report is the
final document of researcher be an
attempt to solve some intellectual problem and
must contribute to the solution of a
problem.
12.4 STRUCTURE OF RESEARCH REPORT
A research report is one type that is often written in the sciences,
psychology about the research findings so that the readers can engineering d
easily know the results a
findings of specific research. A research report is typically made of
three main
) Preliminary pages, (i) Body of report and (ii) Supplementary pages. Structure anddiviSO
up
conntent
of research report is
given in Table 12.1.
12.4.1 Preliminary Pages
This section includes title page, table of
contents and abstract.
Title page: The title should be
concise, specific and reflect the content and empphasis
of the project described in the report. The researcher's name should follow tne title
on a separate line with
affiliation, name of funding agency or or submission autho
submission au
with address and date. All the contents of title cover

page should appear on a single

page (Fig. 12.1).
 Biostatistics and Research Methodoloqy 12.5
Report Writing and Data Presentation
Table 12.1: Structure and content of
Broad division research report
Section Contents
Preliminary pages Title page
Concise title of report,
name and
researcher
affiliation submission
agency, course and date
Table of contents
Sections of the report with
numbers.
page
Abstract/synopsis Summary of the whole report,
major
Body of report conclusions.
Introduction State origin of research, background.
purpose with relevant research in
same area.
Methodology Instruments used, experimental
details, data collection.
Results and discussion
Finding of the research with
tables
and figures, interpretation and
evaluation of results in
with other
comparison
research in same area.
Conclusions and
Summary of
findings suggest
recommendations suitable solutions or further
Supplementary studies.
References List all literature
pages cited in your report.
Outcome of project Include
publications patents
industry institute interaction

Appendix Additional information

e.g. Surveys, questionnaires etc.
Table of contents: This contains a list of all sections with
page numbers so that the
required information can be easily located in the
report by the interested readers.
Abstract or synopsis: Abstract is a very brief overview of the
n this report in a condensed form.
section, summarize the study, focusing on the results and conclusions
elevant quantitative data. It should be written last to reflect including
accurately the content of the
eport. A primary objective of an
synopsis is to communicate to the reader the essence of the
report.
Biostatistics and Research Methodology 12.6 Report Writing and Data Presentation

Final Reearch Report under the Scheme

Promating Jnuoluement of Reseanch Jnstitution/Colleges in
Cansumer Protection and Consumer Wetfare

By

Dr. XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX

Professor and Head (Sociology)

IName and Address of the Institute]

For Project Entitled

Socio-Economic Impact of Consumer Awareness and Protection: Past, Present

and Future (Special reference to Western Maharashtra
State)

Submitted To

Project Director,
Consumer Research Centre
Indian Institute of Public
Administration, New Delhi, 110002

Sponsored by
MINISTRY OF CONSUMER AFFAIRS
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA,
New Delhi.

May, 28th 2013

Fig. 12.1: Format of cover page for final report submission

 Biostatistics and Research Methodology 12.7
Report Writing and Data Presentation
12.4.2 Body of the Report
The body of the report or main text provides the complete outline of the research
nawith all details. The main body of research has four report
uction, methodology, results and discussion and conclusion andmajor sections such as
recommendations.
Introduction: The researcher must give a clear and definite statement of the
problem,
need of research, nature and background of the problem. A review of previous literature on
the Droject is also an essential component of the introduction. The scientists also
logically connect the previous study with the current work. need to

Methodology: This section

describes the methodology or procedure used in research
study. It includes instrumentation, procedures, techniques and computational details. In
theoretical reports, this section would include sufficient theoretical or mathematical
to enable derivations and numerical results to be checked. The main analysis
purpose of this section
is to document all of your procedures so that another scientist could
your work. However, procedures already
reproduce all or part of
published in some other journal should be
summarize with the citation given for the other publication.
Results and discussions: This section presents the data and the statistical
implications of the findings. Tabulation of data, charts and figures analysis
with
discussing the
can be used
effectively to present results clearly and concisely. It is appropriate to discuss both theoretical
implications and practical applications of the research findings. The researcher must
his/her own analysis, opinions, criticisms or advocacy supported by present
any precious studies.
Conclusions and recommendations: Research report should conclude
by writing a brief
summary of project with major findings. It should include the limitations of the
present
investigation and the proposals for future research in same area. New hypothesis may be
proposed on the basis of research study.
12.4.3 Supplementary Pages
At the end of the
project report, include the references and appendix.
References: It consists of a list of all documents including journal articles, books,
chapters, technical reports and unpublished works mentioned in the text. All references
Should be arranged in an alphabetical order by the last names of the first named authors or
USing standard established by an appropriate journal.
a

Appendix: It is useful in providing detailed information that seems inappropriate or too

Inen the main body of the research report. This is provision for any 'excess baggage.
ude ihe technical data such as questionnaires, mathematical derivations, long tables and
figures, CDs etc.
Outcome of the project: This section includes the outcome of research project in the
form publications in
inof national and international journals and conferences, patents, industry-

12 te interactio or upgradation of research infrastructure ofinstitute.

12.5
PRESENTATION OF DATA collected data into tables,
Presentation
chPresentation
Charts. It of data refers to the organization of
and statistical
graphs and
from the collected
meae is easy logical
eas to draw the conclusions
text from, tabular form visual presentation.
asurement Data may be presented in
Methenents. or
Methods Ofof presentation
anau pré must be determined according to tne
data
format, the method of
analysis,
afterand and
after carefully the information to be emphasized. A
method
o presentation must be chosen
of presentation. However, a
the importance of different methods
table is theuIlymost
able studying
when all information requires equal attention,
and it allows
appropriate
esearche
Search
O r readers to selectively look at
information of their
Own interest. Graphs allow
 Designing the Metmodoog9
c True value ot the (12-6)
parameter being evaluated
d Magnitude of a significant
e. The degree to which differenee
we want to
The statistical test used
avoid making I crror
f. a
type
s.Significantlevel
N 12.3.2 Ways to Increase
Power in a Study
The following attempts can be
made to boost the
a. Random error
study's power
Keduce random
measurements design.
error by not making it random or using a ted
repeau
b. Sample size: Increase the sample size.
C. Selection of test :Conduct a one tailed test.
d. Increase a : Set a at 0.05 for most scientific
studies.
12.4 Report Writing and Presentation of Data
A research report is considered a
major component of any research
study as the research
remains incomplete till the
report has been presented or written. Report
written presentation of evidence and the writing is a oral or
findings in such detailed form so as to be readily
understood and assessed to the readers.
Once the data collection and
analysis work is over, the researcher will start writing the
research report. Social and development research
reports need to :
o Have a
logical, clear structure
o Be to the
point
OUse simple language, and have a
pleasant layout
The research
report will have, broadly, three parts.
o
Part I: The preliminary pages
o
Part II: The body of
the report
Part III: The supplementary part
Fart: The
preliminary pages
preliminary pages of the research report should have the following main
constituents.
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS- an up-thrust for knowledge
Biostatistics and Research Methodology (12-6)
Designing the Methodo
o Title and cover page Methodoloy
o Foreword Letter
o Acknowledgements

o Table of contents

o List of tables
o List of figures

o List of appendices

o List of abbreviations

Title and cover page : The cover page should contain the title, the names of he
authors with theirdesignations, the institution that is publishing the report with
its
logo, the month and the year of publication.
ii. Foreword letter : Foreword letters may be from student declaration,
certificate af
guide and approval sheet.

iii. Acknowledgement: This page is focused on expressing gratitude to organizations

agencies or individuals who supported you technically or financially in the desig
and implementation of your study. It should be in
present tense.
iv. Table of contents: A table of contents is essential. It provides the reader a
quick
overview of the chapters with major sections and sub sections of
your report and
page references.
V. List of tables : If you have many tables
figures, it is essential to list these also in
or

atable of contents formatted with

page numbers. The initial letters of the key
words in the title are capitalized and no terminal
punctuation is used.
vi. List of figures The list of figures appears in the same format as the list of tables.
titled list of figures.

vii. List of appendices The appendices will contain any additional information that
the researcher have collected while carrying out the
study. The list of appendices
appears in the same format as the list of tables.

vii. List of abbreviations: If abbreviations or acronyms are used in the report, these
should be stated in full text the first time that they are mentioned. If there are mau
they should be listed in
alphabetical order as well.
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS- an
up-thrust for knowledge
 Methodolog (12-7) Designing the Methodology
a n dResearch

the report

The body of
includes the following chapters
Tthe a n
n
lexttext

Introduction

R e v i c w o fl i t e r a t u r e

Materials a n d m e t h o d s

Results a n d d i s c u s s i o n

Summary
and conclusion

: The first chapter of your thesis will be introduction. It should

Intraduction
certainly contain background data and information about the topic on
some relevant

also
which you are carrying out research. The general and specific objectives should
be included in this chapter.

of literature : Review of literature means identification, reading.

i. Review
of relevant literature for the study. A well-structured
comprehension and use

flow of ideas; current and relevant

literature review is characterized by a logical
of terminology:
consistent, appropriate referencing style; proper
use
references with
the topic.
and unbiased and comprehensive view of
the previous research on
an

methods and procedures

. Materials and methods : It gives a brief deseription of the
the
of research adopted for
Tollowed in the study. It deals with the methodology
research design, sampling
procedure, collection
present investigation which includes
tools.
01 data and use of different statistical
based on systematically
Result is a statement of facts
esults and discussion : by
discussed by objective
or
can now be
The findings
analyzed and tabulated data. conclusions and possible
lead to
themes, which should
U s t e r of related variables or from other related
also include findings
discussion may
o m m e n d a t i o n s . The
own.
Studies that support or contradict your which
report,
bridged
form of main
Summary is
a
conclusion: The conclusions and
n a r y and shortened
torm.
in a
findings. The
Cudes all aspects of study discussion of the
from the
logically of the
should follow catch the attention
Ommendations easily
bullets so that it can

Onclusions should be given in

reader.
n n un- thrust for knowledgo
Biostatistics and Research Methodology (12-8) Designing the Methodology

o Part Il: The supplementary part

The supplementary part includes annexure.

i. Annexure : Annexure is the supplementary part of thesis which includes all such
information which is not the part of main text but these are necessary.

12.5 Presentation of Data

Method by which the people organize, summarize and communicate information using a
variety of tools such as tables, graphs and diagrams.
Presentation of data

Tabular Visual
presentation presentation

Graphical Diagrammatical
presentation presentation

Fig. 12.5.1: Presentation of data

12.5.1 Principles of
Presentation
Data should be presented in
simple form
Should be concise but
without losing important details
Facilitate further statistical
analysis
Define problems with
their possible solutions
1. Tabulation presentation:

According to L R
Corner tabulation of
is the
numerical data in a form orderly and systematic Ppresentation
designed elucidate the
to
Basic principle of tabulation: problem under considera
Table should be clear,
concise and
Every table should be adequately titled.
distinctly numbered for
Column and row hcading of easy reference.
table should be placed at
eoes of information of data should be appropriate place.
clearly indicated.
TECHNICAL
PUBLICATIONS an
up-thrust for
knowledge
iostalstics
a n dR e s arch Methodology (12-9) Designing the Methodology

Visual presentation;
ion:

presentation may be in graph and or diagram.

in
Visual

A d v a n t a g e s :

They are attractive

understand
They can be eas1ly
The impressions created'by
them are long lasting

characteristics
.They facilitate comparison of various

12.5.2 Basic Rules in the Construction of Diagrams and Graphs

in title and should be simple
Every diagram must be given
also called ordinate.
The vertical axis is always labeled as the y axis. It is
axis. It is also called abscissa.
The horizontal axis is always labeled as x
The x axis and y axis meet at right angle at a point called origin.

The values of variables are presented on the x axis and frequency on y axis.
axis and y axis should be mentioned at the right hand
The scale of presentation for the x

corner of the graph.

Visual presentation

Graphs Diagrams
Bar diagram
Histogram
Simple bar diagram
Frequency curve Multiple bar diagram
Frequency Component bar diagram
Polygon
Percentage bar diagram
Ogives Deviation bar diagram
Line graph
Pie diagram

Protocol
I t is defined as the standard step to be followed for doing any research. It includes

followingsteps
o ldentifying the problem
o Exhaustive literature review

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS an up-thrust for knowledge

 Research Methodo
statistics a n d R e

Biostatistics and Research Methodology (12-10)

Designing the Methrolog
o Preparation of hypothesis
o Methodology adopted

o
Recording of obscrvation
o Presentation of data
o Conclusion and compilation of data
126 Cabas
12.5 PRESENTATION OF DATA
Presentation of data collected data into tables, araphs and
refers to the organization of
charts. and statistical conclusions from the collected
easy to draw the logical in text from, tabular torm or visual presentation.
dts. It is easy
measurements.
rements. Data may be presented
according to the data format, the method of
nods of presentation must be determined A method of presentation must be chosen
analy and the information to be
sySis, emphasized..
after the importance of difterent methods of presentation. However, a
taharefully studying intormation requires equal attention, and it allows
table IS the most appropriate when all
Tesearcher
rcher or or readers to selectively look at information of their own interest. Graphs allow
 Biostatistics and Research Methodology 12.8 Report Writing and Data Presentation
readers to understand the overall trend in data and understand the comparison reud
between two groups. Simplicity of presentation is most important in
analysis and
interpretation of data.
12.5.1 Text Presentation
Text is the method of conveying information as it is used to explain results and
and provide contextual information. Data trende
fundamentally presented in paragraphs
are
sentences. Text can be used to provide
interpretation or emphasize certain data. It is more
appropriate to use written language than tables or graphs if quantitative information to be
conveyed consists of one to three numbers. If more data are to be
presented or other
information such as that regarding data trends are to be
be more appropriate. Text includes a
conveyed, a table or a
graph would
long list of information; researcher may have
in understanding the information. difficulties
12.5.2 Tables
A table is
systematic method of presenting statistical data in vertical columns and
a
horizontal rows, according to some classification of subject. The aim of the tables is to
present the data clearly without cluttering the information. The instructions to authors in a
given journal provide information for authors about the number of allowed
tables and
figures. If not, carefully study the recent papers of a particular
tables can be avoided at the time of revision. Tables journal that deletion of
so
should not be used for numerical data if
the data that can be summarized
easily the text or their relationship which can be
in
illustrated clearly in a graph. Tables are
very important in writing research papers for
presenting the observations in a numerical format because:
These observations cannot be summarised in
the text with a few sentences.
Relations of numerical data to each other cannot be
made more clearly in a or graph
illustrations.
Numerical data contain a number
of variables of a given experimental designor
require the presentation of the exact values that is required to make the
Descriptive information or point.
the text.
data
can be more
efficiently presented in a table than in
All parts of a table should be typed
footnotes (Fig. 12.2). double-spaced, including column headings and

Table 4 Table number

Effects of protease gel on wound contraction by excision
wound model Table title

Wound Contraction' (%)

Column titles
Groups
Days
3 Days
15.623.51 16.24+ 2.11 16.40 t 2.34 Table body
6 Days 37.05 + 2.67 26.49 7.23
38.67 7.86 41.71 t 3.90 (Data)
9 Days 45.51 4.75 58.88 2.76
49.97 5.66 63.31 4.09
12Days 54.26 5.685841:5.14 87.405.34
74.74
a t6.50 95.923.12
It was calculated With respect to wound area on day 1 with alues
are mean SEM. n 6. "p < 0.001 versus
= respect to each animal. a
group I (Control).
Fig. 12.2: Different parts of table Footnotes

including column heading and footnotes

 statistics and Research Methodology 12.9
Report Writing and Data Presentation
Good tables are relatively simple, concentratina on a limited number of
fectiveness in conveying ideas and self-explanatony. Start each table on a separate ideas,
table cannot be completed on a single sheet, it can be continued upto a page. i
aiving details
giving second
details of the column headings in the next page. The detailed guidelinessnee for
oreparation of table are as follows:
Tables should be numbered, referred to by
the number in the text, and appearn
consecutive numerical order within the text. The table number and a concise tiue
should be placed above the body of the table.
Any descriptive footnotes should be placed at the bottom of the table. Footnotes
used should explain abbreviations, the study conditions, statistical assessments,
acknowledge the source of the table and other details to make the table
understandable by itself. Use the symbols to indicate footnotes as asterisk ()
dagger (t), double dagger (t), section mark (5), parallel mark (0), pound or number
letters n
sign (#) at the rate (@) double asterisk (*), etc. or superscript lowercase
alphabetical sequence like a, b, , and so on. understand the
The title of table should be specific enough to enable the reader to
abbreviate them and
table. If the title of a column or row headings are long then
explain the same in footnotes. for the
data should include the unit of measure
Each column heading for numerical
data in that column.
data. That unit should apply to all in the text anywhere
Make sure in a table match with the data presented
that all data
else in the paper.
separately in (Table 1, Table 2, etc.).
Arabic numerals
Tables should be numbered table'.
data shown in 'the table above' or 'the following
Never write as
labelled, describing the nature and
or box heads should be clearly
Column heading are presented, the percentage
the data listed. If percentages
units of m e a s u r e of the number in the table.
at top of the column, not with
be placed there is no data, the absence
symbol (9%) should not be left blank. If
should
The cells of columns
or rows
explained in a footnote, such as NDb
abbreviated notation
should be indicated by
an

available or not
applicable).
NA (not 48.38434. Using law of whole
(not done) or
after decimal point e.g.
Do not give more figures 48.39.
48.38 or
the values e.g. it is is denoted by t after mean
number round Error Mean (SEM)
(SD) or Standard
Standard deviation
can cover in one
event you
value in the table. describe any
experimental

use a
table to
.
Don't try to
of the text.
sentence
for summarizing,
are useful
images and
12.5.3 Figures information by
using
are effective
for presenting large
complex While graphs data. A graph
Figures simplify quantitative
data. small sets of
tables to present
in place of
exploring researcher
explaining, or used be chosen so that
be must
is given
they can information
amounts of data, best presents and diagramsgraph
(Refer chapter
11) that The
diference
between

ormat u n d e r s t a n d the
information.

dn easily
in Table 12.2.
Biostatistics and Research Methodology 12.10 Report Writing and Data Presentation
Table 12.2: Difference between graphs and diagrams
Graphs Diagrams
|1. Graph paper is used for preparation of | 1. Plain paper is used for drawing or
or
graphs. construction of diagrams.
2. It represents mathematical relationship 2. It not shows any relationship in variables.
between two variables.
3. Graphs are commonly used to represents 3. Diagraphs are not used for frequency
frequency distributions. distributions.
4. used
Graphs are commonly by researcher4. Diagrams are not useful for analysis of
for analysis of data. data.
5. For example: Line graph, frequency 5. For example: Pie
diagram, bar diagram.
Curves.