THE EFFECTIVENESS OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION ON PROJECTS

PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION,

The issue of community participation has gain a considerably attention in recent times.
This has come about as a result of less involvement of communities in projects planning
and implementation by governments and development partners at the local level. This has
thrown a lot of doubts as to whether the District Assembly and development partners
have effectively involved the sub-district structures and the local communities in their
projects planning and implementation and also the constraints that hinder effective
community participation at the local levels. The study thus, assesses the effectiveness of
community participation on project planning and implementation at the Asutifi District.

A case study method was adopted to examine the facts of the situation and causes of less
community involvement on projects planning and implementation in the Asutifi District.
Questionnaire and Interviews were employed to gather data on community participation
in the decision making processes, project planning and implementation by the District
Assembly and Development Partners.

The study found out that the sub-district structures are not well resourced in terms of
logistics, human and financial resources to carry their mandated functions. This was
further buttressed by projects beneficiaries having poor perceptions on the performance
of these sub-district structures. The study also enumerated a number of constraints
hindering community participation. These included rivalry between chiefs, assembly
members and unit committees, poor resourcefulness of the sub-district structures, and
apathy and absenteeism of key opinion and community leader, tribal segregation among
others.

The study thus recommends workshops on peaceful co-existence between chiefs,

assembly members and unit committee members, training and provision of resources to
strengthen the sub-district structures, and education of communities on the need to take
up self-help development initiative and not relying on government and development
partners alone.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank the almighty God for giving me the privilege and knowledge to pursue my studies
at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi.

I would like to express the deepest appreciation to my supervisor, Mr. Clifford Amoako
who has the attitude and the substance of a genius: he continually and convincingly
conveyed a spirit of adventure in regard to my research. Without his guidance and
persistent help this dissertation would not have been possible.

I would also like to express my heartfelt appreciation to Mr. Ali Awinbila Ahmed for his
moral, inspirational, and financial support throughout my undergraduate studies. My
sincere thanks also go to my parents for their love and support, not forgetting of Mr.
Simon Issaka, a brother and a friend for his financial assistance.

In addition, a thank you also goes to Tropenbos International Ghana for their financial
support in coming out with this document. Finally, I thank all the friends I have met over
the four years for their support in diverse ways especially Mr. Abugre Ayinsakeya
Barnabas who was a course, study and room mate at the University for his Financial
support and invaluable experiences, shared with me.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENT

ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.....................................................................................iii
TABLE OF CONTENT...........................................................................................iv
LIST OF TABLES...................................................................................................vii
LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................viii
LIST OF PLATES....................................................................................................ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATION.....................................................................................x

CHAPTER ONE................................................................................................................1

ENSURING COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN DEVELOPMENT,

PROBLEMS AND KEY ISSUES.................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................1
1.2 The Problem Statement.......................................................................................2
1.3 Research Questions..............................................................................................3
1.4 Objectives of the Study........................................................................................4
1.5 Scope of the Study................................................................................................4
1.6 Research Methodology........................................................................................5
1.6.1 Research Approach.........................................................................................5
1.6.2 Data Sources...................................................................................................5
1.6.3 Sample Size Selection.....................................................................................5
1.6.4 Data Analysis..................................................................................................8
1.7 Justification of the Study.....................................................................................8
1.8 Organisation of the Study...................................................................................9

CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................10

CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION...........10

2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................10
2.2 Community Participation Defined...................................................................10
2.3 Criteria for Assessing Community Participation...........................................11
2.4 Objectives of Community Participation..........................................................12

iii
 2.5 Characteristics of Community Participation..................................................13
2.6 Approaches and Methods for Participation....................................................15
2.6.1 Field Workers of the Project Agency...........................................................15
2.6.2 Community Workers/Committees/Local Representatives...........................15
2.6.3 Community Financing and Cost Sharing......................................................16
2.6.4 Labour Sharing and Community Maintenance.............................................16
2.6.5 User Groups..................................................................................................16
2.7 The Conceptual Processes of Eliciting Community Participation................17
2.8 Legal and Administrative Framework for Community Participation in
Ghana........................................................................................................................19
2.9 Stakeholders of Community Participation and Roles....................................22
2.9.1 The Roles Community Organizations..........................................................22
2.9.2 The Roles of the State...................................................................................22
2.9.3 The Roles of Non-governmental Organizations...........................................23
2.10 Case Studies of Community Participation in Selected African Countries. 24
2.10.1 Participation in Planning and Decision Making in Tanzania.....................24
2.10.2 Participation in Planning and Decision Making in Uganda........................25
2.10.3 Lessons Learnt............................................................................................26

CHAPTER THREE.........................................................................................................27

PROFILE OF THE ASUTIFI DISTRICT................................................................27

3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................27
3.2. Location and Size..............................................................................................27
3.3. Demographic Characteristics..........................................................................30
3.4. Social Characteristics.......................................................................................30

CHAPTER FOUR...........................................................................................................32

COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN PROJECTS IN ASUTIFI DISTRICT.......32

4.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................32
4.2 Characteristics of Respondents........................................................................32
4.2.1. Gender of the Respondents..........................................................................32
4.2.2. Educational Levels of Respondents.............................................................33

iv
 4.2.3. Positions/Roles of Respondents...................................................................34
4.3. Characteristics and Locations of Projects Studied........................................34
4.4. Dissemination of Local Development Information........................................35
4.5. Levels of Community Participation in Projects.............................................36
4.5.1. Participation in Project Needs Assessment..................................................36
4.5.2. Participation in Project Planning and Implementation................................38
4.5.3. Capacity to Initiate Community Self-help Projects.....................................39
4.6. Involvement of the Sub-district Structures....................................................40
4.7. Projects Management, Maintenance and Sustainability...............................41
4.7.1. Benefits of Community Participation..........................................................41
4.7.2. Sustainability of Projects.............................................................................43
4.8. District Assembly and Community Participation..........................................43
4.8.1. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Sub-district Structures............................44
4.8.2. Constraints of Ensuring Community Participation at sub-district levels.....46
4.8.3. Suggestions to Improve Community Participation......................................46

CHAPTER FIVE.............................................................................................................49

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSSION. .49

5.1 Introduction........................................................................................................49
5.2 Summary of Findings........................................................................................49
5.2.1 The District Assembly and the Sub-district structure in Community
Participation...........................................................................................................49
5.2.2. Perceptions of the Performance of the Sub-district Structures in
Participation...........................................................................................................50
5.2.3. Projects Maintenance and Sustainability.....................................................51
5.2.4. Constraints of Ensuring Community Participation......................................51
5.3. Recommendations to improve Community Participation............................53
5.4. Conclusion.........................................................................................................54
REFERENCE...........................................................................................................56
APPENDICES...................................................Error: Reference source not found

v
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Summary of Research Methodology...................................................................7

Table 4.1 Projects and Locations.......................................................................................34
Table 4.2 Participation in Project Needs Assessment.......................................................37
Table 4.3 Participation in Project Planning and Implementation......................................38
Table 4.4 Perceptions on the Performances of the Sub-district Structures........................40
Table 4.5 Social Impact of the Projects.............................................................................42
Table 4.6 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Sub-district Structures..................................44
Table 4.7 Suggestions to Improve Community Participation............................................47

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Conceptual Processes of Eliciting Community Participation..........................19

Figure 2.2 Administrative Framework for Community Participation...............................21
Figure 3.1 Asutifi District in the Natinai Context.............................................................33
Figure 3.1 Asutifi District Map.........................................................................................33
Figure 4.1 A Bar Graph Showing the Gender of the respondents.....................................33
Figure 4.2 A Pie Chart Showing the Educational Levels of Respondents in the
Communities......................................................................................................................33
Figure 4.2 A Pie Chart Showing Means of Communication to the DA............................33

vii
 LIST OF PLATES

Plate 4.1 A 4 Unit Rural Clinic (CHPS Compound Programme) – Nkaseim……………35

Plate 4.2 Installation of MTN at Nkaseim.………………………………………………35

viii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATION

ADA - Asutifi District Assembly

CBOs - Community Based Organisations
CBP - Community Based Planning
CBRDP - Community Based Rural Development Project
CHPS - Community-based Health Planning and Services
CRC - Christ Redeemer Church
DA - District Assembly
DMTDP - District Medium Term Development Plan
GoG - Government of Ghana
HIPC - Highly Indebted Poor Countries
HIV - Humane Immunodeficiency Virus
HPPG - Harmonised Participatory Planning Guidelines
KVIP - Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit
LGDP - Local Government Development Programme
LPG - Liquefied Petroleum Gas
MTN - Mobile Telecommunication Network
NDPC - National Development Planning Commission
NGO - Non Governmental Organisation
NGOs - Non Governmental Organisations
NSSD - National Strategies for Sustainable Development
ODI - Overseas Development Institute
PNDC - Provisional National Defence Council
PNDCL - Provisional National Defence Council Law
PRA - Participatory Rural Appraisal
RCCs - Regional Coordinating Councils
UPDNet - Uganda Participatory Development Network
WDC - Ward Development Committee

ix
 CHAPTER ONE
ENSURING COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS
AND KEY ISSUES

1.1 Introduction

Community participation, that is, the direct involvement/engagement of ordinary people

in the affairs of planning, governance and overall development programmes at local or
grassroots level, has become an integral part of democratic practice in recent years (Jayal,
2001).

The call for community participation is traced to the concept of decentralisation.

Decentralisation has become an increasingly widespread and taken significant dimension
of political and administrative reform in many developing countries since the late 1980s
(Crawford, 2004). This concept has been supported by a variety of actors ranging from
international development agencies to national governments to non-governmental and
grassroots organisations, though doubtless for different purposes.

Since the 1980s, considerable changes have taken place in thinking about development
interventions. Many donors, host governments and development organisations embraced
the concepts and the related methods of participatory approaches. In an attempt to move
away from an era of more directive and top-down interventions, the project proposals in
the 1990s were dominated by concepts such as participation, decentralisation,
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), empowerment, community-based development
(Pijnenburg, 2004). Also “bottom-up” planning, and “grassroots involvements have
evolved.

In Ghana, the government has created a favourable condition for community participation
in their own and national development by decentralizing political and technical decision
making to the local and district levels. This is to enable the local communities to organise
themselves, discuss and decide, plan, implement and manage developmental issues that
affect their welfare (Tamene, 1995). However, most of the communities are not

1
 2

participating in projects planning process. The local organisations which should have
played such mobilisation role are not well organised. There is a lack of political will to
implement participation. Popular initiatives towards participation are often co-opted by,
and in the end serve the interests of the high-income groups, rather than those of the poor
(Tamene, 1995).

In contrast, there are some communities which have organised and made use of their
local resources to address some of their developmental problems. The special study
therefore explores the conditions contributing to such situation using Asutifi District as a
case study. It assesses the participatory processes and constraints at the local levels.

1.2 The Problem Statement

The Local Government Act, 1993 (Act 462) established the current local government
system, while the National Development Planning (System) Act, 1994 (Act 480) provides
for a decentralised planning system in Ghana. These legal instruments offer great
opportunities to local level operators of the political system to take control of their own
affairs. Indeed “popular local participation in local decision-making” is explicitly stated
in the Constitution as an objective of decentralisation in Ghana [Article 240(2)].

The creation of the sub-district structures by the Local Government Instrument, 1994
(L.I. 1589) was in furtherance of empowering the local communities in this direction as a
lower step than the district assembly. Supposedly these sub-district structures were to be
integrated into the entire administrative system at the district level. Structures like the
Town and Area Councils, which provide the link between the communities and District
Assembly (DA), are functioning poorly or do not exist. In practice, participatory planning
has usually been less or not applied in sub-district planning, except in planning for
specific projects.

Communities which are the ultimate beneficiaries of development projects are supposed
to participate effectively. This is particularly at project identification, planning,
 3

implementation, operation and maintenance. The principal roles of participation are to

ensure the efficient implementation of projects and the empowerment of communities to
sustain projects as well as to be able to design other projects to improve the quality of life
(Krefetz and Goodman, 1973).

On the other hand, the elitists believe that participation is not desirable because it makes
programme formulation and implementation less efficient (Lowenstein, 1971).
Participation increases the number of people involved giving rise to the possibility of
disagreement, which delays decision-making (Banfield, 1970). It increases the total cost
of the project because animation is quite expensive and requires expertise, which may not
be easily available.

There are no legal or political barriers to community participation in democratic local

governance in Ghana. However, there are economic, social and cultural barriers. There is
informal exclusion through poverty, illiteracy and rural isolation. Culturally, the
persistence of gender stereotypes and of male power impedes the participation of women.

Also the desired integration of the Sub-district structures is however lacking in most
districts. The consolidation of the town and area councils has been given less attention to
ensure effective participation even where efforts have been made in manifesting their
existence.

As a result, development projects planned without effective community participation are

likely to perform poorly. This is because the community would not see the project as
theirs and hence would show apathy towards its maintenance and sustainability.

1.3 Research Questions

This study examined the level of integration and participation of communities in decision
making on issues affecting their welfare as is presumed in the decentralization system.
 4

Four leading communities in the Nkaseim Area Council in the Asutifi District of the
Brong Ahafo Region were used for the purpose of this study.

The research therefore sought answer to the following questions among others:
1. How has the District Assembly effectively involved the sub-district structures and
local communities in its projects planning process over the past ten years?
2. What perceptions are held by people on the performances of the sub-district structures
in ensuring participation?
3. How are development projects maintained in the communities?
4. What are the constraints to community participation?

1.4 Objectives of the Study

In carrying out the above task, the study had the objectives to:
I. To examine how the District Assembly effectively involved the sub-district structures
and local communities in its projects planning process over the past ten years,
II. To assess perceptions held by people on the performances of the sub-district
structures in participation,
III. To explore how development projects are taken care of in the communities,
IV. To investigate the constraints of community participation.

1.5 Scope of the Study

The study area covered the Nkaseim Area Council of the Asutifi District in the Brong
Ahafo Region. The focus was particularly on four communities in the Nkaseim Area
Council namely: Nkaseim, Wuramumoso, Nkrankrom and Ohiatua which were visited.
Individuals, Community Opinion Leaders, the Area Council Authorities and the District
Assembly Projects implementation officials served as the units of observation.
 5

1.6 Research Methodology

1.6.1 Research Approach

The case study approach was employed. It is a systematic method of investigation, which
aims at studying the facts of a particular case from all angles. The Asutifi District was
purposefully selected as the research site because of its rural nature and also it was quite
easy obtaining the necessary data to accomplish the objectives of the study. The summary
of the research methodology is illustrated on table 1.1.

1.6.2 Data Sources

The data for study was collected from both primary and secondary data sources. The
secondary data was gathered through literature review on the topic. This was done from
textbooks, journals, articles, newspapers, internet and other relevant sources. The primary
data was collected through informal and formal discussion, questionnaire administration
along side with key informants in the study area. Sample questionnaires are shown on
appendix 2, 3 and 4.

1.6.3 Sample Size Selection

The sampling units selected for the survey included: Chiefs, Assembly Members, Area
Council Staff, Unit Committee Members and Households Heads in each of the four
communities (Nkaseim, Nkrankrom, Ohiatua and Wuramumuso). Also the District
Assembly projects implementation officials; (District Planning Officer, District
Environment Health Officer and District Education Officer) and NGOs were interviewed
as well. The sampling units were put into three different categories of respondents. These
three categories included the following:
i) Eleven (11) Stakeholders in the communities and sub-district structures were
contacted. These include Chiefs, Area Council Staff, NGOs, Assembly and Unit
Committee Members who work to enhance community development and assist
communities to undertake development activities.
 6

ii) Three (3) District Assembly Projects Implementation Officials who initiate and over
see all development activities in the District.
iii) Projects beneficiaries of which, a total of 94 respondents were selected from the four
communities namely Nkaseim, Nkrankrom, Wuramumuso and Ohiatua.

In all a total of 108 respondents were contacted through questionnaire survey for the
purpose of providing qualitative and quantitative data in the research. The sample size
selection of the project beneficiaries or household heads is shown in the Appedix 1.
 7

Table 1.1 Summary of Research Methodology

Research Questions Research Objectives Type Data Required Sources Mode of
Collection
1. How has the District Assembly effectively A. To examine how the District Community DA, Chiefs, Questionnaire
involved the sub-district structures and Assembly effectively involved the sub- Participation in Area Administration
local communities in projects planning district structures and local communities assembly’s decision Councils,
process over the past ten years? in its projects planning process over the making Assembly
past ten years, members
2. What perceptions are held by people on B. To assess perceptions held by people Performance of the Heads of Questionnaire
the performances of the sub-district on the performances of the sub-district sub-district structures Households, Administration
structures in participation? structures in participation, DA

3. How are development projects maintained C. To explore how development Roles of communities Heads of Questionnaire
in the communities? projects are taken care of in the in managing Households, Administration
communities, development projects

4. What are the constraints to community D. To investigate the constraints of Hindrances of DA, Chiefs, Questionnaire
participation? community participation. community Area Administration
participation Councils,
Source: Author’s Construct January, 2009
 8

1.6.4 Data Analysis

The data assembled was qualitatively and quantitatively analysed with Microsoft Office
Excel. The qualitative analysis involved the use of statements, explanation and
descriptions while the qualitative analysis was based on diagrams, charts, percentages
and so on. Conclusions drawn were taken to comprehensively represent individuals and
communities in the district.

1.7 Justification of the Study

The new development planning system in Ghana recognizes community participation as

an essential and integral part of effective development planning.

The study therefore brought to light the realities in practice as far as community
participation is concerned. This would enable the nation, district assemblies as well as
development partners to package their projects taken into consideration community
participation for a successful implementation, management and its sustainability. It would
also inform policy formulation on community participation on projects planning and
implementation.

It would also create awareness in the communities on why they should play active role in
the decision making and implementation of development projects intended for their
benefit. To this end the communities would be in better position to participate and
support government as well as development partners for successful implementation of
development projects.

Besides, the study would contribute to a pool of knowledge on the subject matter which
would serve as a reference material for the academia and researchers.
 9

1.8 Organisation of the Study

The study is explained in five chapters. Chapter one presents the general backgrounds of
ensuring community involvement in development – problems and key issues. It explains
specifically the problem statement, research questions, objectives of the study, scope of
the study, research methodology, and the justification of the study as well as the
organisation of the report.

Chapter two explains the concepts and principles of community participation. It discusses
the approaches and methods of participation, legal and administrative framework for
community participation, stakeholders of community participation and concludes with
case studies of community participation in selected African countries. The chapter three
gives a brief profile of the Asutifi District.

Chapter four presents community involvement in projects in Asutifi District. The chapter
starts with the characteristics of the respondents, characteristics and locations of projects
studied, dissemination of development information, Levels of community participation in
projects. It further discusses the involvement of the Sub-district structures, project
management, maintenance and sustainability as well as the District assembly and
Community Participation. Finally, Chapter five presents the summary of findings,
recommendations and conclusion.
 CHAPTER TWO
CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION

2.1 Introduction

This chapter examines the theoretical and conceptual point of view of community
participation with particular reference to definitions of terms and examination of
collections of literature and researches.

It highlights criteria for assessing community participation, discusses the objectives,

characteristics and case studies of community participation in selected African countries.
It also explores the devices or methods and roles of stakeholders of community
participation as well as the legal and administrative framework of community
participation in Ghana.

2.2 Community Participation Defined

Participation is a term that has become very widespread within the research and
development world in recent years. Its use is so common now that some feel that there is
a danger that the term will become devalued (Farrington, 1998). Others feel that the use
of the term has become so central to development that there is talk of a paradigm shift in
thinking (Chambers, 1995). The increased use of the term reflects, in part, an almost
statutory requirement by most funding agencies involved in development-related
activities, to refer to it. This creates problems in separating the rhetoric of participation
from the reality (Okali et. al, 1994).

Paul in Penderis (1996) views participation as a voluntary contribution in planning

projects, including participation in decision making, in implementation of projects, in
monitoring and evaluation of development programs and in sharing of benefits. The
importance of beneficiary participation in the planning, decision-making, implementation
and evaluation of projects is crucial. Projects most likely to succeed are those where

10
 11

objectives correspond to the priorities of the poor, and where the intended beneficiaries
are regularly consulted and involved in decision making at all stages of the process.

Community is a group of people living in a geographical area with a unit of identity,

common symbol systems, shared values and norms, mutual influence, common interests
and commitment to meeting shared needs Williams (2005).

Community Participation is about enabling people to become active partners in the

regeneration of communities by contributing and sharing in the decisions that affect their
lives. Participation should enable people to have a degree of power and control in the
processes with which they are involved.’ (Standing Council for Community
Development, 2001)

2.3 Criteria for Assessing Community Participation

In assessing the quality of participatory processes in projects Adrian identifies six critical
features as follows:
1. Transparency: Whether all stages of project activities are publicly visible including
decision-making processes
2. Access to information: Whether there is adequate and timely access to project
information for all?
3. Accountability: Whether the agencies involved in project management and
implementation are procedurally and periodically answerable to the people in the impact
areas, as well as the citizens of the country in general?
4. Meaningful choice: Whether, people can participate in a voluntary manner without
being compelled, constrained or otherwise left with no other choice?
5. Comprehensiveness: Whether people have been consulted from the very outset in
defining the nature of the problem prior to any project being decided upon, as contrasted
to consultation during subsequent stages of the project cycle?
 12

6. Non-Alienation: Whether people have participated in a way that they do not feel
distanced and. alienated from the project management, the implementation process and
the eventual outcomes (Adrian et al. 1992)

2.4 Objectives of Community Participation

In the context of development, community participation may be viewed as a process that

serves one or more of the following objectives (Paul, 1987):
 In the broadest sense, community participation may be thought of as an instrument of
empowerment. Accordingly, any project or development activity is then a means of
empowering people so that they are able to initiate actions on their own and thus
influence the process and outcomes of development
 Community participation may serve a more limited objective of building beneficiary
capacity in relation to a project. Thus, beneficiaries may share the management tasks
of the project by taking on operational responsibility for a segment of it themselves.
 Community participation contributes to increased project effectiveness when the
involvement of beneficiaries contributes to better project design and implementation
and leads to a better match of project services with beneficiary needs and constraints.
 Another objective of community participation is the desire to share the costs of the
project with the people it serves. Thus, beneficiaries may sometimes be expected to
contribute labour, money or undertake to maintain the project.
 Community participation may improve project efficiency. Project planning and
implementation could become more efficient because of timely beneficiary inputs.
Community participation could be used to promote agreement, co-operation and
interaction among beneficiaries, and between them and the implementing agency of
the project so that delays are reduced, a smoother flow of project services is achieved,
and overall costs, are minimized.

These objectives may overlap in a real life project situation, whereby a project may
simultaneously pursue several objectives.
 13

While community participation can be used in any or all of these objectives, it may vary
in the intensity with which it is sought in a particular project or at a particular stage of a
project.

2.5 Characteristics of Community Participation

The levels at which communities can participate are divided into three stages: planning,
implementation and follow up. There may be little scope for the active participation of
beneficiaries in design (for example, where complex technologies and their adaptation
dominate the design of the facility or project). However, at the planning stage, four levels
of intensity in community participation may be distinguished:
1. Information sharing where project designers and managers may share information
with beneficiaries in order to facilitate collective or individual action. Though it
reflects a low level of intensity, it can have a positive impact on project outcomes to
the extent that it equips beneficiaries to understand and perform their tasks better.
2. Consultation which occurs when beneficiaries are not only informed, but also
consulted on key issues at some or all stages in a project cycle. There is an
opportunity here for beneficiaries to interact and provide feedback to the project
agency, which the latter could take into account in the design and implementation
stages. If, for instance, farmers are consulted on extension practices and
arrangements, project outcomes are likely to be better than if they were merely
informed.
3. Decision making that occurs when beneficiaries have a decision-making role in
matters of project design and implementation. Decisions may be made exclusively by
beneficiaries or jointly with others on specific issues or aspects relating to a project.
Farmers may, for instance, decide by themselves on a programme for the distribution
of water for irrigation. Decision making implies a much greater degree of control or
influence on projects by beneficiaries than under consultation or information sharing.
4. Initiating action, which occurs when beneficiaries are able to take the initiative in
terms of actions or decisions pertaining to a project? Initiative implies a proactive
capacity and the confidence to get going on one’s own. When beneficiary groups
 14

engaged in facility development identify a new way of running the facility and
respond to it on their own, they are taking the initiative for their development. The
intensity of community participation in this case may be said to have reached its peak
because this move is qualitatively different from their capacity to act or decide on
issues or tasks proposed or assigned to them.

Community participation at the implementation stage can be divided into sharing of costs
and furnishing of labour. In most cases, cost sharing is achieved according to one of two
alternative principles. One is to make those members of the community who will benefit
from the facility bear the cost. The other is to let members of the community freely make
donations according to their perceived interests. Projects aimed at improving essential
community services, such as water works and sewer systems, are usually financed by
means of compulsory cost sharing. The free donation method is adopted for construction
of essential community facilities, such as children’s play grounds.

Sharing of labour is also achieved in two different ways. One is direct contribution of
labour; the other involves initially contributing the monetary equivalent of one’s share of
labour, then getting the money back in the form of wages by personally participating in
the work. For small-scale cooperative projects, members of the community will usually
carry out the project by directly contributing their labour. If a project is larger, and is
implemented through government agencies contracting the work out to some construction
firm, the latter method of labour sharing is often adopted.

As a project nears completion, community participation varies greatly depending upon

the project and locality. In a successful community-based Project or facility, the bulk of
the work starts at this stage as the community will carry out the day-to-day management
duties and all the necessary maintenance requirements (Ngowi et al. 1998).
 15

2.6 Approaches and Methods for Participation

There is often confusion between the terms approaches or methodologies and methods of
participation. As Chambers (1998), defines: "...methodology (and approach) as a system
of principles and methods. Within this document approaches and methods are used to
refer to an institutional devices used by a project implementers to organize and sustain
community participation. These devices vary in their complexity in terms of design and
management, and their relevance to different types of projects. These devices according
to Paul, 1987 are grouped as follows.

2.6.1 Field Workers of the Project Agency.

A project may use its field staff to mobilize and interact with beneficiary groups. They
operate at the grassroots level and yet are part of the project agency. Field workers'
orientation and commitment to community participation are key determinants of their
effectiveness as instruments of community participation. Training can be used to
influence their community mobilization skills and attitudes. If they see themselves
primarily as agents of the government or donor, their ability to promote and sustain
community participation is likely to suffer. If this perception is also shared by
beneficiaries, the chances are that field workers will not be able to facilitate community
participation except at a relatively low level of intensity.

2.6.2 Community Workers/Committees/Local Representatives.

A project agency may draw upon workers or volunteers from among beneficiaries to act
as community mobilizers. Such persons may or may not be paid by the agency. However,
in all cases, the community may have had a say in their selection and the roles they play.
If they are selected through a community consensus or a consultative process, they are
likely to identify better with the community's problems and feelings and facilitate
community participation more effectively. Instead of community workers, committees
which represent beneficiaries may be organized as an instrument of community
participation. Where large numbers of people are involved, committees are a useful
 16

device for beneficiaries to reach higher levels of community participation intensity

provided they truly represent the community's interests. Committees have acted as a
community participation instrument in several primary health care projects.

2.6.3 Community Financing and Cost Sharing.

Another approach to ensuring effective community participation is community financing.

In most cases, cost sharing is achieved according to one of two alternative principles. One
is to make those members of the community who will benefit from the facility bear the
cost. The other is to let members of the community freely make donations according to
their perceived interests. Projects aimed at improving essential community services, such
as water works and sewer systems, are usually financed by means of compulsory cost
sharing. The free donation method is adopted for construction of essential community
facilities, such as children’s play grounds.

2.6.4 Labour Sharing and Community Maintenance.

Sharing of labour is also achieved in two different ways. One is direct contribution of
labour; the other involves initially contributing the monetary equivalent of one’s share of
labour, then getting the money back in the form of wages by personally participating in
the work. For small-scale cooperative projects, members of the community will usually
carry out the project by directly contributing their labour. If a project is larger, and is
implemented through government agencies contracting the work out to some construction
firm, the latter method of labour sharing is often adopted. Community maintenance is
leaving the entire maintenance of the project in the hands of the community.

2.6.5 User Groups.

Where the number of beneficiaries is manageable either because of the local nature of a
project or the specialized nature of the group (farmers, mothers with small children, etc.),
it is possible to organize viable groups of users as an instrument of community
participation. This instrument has the potential to reach the highest level of community
 17

participation though its creation and sustenance is the most complex. User groups may
operate at any level of intensity, and over time may rise from one level to another. Of all
the instruments, user groups are likely to involve the maximum number of relevant
beneficiaries in a given project context (Paul, 1987).

The use of one instrument, however, does not preclude the use of others. User groups
may coexist with community volunteers or committees. Unlike field workers, who by
definition can be organized only through external intervention (e.g. by the project
agency), it is conceivable that user groups could be created through the medium of
internal leadership or external intervention. Where user groups are energized by local
leadership, the intensity of community participation is likely to be high. Intermediary
organizations such as NGOs (non-governmental organizations) can also be a medium for
the use of any of these instruments.

2.7 The Conceptual Processes of Eliciting Community Participation

Most institutions such as the World Bank, governments and non-government

organizations (NGOs) have policies that are supportive to communities. But they do not
have an operational framework that could assist the staff to translate the concept into
design features that will enhance participation. Consultation could be started to get the
community involved on the project. Sample studies of beneficiary groups could provide
inputs for the consultative process. Specific tasks to be performed by the community
could thus be identified to be incorporated into the project design.

Community participation feasibility should be assessed as early as possible. For instance,

in the reconnaissance stage, basic information could be gathered on the nature of
beneficiaries, role of the community, power relations, among others.

During identification, needs analysis of beneficiaries could be assessed as a basis for

designing the project to match community needs and capacities. A judgment should be
made on the feasible objectives of community participation in the project. Information
 18

gathered during reconnaissance will be useful at this stage, if a feasible objective has
been identified for community participation.

During implementation, an important function of supervision will be to assess the

progress of community participation and the delivery of input to the community to
perform its role. Again, visits to beneficiary groups in the project area (on a sample basis)
will provide ample evidence to make a judgment. Assistance to solve the community
participation problems on the ground is as important a task of supervision as the follow-
up on procurement or disbursement problems for smooth project execution.

When effective community participation is achieved, communities would show sense of

ownership, effective project maintenance hence sustainability and sustainable
development. The conceptual picture is depicted in figure 2.1 as shown below:
 19

Figure 2.1: Conceptual Processes of Eliciting Community Participation

Government Development Initiatives Development Partner

Consultation

Beneficiary Communities

Project Reconnaissance Stage Project Identification

Effective Community Participation

Project Implementation,
ce
an
en
nt
ai
M
t
ec
oj
Pr
ve
cti
fe
Ef
Project Sustainability Sustainable Development

Source: Author’s Construct January, 2009.

2.8 Legal and Administrative Framework for Community Participation in Ghana

The current decentralization in Ghana was introduced by the PNDC government with a
major piece of legislative reform, the Local Government Law (PNDC Law 207), 1988.
This created 110 designated districts within Ghana’s ten regions. The stated aim of the
1988 Local Government Law was “to promote popular participation and ownership of the
machinery of government… by devolving power, competence and resource/means to the
districts level” (cited in Map Consult 2002).

The 1992 Constitution, which marked the transition to multi-party democracy at the
national level, endorsed the 1988 reforms. It consolidated the aim of decentralisation
 20

within the overall context of a liberal democratic constitution. The objective of

decentralisation was laid out unambiguously in Chapter 20, entitled ‘Decentralisation and
Local Government’. This states emphatically that: “Local government and administration
… shall … be decentralized” (Article 240[1]), and that the “functions, powers,
responsibilities and resources should be transferred from the Central Government to local
government units” (Article 240[2]). The Local Government Act, 1993 (Act 462)
established the current local government system, while the National Development
Planning (Systems) Act, 1994 (Act 480) provides for a decentralised planning system in
Ghana.

A three-tier structure of sub-national government was created by the 1992 Constitution

[or Local Government Act of 1993] at regional, district and sub-district levels. This
comprises Regional Coordinating Councils (10), District Assemblies (110) and urban,
zonal, town and area councils (1300), plus unit committees (16,000) (Nkrumah, 2000).
The District Assembly remains the key institution at the local level. The Local
Government Act provides for the election of 70% of the membership of the Assembly
and 30% by appointment. At the sub-district level representation is also by election and
appointment.

Ghana’s lowest planning unit is the District Assembly. The decentralisation policy
encourages the participation of communities in the district planning process. In practice
however, the level of participation is very shallow, with little community ‘ownership’ of
outcomes. The community based planning (CBP) process started in Adansi East and
Asanti Akim South districts in February 2002. The core CBP manual was adapted and the
process was facilitated by a team drawn from the decentralised departments of the
assembly and led by the Deputy District Coordinating Director who has been involved in
the CBP project.

To spread the CBP concept cost-effectively to the rest of the district, a team of facilitators
was created at the area council level to take the process to the communities and build an
area council development plan. Ghana has had difficulties developing a national
 21

approach, partly due to haste in district planning. However a common approach is being
developed and it has been agreed to establish a national Steering Committee to regulate
the process (Overseas Development Institute, 2003). The administrative framework of
community participation is depicted in figure 2.2 below.

Figure 2.2: Administrative Framework for Community Participation

Government of Ghana and NDPC

Coordination
Legislation
Guidelines
Policies

MDAs Development
Policies Partners
RCCs
Programmes Advocacy
Coordination
Projects Resource
Monitoring and Evaluation
provision
Resource Allocation

Metropolitan Municipal Districts

Assemblies  Planning
Assemblies Assemblies
 Legislation & Rating
 Executive

Sub-Metropolitan Assemblies  Planning

Zonal Urban/Town/Area  Legislation & Rating
Town councils Councils Councils  Execution
 Administration
Assembly Members and Unit Committees  Mobilisation
Mobilisation
Enforcement
 Enforcement

Beneficiaries Communities
Participation
Situational Analysis
-Data Collection
-Problem Identification
-Implementation Plan
-Priorities
Source: NDPC, Adopted and modified by the Author January, 2009
 22

2.9 Stakeholders of Community Participation and Roles

Stakeholders are persons, groups or institutions with interests in a project or programme.

These are divided into two, namely; primary and secondary stakeholders. Beneficiary
communities are the primary stakeholders of community participation. Secondary
stakeholders of community participation are categorised into funding, implementation,
monitoring and advocacy organisation or simply put, governmental, NGOs other
development partners. The roles of these stakeholders are discussed as follow.

2.9.1 The Roles Community Organizations

The purpose of community organisations is to increase unity and solidarity. Mobilisation

is a key input in the process of empowerment. The collective nature of the community
could increase poor people’s bargaining power, including their input into the local
decision-making process: the question that arises is, to what extend do community
organisations succeed in their demand-making, and what is the degree to which
community organisations are linked into the wider partisan-political system?
Considerable attention is given to the role of community organisations in articulating
demands and in mobilizing resources. Mobilisation is intended for capital formation and
to relieve scare government resources. Many community organisations are issue based.
There is usually interplay of many forces – local, linguistic, regional and even religious –
in the functioning of the community organisations. In all these set-ups, political forces
may creep in. They defend rights and win some concessions, and they politicize some
individuals. The existence of an organisation does not guarantee that it represents the
entire community. Men for example, tend to be over-represented in such organisations,
but there are also exclusively women’s groups within communities.

2.9.2 The Roles of the State

State responses to community participation in development have often been haphazard

and poorly formulated and there are substantial variations on the extend to which these
ideals have been applied in different countries.
 23

A number of observers have argued that community participation in development

invariably results in a concerted effort by the state to subvert and manipulate local
people. For the state/government to become one of a facilitator, a supporter, an interpreter
and a constructive critic within community participation, it has to recognize that it will
have to implement substantial structural changes in its administration, bureaucracy and
operative style. This is reflected in the lack of suitable personnel (for example social
workers and community organizers), and the working approaches of professional staff
who have been trained in conventional techniques which involve little, if any, community
participation, and who have little idea on how to incorporate it in planning. Usually the
poor are expected to participate actively in project implementation and maintenance, but
are often left out of the design stage – obviously the most critical phase from the point of
view of ensuring that programmes meet ‘real’ needs. It must restructure itself (and its
field branches) to create a more responsive, public service-oriented administration which
involves beneficiaries more directly in organisational control (Desai 1995).

2.9.3 The Roles of Non-governmental Organizations

Through non-governmental organizations (NGOs), existing community organizations can

be guided to exert pressure on the government in order to encompass joint decision-
making. It is argued that NGOs provide effective opportunities for the implementation of
community participation deals and that these organizations are more likely to promote
authentic forms of participation than the state. While it is true that NGOs have played a
major role in the promotion of community participation, it cannot be claimed that their
involvement has been faultless.

Many NGOs, especially the larger ones, function bureaucratically and use formal
procedural rules to carry out their tasks. Non-government organizations are prone to
ossification, particularly if they are dominated and controlled by charismatic leaders who
are unresponsive to new ideas and view innovation as a threat to their authority (Desai
1995).
 24

2.10 Case Studies of Community Participation in Selected African Countries

Community participation has of late been emphasized by development partners including

the World Bank as a precondition for assistance. This has compelled many countries to
inculcate community participation initiatives in their development programmes. As such
many studies have been carried to assess the processes and levels of community
participation in several countries. Notably among these countries include those discussed
as follows:

2.10.1 Participation in Planning and Decision Making in Tanzania

In Tanzania, planning starts at the Sub-Village (Kitongoji) where all residents who are 18
years and above participate in generating ideas and preparing a sub-village plan.
However, the process of getting a Sub-Village plan was not very clear. Three people,
namely the Chairperson and 2 other persons who are appointed by the Chairperson form
the Sub-Village committee. The committee is then responsible for forwarding the plan to
the Village Government.

The Village Government constitutes 25 members. Out of which 30% are women. The
village government then compiles the Sub-Village plans into a village plan. In the Village
Government the sub-villages are represented by their respective chairpersons. The
compiled village plan is then tabled to the village assembly for endorsement and approval
before it is submitted to the Ward Development Committee (WDC). All Village
Government Chairpersons are members of the WDC. The WDC then compiles all village
plans, into a Ward Plan which is then endorsed and submitted to the District Council.
This planning process is more so in the rural areas where mobilization and sensitisation
appears to have made a positive impact. In the urban areas, the situation is different
because participatory approach is not practiced. Leaders of the urban dwellers are
reluctant to initiate mobilization and sensitisation activities because they fear to be held
accountable and/or responsible by the more knowledgeable urban people. The urban
residents are more knowledgeable; they know their rights and cannot be manipulated
easily. Since the urban local government leaders are aware of the status of the people they
 25

lead, they do not encourage interaction with them reportedly in order to hide their
dubious activities thus protecting their personal interests.

Ownership, accountability and transparency are almost absent in the urban areas and
therefore participation is suppressed. This is mainly the problem with urban grassroot and
urban middle level e.g. at district as well as regional levels. The urban higher level
category/group is to a greater extent free from this bottleneck.

Apart from the “Tanzakesho planning system”, the traditional planning system exhibits
very low participation in practice. This is the major weakness of the system. However, its
strength lies in the fact that it operates in a well-defined structure and it has already some
basics of community participation in place. As such most stakeholders were of the
opinion that despite weaknesses in the traditional planning system, it is still the best so
far. This is because it provides a clear and convenient opportunity to all eligible members
of the village to participate fully in both the planning process and decision making
process. Some improvements are certainly required to make it truly participatory (NSSD,
2001).

2.10.2 Participation in Planning and Decision Making in Uganda

The Community-Based Planning (CBP) in Uganda works with the Local Government
Development Programme (LGDP), Bushenyi District Local Government (a district of
about 800,000 people in south west Uganda) and CARE Uganda. Additionally, the
Uganda Participatory Development Network (UPDNet) was brought in to provide
expertise in communication and to mainstream the CBP process across those stakeholders
working on participation issues.

The CBP responds in part to a government call for a standardised participatory planning
methodology within a revised investment planning guide, which could be used by local
governments across Uganda, and which could be supported by NGOs. Bushenyi District
decided to pilot the CBP methodology in all 170 parishes (over 1000 villages) and to
reduce the process to a three-day planning process, but with an additional pre-planning
 26

meeting where existing background information could be compiled. Training began in

December 2001 and the parish development plans were then formulated in March/April
2002 linking into the development of the sub-county and district development plans.
Concurrently, the government developed final guidelines for local government, which
were issued in March 2002 and supported by training. Progress with their use has been
reviewed and the Harmonised Participatory Planning Guidelines (HPPG) is now being
revised and training of trainers planned, prior to roll-out to 26 districts (Overseas
Development Institute 2003).

2.10.3 Lessons Learnt

The case studies of the two countries reveal that community participation is an important
concept in as much as planning and implementation of development projects are concern.
For instance in Tanzania, there is community involvement from the household level in
formulating projects for sustainable development, this offers the opportunity for
participation. Also the use of the available local resources in developing projects for
sustainable development cannot be overemphasized. The clear and convenient
opportunity to all eligible members of the villages to participate fully in both the planning
process and decision making process is remarkable.

In Uganda, the intensive planning has been reduced to a three-day process, which was
believed to be more manageable to implement district-wide. The assessment from
Bushenyi reveals that the plans developed were comprehensive, provided a linkage point
for civil society, private sector and government initiatives. The poor and disadvantaged
were involved in the planning, and their priorities are represented in the final plans. It
pays particular attention to sequencing and to the needs of disadvantaged groups, though
there is a scope for greater gender awareness and more attention to ensure that the
priorities of the poor emerged.

These lessons could be modified and improved upon to strengthen community

participation in project planning and implementation in Ghana.
 CHAPTER THREE
PROFILE OF THE ASUTIFI DISTRICT

3.1 Introduction

The Asutifi District Assembly was established in 1989 under the Local Government Law
1988, (PNDCL 207).  It was set up to see to the overall administration of the Asutifi
District which was then newly created out of the former Ahafo District.

This chapter outlines the characteristics peculiar to the district. It thus summarizes
information on the location and size, demographic, social characteristics and economic
characteristics.

3.2. Location and Size

Asutifi District is one of the districts in Brong Ahafo. It is located between latitudes
6°40’ and 7°15’ North and Longitudes 2°15’ and 2°45’ west, (Asutifi District Assembly
(ADA), 2006-2009). It shares boundaries with Sunyani District in the North, Tano South
District to the North East, Dormaa District to North West, Asunafo North and South
Districts in the South West and Ahafo Ano South and North Districts (Ashanti Region) in
the South East (ADA, 2006-2009).. Figure 2.1 and 2.2 show the Asutifi District in the
national context and Asutifi District Map respectively.

With a total land surface area of 1500 sq.km, the district is one of the smallest in the
Brong Ahafo Region, (ADA, 2006-2009).

27
28
 29

Source: ADA 2006-2009

 30

3.3. Demographic Characteristics

Population Size and Growth Rate

The district was carved out of a larger Ahafo District in 1988. The population of the
district is estimated to be about 84,475 in 2000. (Source: National Population and
Housing Survey 2000).

From the National population Census of 1984 and 2000, the Population of Asutifi Local
Council whose boundaries almost coincide with the present Asutifi District changed from
54,891 in 1984 to 84,475 in 2000 giving a population growth rate of 2.8 percent per
annum.  This growth rate is quite low compared with the rates of 3.0 percent at the
national levels for the same period.   The District population was estimated to be 94,486
in the   year 2004 and currently estimated to be 99,928 in 2006 using 2.8% as the Growth
Rate. The population of Asutifi district is projected at108, 682 in 2009.

3.4. Social Characteristics

Health Facilities
The Saint Elizebeth Hospital located at Hwidiem serves as the District Hospital to Asutifi
and Referral centre for Asunafo District. It provides Surgical, Medical and Obsteric
Services. Besides, it has facilities for screening blood for HIV and runs a TB Programme.
It is owned and managed by the Roman Catholic Church.

There are five other health stations manned by the ministry of health namely: Kenyasi
Health Centre, Gyedu Health Post, Acherensua Health Post, Dadiesoaba Health Post and
Gambia MCH Clinic. In addition, there are seven structural community clinics and three
Private Maternity homes (ADA, 2006-2009).

Educational Facilities
Basic schools are dotted all over the District and the pupils have easy access to them.
There are four Senior Secondary Schools in the District namely OLA Girls Secondary
 31

School, Acherensua Secondary School, Hwidiem Secondary School and Gyamfi

Kumanin Secondary/Technical School (ADA, 2006-2009).

Water and Sanitation

Three major communities (Kenyasi, Hwidiem and Acherensua 15 percent) have access to
small town water systems. The rest are served with boreholes (20 percent), Hand dug
wells (23 percent), Stream for Domestic use (35 percent) and others (7 percent).

Electricity
Electricity supply is still very low in the district. Out of the 117 communities only 19
communities representing 16.24 percent enjoy electricity. This situation has had a lot of
effect on the economy of the district, in terms of the education (night studies) and the
development of small scale industries among others.

Roads
Apart from the main Kumasi-Tepa-Goaso trunk road which passes through Acherensua,
Hwidiem, Nkaseim and then a 5km road that links it to the District capital from
Hwidiem, all other roads are untarred. The Acherensua-Atronie – Sunyani road which is
under construction is almost completed and hoped to ease the transportation problems of
the district especially its linkage to the Regional capital, Sunyani.

Energy
The main source of energy is fuel wood which accounts for about 46.3 percent of the
total household energy consumption. The other sources are charcoal 10.4 percent,
kerosine 26 percent, electricity about 13.5 percent, and LPG 3.8 percent. The use of fuel
wood and charcoal which put together constitutes about 56.7 percent of the energy
sources has implication for the environment. There is the need for tree planting and
afforestation. The use of LPG gas has also increased over the past plan period and efforts
be made to further   promote LPG usage in the district (ADA, 2006-2009)
 CHAPTER FOUR
COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN PROJECTS IN ASUTIFI DISTRICT

4.1. Introduction

Whether in urban or rural settings, communities need a variety of amenities in order to

function properly. While some amenities such as housing cater for individuals in the
community, the majority caters for the public as a whole, in one way or another. This
chapter presents the analysis of community participation in the planning, implementation
and management of public projects.

In broad-spectrum, the chapter commences the analysis with the Respondents’ Personal
Characteristics and further discusses Characteristics and Locations of Projects Studied.
It also examines the Dissemination of Local Development Information, Levels of
Community Participation, Involvement of the Sub-district Structures, Projects
Management, Maintenance and Sustainability and the District Assembly and Community
Participation as well as Constraints to Community Participation.

4.2 Characteristics of Respondents

Information relating to the individual respondents was gathered. These information

characteristics regarding the respondents included gender, educational levels and
positions or roles as members of the communities.

4.2.1. Gender of the Respondents

Gender according to the UN, is the sex identification of a person. The World Bank also
sees gender as the social and cultural roles assigned to males and females. The data
collected revealed that 74 percent of projects beneficiaries respondents were males and
26 percent were females. This information is summarised in the bar chart below.

32
 33

Figure 4.1 A Bar Graph Showing the Gender of the respondents

80

70

y 60
nc
ue Legend
50
eq
Male
Fr 40

Female
30

20

10

0
Gender

Source: Field Survey January, 2009

4.2.2. Educational Levels of Respondents

With respect to educational level, the highest levels attained and the current stages
reached were considered. In that regard, it was realized that 12 percent the respondents
had attained Elementary Education, 17 percent Junior High School, 41 percent Senior
High School, 3 percent Vocational School, 12 percent College/University and 15 percent
Not at all. These are depicted in the pie chart below.

Figure 4.2 A Pie Chart Showing the Educational Levels of Respondents in the Communities
15 12 Legen
% %
dElementary
Junior
SchoolHigh
Senior
School High
17
Vocational
School
12
% College/
School
% Not at all
University

3
%

Source: Field Survey January,

41
% 2009
 34

4.2.3. Positions/Roles of Respondents

As part of the personal characteristic, the occupation or job information of the

respondents were gathered from the survey. The data gleaned revealed majority, 42
percent of the beneficiaries respondents were farmers as usually typical of rural settings.
Also 28 percent were student, 2 percent merchants, 11 percent civil servants, 13 percent
self employed, and 4 percent others like hairdressers, tailors and seamstresses.

4.3. Characteristics and Locations of Projects Studied

The cutting edge of development in any area reflects in projects. That is to say
development manifests itself in space in the form of projects. The development projects
executed in each of the four studied communities namely Nkaseim, Nkrankrom, Ohiatua
and Wuramumuso over the last five years are summarised in the table 4.1 as follow:

Table 4.1 Projects and Locations

Location Nkaseim Nkrankrom Ohiatua Wuramumuso
KVIP Electricity School Electricity
School School Corn Mill School
CHPS Compound Market Centre Well Market Centre
Name of Projects

2 Pit Latrines Borehole Oil Mill Borehole

Police Station Road Resurfacing
Police Quarters Pit Latrine
MTN Installation
Borehole
Information Centre
Source: Field Survey January, 2009

This implies that development projects are rapidly implemented in the studied
communities and for that matter community participation should be factored. This will
inculcate the sense of ownership on the community and willingness to participate
 35

effectively to ensure sustainability and sustainable development. Plate 4.1 and 4.2 below
show some of the development projects at Nkaseim.

Plate 4.1 A 4 Unit Rural Clinic (CHPS Plate 4.2 Installation of MTN at
Compound Programme) - Nkaseim Nkaseim

Source: Field Survey January, 2009

4.4. Dissemination of Local Development Information

Information dissemination is very crucial as far as community participation in

development activities is concerned. It is thus the manner of getting community informed
about what developments are to take place and to receive community perspective
concerning the development issues.

In this regard, the secondary stakeholders contacted indicated that they use mostly public
fora and key opinion leaders for information dissemination. Response from projects
beneficiaries on the other hand disclosed that 11 percent of the respondents received
information through the media, 54 percent at public fora, 19 percent from unit committee
and 16 percent from Assembly members. Those who attended the public fora indicated
that they were called through the beating of the local drum (gong-gong). This implies that
the traditional method of information dissemination is the most efficient mode of
information dissemination since 44 percent of respondents have attained Junior High
education and below or not at all and for that matter cannot read and write effectively in
English.
 36

With regard to getting community views sent and addressed at the District Assembly, the
response obtained is depicted in the pie chart below.
Figure 4.3 A Pie Chart showing the Means of communication to the district assembly by Respondents

11%

17% Legend

Assembly Members
Unit Committee
Member of Parliament

72%

Source: Field Survey 2009

Apart from these three main means of communication to the District Assembly,
respondents also mentioned the Traditional Authorities, Local Radio Stations, Print
Media, NGOs, CBOs and Opinion Leaders.

4.5. Levels of Community Participation in Projects

4.5.1. Participation in Project Needs Assessment

Needs assessment is a determination of people’s preference as to what needs to be done

in order to move towards a particular future. Project needs assessment is the initial stage
of any project design. Community groups and other stakeholders should be involved and
encouraged to participate in project needs assessment. In the planning phase, the needs
assessment helps in problems prioritisation, projects identification and selection. The
communities’ involvement in needs assessment assist in the process of setting priorities
 37

and designing programs based on the community’s definition of the problem. Thus the
community will be encouraged to take the initiatives and look for solutions for the
desired new community through its organized efforts.

The survey revealed that the District Assembly, Development Partners and Sub-district
and Community Leaders had involved the various communities in projects need
assessment. They did this through meetings with key opinion leaders and subsequent
public fora to solicit views on communities needs.

On the other hand, the data gathered from the survey indicated that 63 percent of
beneficiaries’ respondents had been involved in project need assessment at public fora.
The remaining 37 percent had not been involved in project need assessment as shown in
table 4.3 below. Some of these people were busy on their schedules and others were of
the view that they never had information on such communities’ projects needs
assessment. This means community leaders are not up and doing in their efforts to reach
out to all community members to get them involved.

Table 4.2 Participation in Project Needs Assessment

Response Percentage
Yes 63
No 37
Total 100
Source: Field Survey January, 2009

However, some of the beneficiaries who participated did not see the importance of their
involvement in project needs assessment. This could mean that they had little awareness
about the benefits of their involvement. Others recognized the benefits of their
involvement in terms of identifying and prioritizing their problems to seek for external
assistance in order to meet their community’s felt need.
 38

4.5.2. Participation in Project Planning and Implementation

Development planning is a systematic and procedural style of diagnosing the ills of

humanity and the determination of remedial pathways to a desired state of being via
decision-making, scheduling, directing and controlling limited resources to attain the
preferred state. Development planning is aimed at addressing social, economic and
political needs of the people in an integrated and holistic approach within a participatory
model.

Project planning is part of development planning whereby a set of activities are planned
to attain a desired goal. A project usually has a specific geographical location and often
has a clearly defined time span. Project implementation on the other hand, is the process
of converting plans into action. Good planning in the development process requires not
only a sound plan design, but also active and conscious support from the overwhelming
majority of the community and includes the poor and marginalized groups (Ferrinho,
1980).

Table 4.3 Participation in Project Planning and Implementation

Response Percentage
Yes 69
No 31
Total 100
Source: Field Survey January, 2009

The results of the survey as shown in table 4.3 above points out that 69 percent of
projects beneficiaries’ had been involved in project planning and implementation. Out of
the 69 percent, 15 percent participated at the Reconnaissance stage, 39 percent at the
Project identification stage, 32 percent at Project planning stage, 8 percent at Project
implementation 6 percent at the operation and maintenance stage. It is worth noting that
the respondents’ participation in the planning and implementation was not just a one
stage affair but it only showed the stage the respondents became aware and participated.
 39

The respondents also specified the various forms in which they participated in the
planning and implementation of the projects. The quantitative data indicated that 13
percent participated through decision making, 3 percent money contribution, 67 percent
labour and 17 percent through operation and maintenance. Equally important is the fact
that respondents acknowledged having also participated in the other forms.

Conversely, out of the 31 percent who responded that they have not been involved in
project planning and implementation admitted so with some reasons. 69 percent were not
aware of the planning and implementation of the projects whiles 31 percent were busy on
their own schedules. Also, those who indicated having been busy on their schedules
complained of too much politicization of development projects which made them
displeased. This means that even though development takes place in the political
environment, Ghanaian politics tend to create divisiveness and hence should be
minimized at community development interventions.

4.5.3. Capacity to Initiate Community Self-help Projects

Participatory development does not leave development initiatives in the hands of only
development agents alone. But it requires the capability of development beneficiaries to
be able to make moves to initiate development themselves or partner with others. It is for
this reason that some development partners require beneficiary commitment in some
projects. The ability of communities to initiate a development project lies on the unity,
commitment and the resource base of its members.

With respect to the capacity of communities to initiate Community Self-help Projects, the
quantitative data from the survey disclosed 89 percent of respondents indicating the
communities having the ability. Most of these people were of the view that given the
transparent and dedicated leadership without politicization, it could be possible. While
the 11 percent who responded that, the communities could not, pointed out to their
poverty and politics as the main barriers. Similarly, key informants agreed that the
community has the capacity to initiate community projects independently. However, they
claimed that the community should be empowered in order to plan and implement their
 40

own development projects independently, without the direct intervention of development

agencies or government.

4.6. Involvement of the Sub-district Structures

To facilitate decentralization, democracy and good governance in the district, nine town
and area councils were put in place to ensure popular participation in the development
process. However, the activities of these sub-structures are not effective as expected. The
Asutifi District Planning Officer said the Town and Area councils are not operational due
to multiple factors including lack of office accommodation, logistics, skilled personnel
and motivation.  Also said, there are a number of units committees although not very
functional, supporting both the area councils and the Assembly in the discharge of their
duties.

In the field survey however, respondents were asked to state their perceptions on the
performances of the Sub-district Structures in terms of their mobilisation roles in
communities. The various responses concerning the performances of the Area Council,
Assembly Members and Unit Committees are illustrated on the table below.

Table 4.4 Perceptions on the Performances of the Sub-district Structures

Assessment Area Council Assembly Members Unit Committees
Percentage Percentage Percentage
Very Good 20 44 40
Good 36 33 30
Not 41 23 30
Functioning
Do not 3 - -
know
Total 100 100 100
Source: Field Survey January, 2009

The respondents who indicated very good performance of the sub-district structures
explained that they are regularly in touch with these structures. They also claimed these
 41

structures handle their concerns with rapt attention. Those who indicated good
performance were of the view that they do not get expected responses upon expressing
their concerns. Respondents who said the sub-district structures were not functioning
alleged that they do not see these structures work since their assumption of office. It can
be deduced from the analysis that for community participation to be effective, these sub-
structures must be empowered to perform their functions creditably.

4.7. Projects Management, Maintenance and Sustainability

The implementations of development projects require the co-operation, mobilization of

communities or involvement communities and development partners. In this regard the
communities should be seen in the execution. The use of local resources and skills where
applicable is the surest way. This is to sharpen the skills of beneficiaries to Manage and
maintain the projects in a sustainable manner.

Most of the projects in the studied communities were undertaken by the District
Assembly in collaboration with other development partners. Among the development
partners as revealed from the survey include Christ Redeemer Church (CRC),
Government of Ghana (GoG), World Vision, HIPC Benefit, Action Aid Ghana, and
Akuafo Adamfo.

Implementations were done by the development partners who were the financiers of the
projects. Communities participated through the provision of labour. Information from the
survey also indicated that major maintenances of the projects were done by the
development partners. While minor maintenances and weeding around the projects were
in the hands of communities.

4.7.1. Benefits of Community Participation

People participate in development activities in anticipation of various benefits ranging

from economic, social and other reasons. These benefits manifest in the form of
 42

improved agricultural produce, quality nutrition, potable water, skills development,

income generation, easy transportation, improved health and a host of others.

Accordingly, data was gathered from the survey to find out if respondents had benefited
from the projects implemented in the communities. Out of the sample interviewed, 91
percent pointed out that they have benefited from the projects. Whereas 9 percent
indicated they have not benefited.

Respondents were further requested to state the social impacts of the projects. Table 4.5
indicates their response. According to respondents, the provision of the CHPS Compound
and Police Station at Nkaseim and KVIPs have help improve health, security, and
sanitation and its related effects as indicated in the table below. Respondents provided
multiple responses since the projects have diverse benefits. This implies that the
respondents would protect and maintain the project for sustained benefits and sustainably
development in the communities.

Table 4.5 Social Impact of the Projects

Response Number of Respondents Percentage
Power for household chores 5 3
Improved sanitation 21 14
Potable water 10 7
Increased enrolment 18 12
Enhanced public gathering 7 5
Employment 17 12
Revenue for development 5 3
Improved security 27 18
Enhanced communication 7 5
Improved health 30 21
Total 147 100
Note; Total response is more than total respondents due to multiple response
Source: Field Survey January, 2009
 43

4.7.2. Sustainability of Projects

Participation is fundamental to developing a self–sustaining momentum of development,

which will insure continuity of activities when outside support terminates (Penderis,
1996). It lays emphasis on the increased role and responsibilities of the community on
one hand, and the diminishing role and responsibilities of development partners or actors
on the other hand. The aim of participation is to ensure mutual trust and improve
capabilities of community members to prepare for the new challenges. One of the means
of ensuring sustainability is to strengthen the collaborative efforts of the beneficiaries and
the development partners to work hand in hand and empower them before transferring the
project to the target beneficiaries.

The survey revealed 96 percent of respondents indicating the projects were sustainable
because the projects were for the benefit of the communities and for that matter
everything possible would be done to ensure that while only 4 percent indicated
otherwise. This implies that development projects implemented with effective community
participation are sustainable since the communities have invested their energies in such
projects.

4.8. District Assembly and Community Participation

In line with the Local Government Act 1993 (Act, 462,) the Assembly is the highest
administrative and political authority in the District.  In addition to exercising
deliberative, legislative and executive functions, the Act also enjoins the District
Assembly to formulate, implement, monitor and evaluate plans, programmes and
strategies for effective mobilization of resources and for the overall development of the
District.  Other functions of the District Assembly include promoting spatial integration
of physical developments and ensuring judicial justice.

The survey indicated the Asutifi District Assembly after collecting data from the
Communities, Unit, Town and Area Councils, Markets and Lorry parks, the responses
were collated, analyzed and presented back to the people at open fora organized on Area
 44

council basis. This gave the people a reflection of information collected from individual
and household responses. The District Assembly does these in collaboration with the sub-
district structures to ensure that people within a geographic area are given the chance to
play meaningful roles and interact effectively in society. In this way the people present
their problems and aspirations based on the whole area council and were then asked to
rank them with suggestions as to possible solutions to such identified problems. Thus
contribute towards the administration and decision-making process in order to provide
their basic needs and ensure their security.

4.8.1. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Sub-district Structures

Participation of the Sub-district structures in the district assembly’s decision making is of
utmost importance in ensuring the effectiveness of projects planning and implementation.
The District Assembly is suppose to work hand in hand with these structures, however
these structure also have their own strengths and weaknesses within their areas of
operations. These strengths and weaknesses are summarized in the table below according
to the survey results.

Table 4.6 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Sub-district Structures

Sub-district Strengths Weaknesses
structures
Town and Area  Potential to bring local  Most area councils are not
Councils administration closer to the functioning thus creating vacuum
grassroot in decision making process
 Potential to improve revenue thereby putting burden on the DA
and human resource  Lack of funds, skilled staff and
mobilization logistics
 Where functioning, lack of
orientation on roles
Source: Field Survey January, 2009
 45

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Sub-district Structures Continued

Sub-district Strengths Weaknesses
structures
Assembly  Mouthpiece of the local people  The struggle for recognition as
Members in the District Assembly development agent between
 Making of development bye- assembly members, chiefs, and
laws to regulate the behaviour unit committees
of people  Poor leadership skills of some
 Agents of development in their Assembly Members
areas  Alignment of some Assembly
members with politics which
create divisions among their
subjects
Unit  Enhances local participation in  Poor functioning as a result of no
Committees development incentives
 Mobilisation of local people for  Politicization of development
self-help development projects issues alone party lines
 Assist in revenue mobilisation  Some unit committees are not in
cordial relation with their chiefs
Traditional  Chiefs are highly respected in  The struggle for recognition as
Authorities their various localities hence development agent between chiefs,
key instruments of unit committees and assembly
development members
 The neutrality of Chiefs in the  Poor leadership skills of some
face of politics and chiefs
development  Alignment of some chiefs with
politics which create divisions
among their subjects
Source: Field Survey January, 2009
 46

4.8.2. Constraints of Ensuring Community Participation at sub-district levels

 Failure to sanction recalcitrant community members. Failure to fine or query

those who do not attend communal labour set precedents for others to follow.
 Absenteeism of key opinion and community leaders. Community leaders who
absence themselves from communal works also do not promote community
participation.
 Difficulty in levying the informal workers. Different work schedules of the
informal workers and their inconsistent income accruals make it difficult for them
to pay their development levies at all times.
 Rural agricultural setting. Most farmers work from dawn to dusk and as such are
not at all times available for communal labour.
 Rivalry between appointed and elected assembly members as well as chiefs.
These appointed assembly members feel that they are serve the interest of their
party and as such politicize development in their communities along party lines.
 Failure to recognize the multi-ethnicity of communities. Every community is
multifaceted with various ethnic groups and leaders. The failure to acknowledge
these breeds poor community participation.
From the forgoing constraints, the factors that lead to exclusion or voluntary exclusion
ranged from disagreement, social, political, cultural or economic opposition with the
other members of the community to ‘free-rider’ strategy. This means that even though
there is high awareness of community participation in the communities, more education
need to be done. The situations if not seriously dealt with would impair effective
community participation.

4.8.3. Suggestions to Improve Community Participation

 The District Assembly

1). The Assembly should keep to their promises to the communities
2).Prioritisation of projects should take into account the most pressing needs of the
communities
 47

3). The Sub-district structures should be empowered to use the revenues they generate
form their communities to develop their areas so as to win the confidence of the people.

 Through the Sub-district Structures

a). Development intervention should have community participation in the form of labour
b). Sanctions should be meted out to those who refuse to attend communal labour
c). Presence and the involvement of all stakeholders. Opinion leaders should not absent
themselves
d). Education on the need for communities to take up development initiatives and not rely
on government alone.
e). Workshops on peaceful co-existence between the Chiefs, Assembly Members and the
Unit committees.

 In the Communities

The respondents in the communities were asked to make suggestions on how

participation can be improved. The respondents made multiple responses depending on
their perceived reasons as to what should be done. The table below indicated the response
given.

Table 4.7 Suggestions to Improve Community Participation

Response Number of Respondents Percentage
Labour participation 17 14
Use of information van 5 4
Gong-gong (Chiefs) 8 7
Sensitisation 30 26
Dedicated and committed leadership 6 5
Key Stakeholder Involvement 11 9
Use of Information Centres 12 10
Non-partisan development 9 8
Integrated ethnic development 8 7
Sanctions 12 10
Total 118 100
Note; Total response is more than total respondents due to multiple response
Source: Field Survey January, 2009
 48

These imply that the respondents knew some measures that could help improve
community participation. The responses from the table above indicates that with a
combination of community sensitization, community participation in the form of labour,
key stakeholder involvement, the use of information centres and sanctions can improve
participation.
 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSSION

5.1 Introduction

Community participation in projects planning and implementation with regard to

development projects undertaken in the studied communities are very crucial for planning
and re-planning. The study therefore has come out with various issues which are worth
noting with reference to the study objectives.

This chapter for that matter presents the summary of these issues of which are very
crucial as far as community participation in projects planning and implementation are
concerned. It also recommends measures to handle some of the issues to enhance
effective community participation in future planning.

5.2 Summary of Findings

5.2.1 The District Assembly and the Sub-district structure in Community Participation

With respect to participation in the assembly’s decision making, the Assembly Members
play leading role in each community. Their main job is to carry the concerns and
development problems of their constituents to the District Assembly for consideration.
Also they enact bye-laws to regulate the behavior of their people to ensure peace and
freedom. This is buttressed by 72 percent of respondents’ indication of the Assembly
Member as the main channel of communication to the district Assembly

But the figures from the survey indicated poor perception on the performance of the
Assembly members as 23 percent perceived they are not functioning by respondents. The
District Planning Officer also confirmed by indicating that the Unit Committees, Town
and Area councils are not operational due to multiple factors including lack of office
accommodation, logistics, skilled personnel and motivation.

49
 50

5.2.2. Perceptions of the Performance of the Sub-district Structures in Participation

The Sub-district Structures were established to deepen and strengthen democracy and
community say in all matters affecting the lives of the local people. They are the
structures which are close in touch with the local people and as such serve as planning
authorities at the grassroot levels. As planning authorities they are suppose to liaise with
all stakeholders and ordinary residents within their catchments areas to identify and
prioritise communities’ needs for onwards action by the district assembly and other
development partners. Also they are to mobilize revenue and other resources for
development.

However, as indicated in chapter four, the town and area councils which are the focal
point for the conduct of these exercises exist in names. The following reasons among
others contribute to the poor performance of these sub-structures:
 Lack of well trained community development workers who understand
development issues to man these structures.
 Lacks of district budgetary allocation to enable the sub-structures carry out their
mandatory functions.
 Lack of incentives packages to attract, motivate and retain qualified personnel to
strengthen these structures.
 Lack of decent and well furnish office accommodation for staff to conduct their
mandatory functions effectively.
 Lack of transport vehicle to facilitate the movement of staff in the conduct of their
mandatory functions.
These problems among others have culminated to the ineffectiveness of the sub-structure
in planning and implementation of development projects as well as ensuring community
participation in their areas of operations. As such many of these area councils have not
been useful to the district assembly in as much as planning and implementation of
development projects are concerned as was by the District Planning Officer. This was
further confirmed by projects beneficiaries in the communities as 41 percent, having
 51

perceived that the Area council, 23 percent, Assembly members and 30 percent, the Unit
committees was not functioning.

5.2.3. Projects Maintenance and Sustainability

The findings of the survey revealed that major care and maintenance of the projects were
undertaken by the development partners. The respondents admitted this due to their
inability to mobilize enough money to carry out the care and maintenance of these
projects. They further stated that minor care and maintenance which demanded
communal labour were carried out by the communities. This implies that development
partners should not leave the care and maintenance of development projects entirely in
the hands of communities but to continue assisting the communities to ensure the
sustainability of their development initiatives.

5.2.4. Constraints of Ensuring Community Participation

 Failure to Sanction Recalcitrant Community Members

Failure sanction community members who absence themselves from communal labour
and gatherings geared towards the general welfare of the community gives an impetus for
others to do the same. This was a major concern of many beneficiaries of development
projects since the enjoyment of benefits do not go to individuals’ participants but all and
sundry.

 Absenteeism of Key Opinion and Community Leaders

Key opinion and community leaders who are suppose show leadership by example at
times come to projects planning meetings and implementation site and leave with
impunity. At times they do not come at all; this sends bad signal to their followers
causing them to do the same.

 Rural Agricultural Setting

Most people in the rural economy live from hand to mouth, as such are not able to
contribute to development in terms of money in their communities. The respondents
 52

complained that the little they produce is not enough to feed their families not to talk of
selling to contribute to development. The prices of foodstuff are also low such that those
who have enough to sell earn little. This situation makes levying the rural folk to
undertake development initiatives very difficult hence lessen community participation
with regards to money contribution. Also most farmers work down to dusk and as such
do not hear what is going on in their communities thus limiting their participation.

 Rivalry Between Appointed and Elected Assembly Members as Well as Chiefs

Development in the face of politics is a major constraint in ensuring effective community
participation. In Nkrankrom for instance the was friction between the appointed assembly
members on one hand and elected assembly members and the chief on the other hand
over who really is the main propeller of development in the community. This tends to
divides the people along party lines which do not ensure effective community
participation.

 Failure to Recognize the Multi-Ethnicity of Communities

The assumption that communities are homogenous entities, and hence that community
participation is unequivocal, remains common among development practitioners.
However, experience suggests that communities are often only a mere juxtaposition of
individuals with divergent interests, or households with independent livelihood strategies:
‘more realistically, we may see the community as the site of both solidarity and conflict,
shifting alliances, power and social structures’ (Cooke and Kothari, 2001).

Indeed, diversity prevails in communities and while some individuals or households will
find it beneficial to take part in a development project, others may perceive participation
ill adapted or even detrimental to their livelihood strategies.

Most respondents also complained of tribal segregation. They criticized situations where
minority tribes are not taken into consideration in the formation of project committees
and concluded it as a constraint to effective community participation.
 53

5.3. Recommendations to improve Community Participation

 The District Assembly

1). The Assembly should keep to its promises to the communities. The continuous
promise and fail by the district assemblies keep doubts in the communities on the
assemblies’ abilities to deliver the communities needs. So the assemblies should always
be conscious of what they tell communities and work accordingly to get the cooperation
of the communities.

2). Prioritisation of projects should take into account the most pressing needs of the
communities. The assemblies’ should always consider the choices of the communities if
it is ensure effective community involvement. This should be done by the assembly and
development partners through the organization public fora at the communities in which
the intern to initiate a development projects.

3). The Sub-district structures should be empowered by the District Assemblies to use the
revenues they generate from their communities to develop their areas so as to win the
confidence of the people. This will enable the people to see the sub-district structure as
active development agents within their catchments areas and to cooperate with them to
propel development.

4). The District Assembly should embark on periodic training programmes to strengthen
the capacities of the Sub-district structures to mobilize the communities and initiate
development projects and programmes in the areas they operate.

It is worth noting that three of the Area Councils benefited from the Institutional
Strengthening training component of the Community Based Rural Development Project
(CBRDP) namely: Goamu, Dadeasoaba and Gambia Area councils. They were trained
and facilitated to prepare their own Area Plans. This should be expanded to benefit other
Area Councils regularly.
 54

 Through the Sub-district Structures

a). Development intervention should have community participation in the form of labour.
People especially the poor are always ready to participate with their energies since they
do not have the money to contribute. So development partners should factor these people
in their projects and programmes designs.

b). Sanctions should be meted out to those who refuse to attend communal labour.
Sanctions in the form of fines should be meted out by chiefs and opinion leaders on
recalcitrant community members who refuse to attend communal labour. This should be
used to refresh hard workers as incentives for their efforts. Also opinion leaders should
show leadership by example by actively involving themselves in all development
activities. Opinion leaders should not absent themselves as well.

c). Education on the need for communities to take up development initiatives and not rely
on government alone. The media should embark on education on community
participation in development planning and implementation, what is expected from
communities and development partners. This will enlighten the communities to know
what can be done by the people themselves and what development partners can come in
to support.

d). Workshops on peaceful co-existence between the Chiefs, Assembly Members and the
Unit committees. The District assembly should organize workshops the educate Chiefs,
Assembly Members and the Unit committees to see themselves as development partners
and not to compete among themselves to enhance their self images.

5.4. Conclusion

Over the years, attitudes towards development approach have changed. The beliefs and
strategies of the traditional development theories of the 1960s and 1970s have been
challenged and changed. The current development paradigm and approach focuses on
participation, people centred development, accountability, ownership, integration,
 55

partnership, sustainability and self-reliance. This approach is participatory in nature and

encourages the partnership of all stakeholders to play a role in community development.
Now the development actors as well as the communities are more aware of the
approaches and methods that can enable poor people, women, children, the vulnerable
and the marginalized articulate their knowledge and increase their self-reliance and
capabilities. In this regard Chamber, (2003) notes that the issue is whether development
partners and professionals have the vision and spirit to change their behaviors to embrace
and act out reversal,
 as staff in NGOs to continue to evolve, apply, share and spread participatory
approaches and methods;
 as staff in government organizations, not to talk down but to listen, learn and
facilitate, and to provide choices and responsive services in order to enable the
poor to become self reliant
 as economists and bureaucrats try to decentralize and support local diversity and
initiatives.
Indeed, although there is some room for improvement in community participation, it
remains a difficult goal to reach and cannot be achieved by community development
practitioners alone, whatever analytical tools or methods they devise and use.

Ultimately, this discussion shows that participation is highly complex and that one must
recognize the many problems associated with it. In this vein, the discussion calls for an
active involvement of the State and local government in providing an enabling
environment for community development. In all, national governments should implement
effective decentralisation which will guarantee administrative, political, financial, social
and material empowerment of those at local government level. Without this, community
participation in development possibilities will be limited.
56