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Avocado oil: Production and market demand, bioactive components,

implications in health, and tendencies and potential uses
Article in Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety · June 2021

DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12784
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Received: 5 February 2021 Revised: 6 May 2021 Accepted: 17 May 2021
DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12784
COMPREH ENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY
Avocado oil: Production and market demand, bioactive

components, implications in health, and tendencies and
potential uses
Braulio Cervantes-Paz1,2 Elhadi M. Yahia1
1Facultad de Ciencias Naturales,

Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Abstract
Juriquilla, México Avocado is a subtropical/tropical fruit with creamy texture, peculiar flavor, and
2Instituto de Investigación de Zonas high nutritional value. Due to its high oil content, a significant quantity of avo-
Desérticas, Universidad Autónoma de San
Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí, México
cado fruit is used for the production of oil using different methods. Avocado oil
is rich in lipid-soluble bioactive compounds, but their content depends on differ-
Correspondence ent factors. Several phytochemicals in the oil have been linked to prevention of
Elhadi M. Yahia, Facultad de Ciencias Nat-
urales, Universidad Autónoma de Queré- cancer, age-related macular degeneration, and cardiovascular diseases and there-
taro Av. de las Ciencias S/N, Juriquilla, fore have generated an increase in consumer demand for avocado oil. The aim
Querétaro, Qro., 76230, México.
of this review is to critically and systematically analyze the worldwide produc-
Email: yahia@uaq.mx
tion and commercialization of avocado oil, its extraction methods, changes in its
Funding information fat-soluble phytochemical content, health benefits, and new trends and applica-
CONACyT, Grant/Award Numbers:
tions. There is a lack of information on the production and commercialization
I1200/169/2019, MOD.ORD./38/2019,
CB2017-2018, GENERAL, A1-S-28359 of the different types of avocado oil, but there are abundant data on extraction
methods using solvents, centrifugation-assisted aqueous extraction, mechanical
extraction by cold pressing (varying concentration and type of enzymes, tempera-
ture and time of reaction, and dilution ratio), ultrasound-assisted extraction, and
supercritical fluid to enhance the yield and quality of oil. Extensive information
is available on the content of fatty acids, although it is limited on carotenoids
and chlorophylls. The effect of avocado oil on cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascu-
lar diseases has been demonstrated through in vitro and animal studies, but not
in humans. Avocado oil continues to be of interest to the food, pharmaceutical,
and cosmetic industries and is also generating increased attention in other areas
including structured lipids, nanotechnology, and environmental care.
KEYWORDS
bioactive compounds, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, fatty acids, Persea americana, processing
1 INTRODUCTION lar diseases (CVD) (Cascio et al., 2012). Nevertheless, it has

been observed that the Mediterranean diet, using olive oil
Concerns for a better health in recent years have triggered a as the principal fat source (Bach-Faig et al., 2011), is associ-
particular interest in diverse dietary components, with spe- ated with good health, attributing such benefits to the high
cial attention to fat, which has been correlated to diverse levels of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) present in
diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascu- this oil (Hoenselaar, 2012).
4120 © 2021 Institute of Food Technologists!

R wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/crf3 Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2021;20:4120–4158.
AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. . . 4121
Similar to olive oil, avocado oil contains high MUFA the extraction methods used, the effect caused by diverse
levels (Berasategi et al., 2012; Krist, 2020; Villa-Rodríguez factors on the composition of fatty acids and LSBC, their
et al., 2011), particularly oleic acid (Nogueira-de-Almeida implications in human health, and recent innovations and
et al., 2018). In addition, other physicochemical charac- future trends of avocado oil.
teristics such as acids, iodine and peroxide values, and
unsaponifiable matter are also similar in avocado and
olive oils (Nogueira-de-Almeida et al., 2018). The other 2 PRODUCTION AND MARKET
vegetable oils (except coconut) show higher iodine and DEMAND OF AVOCADO OIL
saponification values, but lower acids values than avo-
cado and olive oils (Table 1). The similarity between The high nutritional value, creamy texture, and peculiar
both oils includes the lipid-soluble bioactive compounds flavor are features making the avocado (Persea americana)
(LSBC) content, such as total chlorophylls. However, total a unique fruit, generating an attraction by consumers and
phenolic compounds and total tocopherols appear to be an increase of world demand (Dreher & Davenport, 2013;
superior in olive oil than in avocado oil, whereas total Yahia, 2012). Although avocado is mostly consumed fresh,
carotenoids content is higher in avocado oil than in olive it is characterized by high oil content, and therefore, a sig-
oil. Canola, sunflower, peanut, and soybean oils have rela- nificant quantity of fruit is increasingly used for oil produc-
tively zero LSBC amounts (Table 1). The content of nutrition (Costagli & Betti, 2015; Wang et al., 2020). However,
ents (Nogueira-de-Almeida et al., 2018), fatty acids, and the world production of avocado oil is not enough to sup-
phytochemicals varies depending on the variety, harvest ply the food sector, but it is opening a window to explore
season, and ripening stage of the fruit (Ashton et al., 2006; the market (Nogueira-de-Almeida et al., 2018).
Lu et al., 2005, 2009). Thus, it is assumed that similar Avocado fruit production worldwide reached 7.31 mil-
to olive oil, avocado oil may contribute to risk reduction lion tons in 2019, Mexico being the main producer (31.5%),
of chronic degenerative diseases (Carvajal-Zarrabal et al., followed by the Dominican Republic (9.1%), Peru and
2014a, 2014b; Dreher & Davenport, 2013; Krist, 2020). Colombia (7.3% each), Indonesia (6.3%), Kenya (5%), and
Avocado oil is mainly obtained by mechanical (cold Brazil (3.3%) (FAO, 2021).
pressing) and chemical (use of organic solvents) methods Unfortunately, there are no accurate statistics on the
from the flesh of avocado fruit, although occasionally it total production of avocado oil, but in 2006 the Inter-
is also extracted from the skin and the seed. Fruit culti- national Trade Center (ITC) reported that annual world
var, maturity stage, extraction method (Costagli & Betti, avocado oil trade in 2005 grew on average by 13% in volume
2015; Wong et al., 2011), fruit tissue type, and different and 8% in value, with import figures of 371,000 tons, China
extraction conditions such as pH, temperature, or added (with export value of 14 million dollars) and India (with
enzymes (Werman & Neeman, 1987) are factors determin- export value of 9 million dollars) being the main suppliers
ing the avocado oil yield and quality (Permal et al., 2020; to the international markets, whereas the United States,
Woolf et al., 2009; Yang et al., 2020). The commonly pro- Malaysia, and Germany were the main consumers (24%,
duced oil has the quality grade for culinary uses, but it is 8%, and 7%, respectively) (FAO, 2017). In 2008–2009, it
usually further refined for the cosmetic industry (Costagli was reported that an average of 3% of the total avocado
& Betti, 2015; Tan, 2019). crop was destined for avocado oil production in New
Avocado is mostly consumed fresh, but the recent Zealand (Wong et al., 2010). In the same season, New
demand for avocado oil has increased considerably due to Zealand exported about 217.3 tons of avocado oil, of which
its potential use in the culinary and cosmetic industries, 150,000 L were extra-virgin oil (Wong et al., 2014), whereas
and its beneficial effects on human health (Krist, 2020). Chile and México exported 54.2 and 23.7 tons, respectively
Although avocado oil extraction methods and its content (SAGARPA, 2015). It has been reported that the largest
of lipids and nutritional components have been well doc- avocado oil market region in 2016 was the American con-
umented (Flores et al., 2019; Nogueira-de-Almeida et al., tinent with 600,000 tons (68.8%), followed by Asia with
2018; Rydlewski et al., 2020), there has not been a sys- 432,000 tons (22.6%) and Europe with 193,000 tons (8.6%)
tematic review that discusses the content of other LSBC, (Avocado Oil Market: Global Industry Analysis 2012–2016
especially carotenoids and chlorophylls, as well as their and Opportunity Assessment 2017–2027 [https://www.
changes caused by extraction methods and conditions, marketresearchreports.biz/food-and-beverages/13944/
type of avocado, harvest time, and ripening stage. Informa- avocado-oil-global-industry-analysis-market-research-
tion on the implications of these LSBC in human health, as reports; https://www.statista.com/statistics/931200/
well as innovations in the use of avocado oil, is also limited. global-avocado-oil-market-share-by-region/]). Informa-
Therefore, the aim objective of this review was to present tion and data on the global avocado oil market, including
an overview of the current status of avocado oil, discussing production, imports and exports, consumption, costs, and
4122
TA B L E 1 Physicochemical characteristics and phytochemical content of avocado oil and other vegetable oils
Avocado Olive Soybean Sunflower Canola Peanut Coconut
IV (g iodine/g fat) 75–83e , 88–91f , 82–95h , 83.1s , 75–94t , 80u , 80–88 m , 80o 120–136 m , 132o , 102u , 79–128d , 110–126c , 111u , 82–106a , 6.3–10.6w , 7–10 m
83–95i , 78j , 62–72k , 119p 125–144 m 84–105 m
AV (mg KOH/g oil) 0.14–2.8h , 0.4–1.5j , 0.4–2.2k , 0.2–0.4n 0.6p 1.4q 0.6–4.0w
e h m m m m
SV (mg KOH/g oil) 178–186 , 168–263 , 185–196 188–195 188–194 185–196 248–265w ,
120–232k , 250–262 m
PV (meq O2 /kg oil) 3.3–7.4f , 0.18–0.23 g , 6.4u , 0.98–2.5v , 3.4–4.5n , 0.96–1.8b , 2.3–6.9o 4.2u 2.4q 8.4u , 10a
3.7–12.7h , 4.8–12.2j , 1.3–4.3o
1.2–2.6k , 0.8–15r
FFA (%) 0.29–0.38e , 1.8–2 g , 0.3–1.1r 0.82u , 0.1–0.3v 0.05–0.7b , 0.3–1c 0.81u , 0.4–1.2c , 0.72q 1.4u , 0.05a
UM (%) 1.4–1.6e 1.2u , <1.4 m 0.3–1.6b , 0.5–1.6c , 0.8u , 0.4–1.4 m 0.5–1.2c , 0.54q 0.9u , 0.4a , 0.5–1 m <1.5w , 0.15–0.6 m
0.5–1.5 m
TAG (%) 95–99b , 93–99c 94–99cp
u r n b c d
PPL (g/kg) 1.7 , 0.39 0.04–0.14 0.003–2.5 , <4.0 0.72–0.86 <2.5c 2.5–9a
Phytochemicals
Avocado Olive Soybean Sunflower Canola Peanut Coconut
Fatty acids (%)
SFA 36e , 22–24f , 15–22h , 15–31i , 18.7u , 16–18v , 9–20 m , 12–16n 16b , 15c 9.6u , 12.6b 7b , 6.5c , 6.3p 19.8u , 1–13a , 20b 92w
25–27j , 22–41k , 12–18l ,
11–27 m , 10–16r
MUFA 47e , 64–67f , 62–67h , 49–69i , 73u , 63–75v , 64–86 m , 72–81n 23b , 24c 70u , 18.7b 65b , 62c , 62.4p 55u , 41–67a , 48b 6.4w
60–62j , 37–61k , 69–78l ,
56–76 m , 63–86r
PUFA 17e , 11–12f , 15–18h , 14–20i , 9.5u , 6–14v , 5–11n 61b,c 21.6u , 68.7b 28b , 31.5c , 31.3p 23.7u , 14–35a , 32b 1.6w
12j , 14–21k , 10–18l , 8–20r
TC (mg/kg) 72–105f , 0.9–3.5r 6.2u , 1.1–3.4 g , 1.8–25n , <10p 3.1u , 0.01–0.02d 2.2q 1.8u
TCh (mg/kg) 1–1.4f , 8–28 g , 11–19r 0.4–31n 0.05–0.1c , 0.09q
f r v n b d
TT (mg/kg) 40.5–60.5 , 70–190 6–14 , 38–650 0.11–0.21 , 0.6–0.7 1.7–2.2c , 3.3q 5.4w
0.7–1.2c , 1.2d
TPC (mg/kg) 109–774f 55–180v , 1083–1610n 756q
Abbreviations: AV, acid value; FFA, free fatty acid; IV, iodine value; MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acid; PPL, phospholipids; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acid; PV, peroxide value; SFA, saturated fatty acid; SV, saponifi-
cation value; TAG, triacylglycerides; TC, total carotenoids; TCh, total chlorophylls; TPC, total phenolic compounds; TT, total tocopherols; UM, unsaponifiable matter.
Sources: a Sanders (2002); b Wang (2002); c Przybylski and Mag (2002); d Gupta (2011); e Tan et al. (2018a); f Krumreich et al. (2018); g Wong et al. (2011); h Moreno et al. (2003); i Yanty et al. (2011); j Santana et al. (2015); k Galvão
et al. (2014); l Werman and Neeman (1987); m Thomas et al. (2000); n García-González and Aparicio (2006); o Naz et al. (2004); p Eskin (2016); q Teh and Birch (2013); r Woolf et al. (2009); s Azlan et al. (2010); t Boskou (2006);
u
Konuskan et al. (2019); v Xiang et al. (2017); w Pantzaris and Basiron (2002).
AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. . .
prices, are still very limited; however, it is important to of polygalacturonase and cellulase enzymes, resulting in
highlight the growing demand in recent years. In addition, the degradation of parenchyma cell walls and the release of
it is crucial to consider the different avocado oil types, with some oil bodies in emulsion form (Platt-Aloia et al., 1980).
different quality characteristics, and therefore variable However, the thick cellular wall of the idioblast remains
prices. intact (Figure 1b) (Platt & Thomson, 1992). Therefore, the
Extra-virgin avocado oil is a viscous edible oil of appeal- implementation of thermal, enzymatic, and mechanical
ing dark green color (due to chlorophylls and carotenoids treatments, as well as the use of solvents, is needed to facili-
contents) and mild taste, extracted from the avocado fruit, tate the release of the oil bodies and to obtain a higher yield
mostly by cold pressing, without undergoing alterations in (Figure 1c).
its nature by the addition of chemicals or subsequent pro- Traditionally, avocado oil was extracted from dried fruit
cessing (Permal et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020). This oil is tissue by means of organic solvents. However, mechanical
distinguished as a high-quality oil (Flores et al., 2019) with methods are also used due to the lack of solvents and tech-
appreciable flavor, color, and texture, as unlike other edi- nology for drying fruit (Costagli & Betti, 2015). Advances in
ble oils obtained from seeds, avocado oil is isolated from new technologies for avocado oil extraction have increased
mesocarp tissue surrounding the seeds (Wong et al., 2010; considerably, giving rise to different available methods.
Woolf et al., 2009; Tan, 2019). Crude avocado oil presents Currently, the most commonly used methods for oil extrac-
similar characteristic of viscosity to extra-virgin avocado tion include the extraction with solvents, aqueous extrac-
oil (Botha, 2004); however, its appearance is unpleasant tion and centrifugation, and mechanical extraction by cold
because it is extracted from poor-quality avocado fruit pressing (Permal et al., 2020; Qin & Zhong, 2016).
(including the pulp with seeds and skin), where the high
pigment levels cause a yellowish green color (Flores et al.,
2019). Refined avocado oil is light in color, odorless, free of 3.1 Extraction with solvents
waxes, and low in free fatty acids, obtained mainly from
crude oil, but also from extra-virgin oil, which are sub- Extraction with solvents is the most widespread process
mitted to processes of degumming, bleaching, deodorizing, used for vegetable oil production (Moreno et al., 2003;
winterizing, and neutralization (Flores et al., 2019; Msika Mostert et al., 2007). This method is most common for oil
& Legrand, 2010; Ruíz-Méndez & Dobarganes, 2011; Woolf extraction from seeds, and also used to extract oil from avo-
et al., 2009). cado fruit. It involves the use of an organic solvent (mostly
Avocado oil yield (crude, extra-virgin, and refined) hexane) as extraction agent to separate the oil from the
depends on the extraction methods and other factors (vari- fruit material (Rosenthal et al., 1996), although other sol-
ety, ripening stage, and quality of fruit), resulting in dif- vents such as acetone, petroleum ether, ethyl ether, chlo-
ferences in the content of health-promoting LSBC (Flores roform, and benzene have also been employed (Costagli
et al., 2019; Krist, 2020; Tan, 2019; Wang et al., 2020). An & Betti, 2015; Lewis et al., 1978; Woolf et al., 2009). Cur-
update of recent data on avocado oil extraction methods, rently, the extraction of avocado oil with solvents using the
phytochemicals content, potential applications, and their Soxhlet method is used as a reference with other extrac-
health effects is compiled and discussed in the following tion methods to compare factors such as yield and qual-
sections. ity characteristics of the oil according to the American Oil
Chemists Society and/or Codex Alimentarius (fatty acids
composition, peroxide, iodine and saponification values,
3 EXTRACTION METHODS and specific gravity) (Nogueira-de-Almeida et al., 2018),
and others such as refraction index, electrical conductiv-
Avocado has a single seed (drupe) and consists of pericarp ity, content of LSBC (Flores et al., 2019), odor, color, taste,
(skin), mesocarp (pulp), and endocarp (seed) (Nogueira- stability, smoke point, and moisture are also considered as
de-Almeida et al., 2018). In avocado, the mesocarp of the quality parameters (Satriana et al., 2019) (Table 2).
flesh is composed of parenchyma and idioblasts cells (Tan, The general process to extract avocado oil using solvents
2019). The parenchyma tissue contains oil bodies as a finely (Figure 2a) starts with removing the moisture from fruit
dispersed emulsion surrounded by a thin cellulose wall tissue (pieces or slices of avocado) in a dryer by passing
(Yang et al., 2018), whereas idioblasts are specialized cells through a hot air current (Rosenthal et al., 1996). Then,
containing large oil sacs covered by a thick cellular wall the plant tissues interact with the hexane in an extrac-
composed by three walls: (a) cellulosic wall, (2) suberin tor, which usually flow in an opposite direction in order
layer, and (3) tertiary wall (Figure 1a) (Cummings & to extract the oil from the cellular material (a stirring pro-
Schroeder, 1942; Platt & Thomson, 1992). Major oil content cess is occasionally applied for a more efficient oil extrac-
is obtained from ripe avocado fruit due to increased activity tion) (Costagli & Betti, 2015; Qin & Zhong, 2016). The
4124
TA B L E 2 Overview of extraction methods used in the last 20 years, evaluating process conditions, and avocado oil yield
Method and oil type extracted Avocado variety and conditions of the process Oil yield (DW) and conclusions Reference
Extraction with solvents (liquid)
Extraction with hexane by Goldfisch fat Hass varieties and Mexican creole avocado from Oil yield in Hass var. Espinosa-Alonso et al. (2017)
extraction apparatus municipalities of Michoacan and Guanajuato from Uruapan (18.3%)
CAO Avocado pulp died by freeze-dried and oven (40◦ C/48 from Mexican export (18.3)
hr) submitted to extraction (hexane during 6 hr) Oil yield in Mexican creole var.
from Tancitaro (21%–27%)
from Irapuato (20.9%)
from Uruapan (19%–20%)
from Tacambaro (25.2%)
Extraction with hexane and ethanol by “Philippine 240” variety Oil yield with hexane (40%) Gatbonton et al. (2013)
Soxhlet Freeze-dried avocado pulp submitted to extraction by Oil yield with ethanol (74%)
CAO Soxhlet at 100◦ C (hexane during 1–2 hr and ethanol Oil obtained with ethanol showed the highest quality.
during 4–8 hr)
Extraction with petroleum ether and “Hass” variety Oil yield (17.1%) Jiménez et al. (2001)
hexane by Soxhlet Avocado puree samples dried by MW and oven Using oven-dry (76%–80%)
CAO Extraction time with hexane: 6 hr Using MW (82%–88%)
Avocado oil obtained by MW presented the best
quality.
Extraction with petroleum ether by “Fuerte” and “Hass” varieties Oil yield by Soxhlet (11%–20% FW) Ozdemir and Topuz (2004)
Soxhlet Avocado pieces dried at 70◦ C in a stove
CAO
Extraction with hexane and “Margarida” variety Combination hexane/acetone presented the best Salgado et al. (2008)
hexane/acetone (1:1) by Soxhlet Avocado pulp dried in oven at 50◦ C results in yields and general characteristics of the
CAO and RAO oil.
Extraction with hexane by Soxhlet “Hass” avocado dried at 70◦ C in a stove Oil yield by Soxhlet (18%–20% FW) Villa-Rodríguez et al. (2011)
CAO
(Continues)
TA B L E 2 (Continued)
Extraction with hexane by Soxhlet “Hass” and “Malaysian” varieties Oil yield for “Hass” variety (55%) Yanty et al. (2011)
CAO Mesocarp pieces dried in a tray type dryer for 24 hr at Oil yield for “Malaysian” cultivars (30%–33%)
60◦Extraction
C with petroleum ether by Soxhlet The oil from “Hass” variety had a higher degree of
(40–60◦ C) unsaturation in its fatty acid and TAG
compositions than that from “Malaysian” cultivars.
Extraction with hexane by Soxhlet and “Hass” variety Oil yield by Soxhlet (61%) Meyer and Terry (2008)
homogenization Freeze-dried avocado mesocarp submitted to Oil yield by homogenization (54%)
CAO homogenization with hexane (60 ml) and Average oil yield using Soxhlet was higher than that
Ultra-Turrax obtained by homogenization with hexane.
Freeze-dried avocado mesocarp submitted to
extraction by Soxhlet (70◦ C/1 hr)
Extraction with hexane by “Hass” variety Oil yield by homogenization (57%–59%) Meyer and Terry (2010)
homogenization Freeze-dried avocado mesocarp submitted to
CAO homogenization with hexane (60 ml) and
Ultra-Turrax
Extraction with hexane and acetone by Unknown variety Oil yield with hexane (54%) Moreno et al. (2003)
Soxhlet and by MW–S Avocado pulp dried by MW and oil extracted by Oil yield with acetone (12%)
CAO squeezing Oil yield using MW–S (65%)
Avocado pulp dried by oven (70◦ C) and oil extracted Oil yield using MW–hexane (97%)
with hexane during 4 hr Extraction methods modify the avocado
Avocado pulp dried by MW and oil extracted with physical–chemical characteristics.
hexane during 4 hr The MW–S method caused the lowest change to the
Avocado particles and oil extracted with acetone (25 oil.
and 55◦ C)
Extraction with hexane and acetone by “Hass” variety Oil yield with hexane (59%) Ortiz et al. (2004)
Soxhlet and by MW–pressing Avocado pulp dried in MW (95◦ C) and oil obtained Oil yield with acetone (12%)
CAO through a cloth mesh by pressing the pulp Oil yield using MW–S (67%).
Extraction with hexane according AOCS and with MW–S conserved the cell shape and oil quality
acetone according to the U.S. Patent 4560568. Idioblasts presented irregular and rough shape
caused by hexane.
Acetone was unable to fully extract the oil from
inside the cell wall, which was deformed.
(Continues)
4125
4126
Extraction with solvents (supercritical fluids)
Extraction with hexane by Soxhlet and “Fortuna” variety Oil yield with hexane (58%) Abaide et al., 2017
by SFE-CO2 and compressed LPG Avocado pulp dehydrated by oven during 24 hr Oil yield using SFE-CO2 (10%–40%)
CAO Extraction with hexane: 2.5 hr Oil yield using compressed LPG (56%–60%)
Extraction with SFE-CO2 : 2.5 h, 313 K/25 MPa at Compressed LPG caused an oil yield three times
4 g/min higher than SFE-CO2 .
Extraction with LPG: 10 min, 293 K/2.5 MPa at
4 g/min
Extraction by SFE-CO2 “Hass” variety Oil yield (68% DW and 22% FW) Barros et al., 2016
CAO Freeze-dried avocado.
Extraction with SFE-CO2 at 50◦ C and 400 bar
Extraction with hexane by Soxhlet and “Fuerte” variety SFE-CO2 presented better results in the AO Botha, 2004
by SFE-CO2 Avocado slices unpeeled dried by oven at 80◦ C for 24 extraction than hexane
CAO hr Use of organic solvents was unnecessary by using
Extraction with hexane during 8 hr SFE-CO2 , which, in turn, reduced extraction time
Extraction by SFE-CO2 at 4.5 ml/min and pressure of
350 and 532 atm during 2 hr
Extraction with hexane Soxhlet and by Unknown variety Oil yield with hexane (65%) Corzzini et al., 2017
SFE-CO2 and SFE-CO2 /ethanol Freeze-dried avocado pulp submitted to SFE-CO2 and Oil yield by SFE-CO2 plus
CAO SFE-CO2 /ethanol (93:7) at 40, 60, and 80◦ C and SFE-CO2/ethanol (26%–65%)
pressures of 200, 300, and 400 bar The AO yield was higher due to it was more feasible
at higher pressure (400 bar) during SFE-CO2 .
Extraction with hexane by Soxhlet and “Fuerte” variety Oil yield with hexane (63%–72%) Mostert et al., 2007
SFE-CO2 Avocado fruit pieces freeze-dried or oven-dried Oil yield using SFE-CO2 (52%–65%)
CAO (80◦ C/24 hr). Freeze-dried avocado showed greater oil
Extraction with hexane (70◦ C/8 hr) extractability than oven-dried avocado
SFE-CO2 at 1.7 ML/min (temp of 37◦ C and pressure Hexane showed higher oil yields than SFE-CO2 , due
of 350 atm). to a less selectivity during extraction.
Extraction with hexane by Soxhlet, “Fuerte” and “Hass” varieties Oil yield with hexane (64%–65%) Reddy et al., 2012
Ultrasound, Ultra-Turrax, SFE-CO2 Avocados dried in an oven at 45◦ C and by MW Oil yield by ultrasound (55%–59%)
(11 min) Oil yield by Ultra-Turrax (63%–64%)
Ultrasound at 60◦ C/1 hr Oil yield by MW (61%–70%)
Extraction by Soxhlet (69–75◦ C/24 hr) Oil yield by SFE-CO2 (60%–63%)
SFE-CO2 at flow rate of 2.8−3.5 ml/min during 2 hr
(Continues)
Aqueous extraction and centrifugation
Aqueous extraction (hot water) and Unknown variety Oil yield in FW (10%–12%) Kameni & Tchamo, 2003
Extraction with hexane by Soxhlet Extraction with hexane and with boiling water for Avocado treated with hot water resulted in a higher
CAO 15–20 min plus 10 additional min oil yield than the obtained by traditional soft
treatment in palm.
Extraction by pressing Adding enzymes “Fuerte” variety Oil yield with pectinex (66%–79%) Schwartz et al., 2007
and centrifuging. Extraction with Avocado triturate added with enzyme (pectinex, Oil yield with olivex (67%–71%)
petroleum ether by Soxhlet olivex, and pectinex/olivex) at 40◦ C, pressed (100 Oil yield with pectinex/olivex (68%–82%)
CAO kg/cm), and centrifugated (4750 rpm) Extraction with pectinex and pectinex/olivex
treatments showed the best oil yields.
High enzyme concentration is related to a higher oil
yield.
Mechanical extraction by cold pressing
Extraction by cold pressing, Soxhlet “Hass” variety Oil yield by Soxhlet (17.1% FW) Duque et al., 2012
(hexane), and SFE-CO2 Avocado was dried in stove and solar dryer at 45◦ C, Oil yield by cold pressing (16.5% FW)
CAO and lyophilized. Oil yield by SFE-CO2 (18.9% FW)
Extraction by SFE-CO2 presented the best results in
quality (iodine index, acidity index, oxidation of
MUFA and PUFA) and yields of oil.
Extraction by cold pressing and by “Fortune” variety Oil yield by Soxhlet (45%–57%) dos Santos et al., 2014
Soxhlet with petroleum ether Avocado pulp dried by lyophilization and in an oven Oil yield by cold pressing (25%–33%)
CAO with air circulation at 40 and 70◦ C The best oil yield resulted by Soxhlet and
Extraction by cold pressing (9 tons pressure at room Lyophilization methods; however, cold pressing
temperature) and lyophilization exhibited better bioactive
Extraction by Soxhlet during 5 hr content than the other methods.
Extraction by cold pressing and Soxhlet “Breda” variety Oil yield by Soxhlet (43%–55%) Krumreich et al., 2018
(petroleum ether) Avocado portions dried by oven with air ventilation Oil yield by cold pressing (25%–43%)
CAO at 40◦ C, oven drying at 60◦ C, and vacuum oven at The best AO yields with high-quality parameters and
60◦ C bioactive properties were obtained by mechanical
Extraction by cold pressing (9 tons pressure at room pressing, drying the pulp in a vacuum oven at 60◦ C.
temperature).
Extraction by Soxhlet during 6 hr
(Continues)
4127
4128
Extraction by cold pressing (malaxation “Hass” variety Oil yield (3%–17.5%) Martínez-Padilla et al., 2018
and centrifugation at 5020 × g) Avocado puree treated with ultrasound at low Oil yield without malaxation (50%)
CAO (18 + 40 kHz) and high (2 MHz) frequencies and Oil yield with malaxation during 15 min (70%–75%),
time of sonication (2.5−10 min), not including 30 min (85%–88%), and 60 min (91%–95%)
malaxation
Megasonic post-malaxation (15, 30, and 60 min)
Extraction by cold pressing Unknown variety Oil yield in FW (6.3%) Nwaokobia et al., 2018
Edible avocado oil (VAO) Oil crushed by blender The low oil yield was attributed to speed used below
Malaxing during 90 min at 60◦ C. Oil extraction by ideal speed (12000 rpm)
centrifugation at 7000 rpm during 15 min at 40◦ C The low temperatures maintained the nutrients,
flavor, and richness, retaining healthy properties of
avocado oil.
Extraction by cold pressing “Hass” variety Malaxation for 120 min at 40 and 50◦ C presented the Ramírez-Anaya et al., 2018
VAO Mature avocado pulp homogenized with a domestic best oil yield (83% and 80%, respectively)
roller. Malaxing (90 rpm) during 0, 20, 30, 40, 60,
120, and 180 min at 40 and 50◦ C
Extraction by cold pressing and Soxhlet Unknown variety Oil yield with petroleum ether (44%–56%) Santana et al., 2015
(petroleum ether or ethanol) Avocado pulp dried by MWs (80% power level) or Oil yield with ethanol (44%)
CAO oven with forced air (45–60◦ C/5 hr) and treated Oil yield by MW–pressing (56%)
with pectinase enzyme (0.05%) Oil yield by oven drying–pressing (50%–61%)
Extraction with petroleum ether or ethanol in a water Drying at 60◦ C and pressing resulted in the highest
bath (45 and 60◦ C, respectively) oil yield.
Extraction by pressing at 22◦ C Oils extracted with solvent had residual moisture,
suggesting a refining step.
Extraction by cold pressing “Hass” variety Oil yield at 2000 psi (26%–33%) Serpa et al., 2014
CAO Avocado pieces lyophilized during 24 Extraction
hr by Oil yield at 2500 psi (45%–56%)
cold pressing at 2000 and 2500 psi during 30 min The best oil yields were obtained freezing the avocado
pulp during 6 hr and extracting at 2500 psi during
30 min
(Continues)
UAA–pressing–centrifugation, Soxhlet Unknown avocado variety Oil yield with hexane (21%) Tan et al., 2017
(hexane), and SFE-CO2 Pulp dried during 3 days at 35◦ C with a dryer Oil yield using SFE-CO2 (17%)
VAO Extraction by UAA–pressing (30 min of sonication at Oil yield using UAA–pressing (15%)
35◦ C) and centrifugation at 8000 rpm SFE-CO2 - and UAA-extracted oils were lighter in
Extraction with hexane (70◦ C/8 hr) color and contained higher levels of unsaturated
Extraction by SFE-CO2 (68 bar) fatty acids than solvent-extracted oil.
UAA–pressing–centrifugation, Soxhlet Unknown avocado variety Oil yield with hexane (21%) Tan et al., 2018b
(hexane), and SFE-CO2 Pulp dried during 3 days at 35◦ C with a dryer Oil yield using SFE-CO2 (17%)
VAO Extraction by UAA–pressing (30 min of sonication at Oil yield using UAA–pressing (15%)
35◦ C) and centrifugation at 8000 rpm SFE-CO2 - and UAA-extracted oils were lighter in
Extraction with hexane (70◦ C/8 hr) color and contained higher levels of unsaturated
Extraction by SFE-CO2 (68 bar) fatty acids than solvent-extracted oil
Abbreviations: AO, avocado oil; CAO, crude avocado oil; LPG, liquefied petroleum gas; MW, microwave; RAO, refined avocado oil; S, squeezing; SFE-CO2 , supercritical fluid extraction with carbon dioxide; UAA,
ultrasound-assisted aqueous; VAO, virgin avocado oil.
4129
4130 AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. . .
F I G U R E 1 (a) Representative scheme of the mesocarp structure of avocado composed by parenchyma and idioblasts cells containing
large oil sacs. (b) Parenchyma and the release of oil during avocado ripening (degradation of primary wall of parenchyma cells by
polygalacturonase, but cork tissue wall of idioblastic cells remains intact). (c) Mesocarp after thermal, mechanical enzymes treatments and
addition of solvents: increase in the release of oil bodies from the emulsion and idioblastics. IO, idioblastic oil sacs; OD, oil droplet emulsioned
inside; P, parenchyma; PG, polygalacturonase; PP,= protoplasm; TWI, thick wall of idioblasts
solvent is separated from the oil by distillation in a collec- contents that significantly affect the oil yield. Thus, drying
tor, and recovered to be re-used. Finally, solvent residues pretreatments of avocado pulp and slices are used in
are removed in an evaporator and the solids are retained order to diminish the water interference (Qin & Zhong,
using a filter, thus obtaining the crude oil (Rosenthal et al., 2016). The conventional strategies involve oven-drying
1996). This crude oil can be submitted to a refining pro- and sun-drying, which are time-consuming and present
cess, which involves degumming, neutralization, bleach- a fairly high risk of poor oil quality (Santana et al., 2015).
ing, and deodorizing steps to obtain refined avocado oil. On the other hand, new treatments that involve the use of
Due to the high moisture content in the avocado pulp freeze-drying (dos Santos et al., 2014; Mostert et al., 2007)
(approximately 80%), there are differences in the cellular and microwaves (Jiménez et al., 2001; López et al., 2004;
F I G U R E 2 General diagram of the most common methods for the extraction of avocado oil. (a) Chemical extraction by solvents; (b)
extraction by centrifugation and hot water; (c) cold-pressing extraction; and (d) refining process (R)
Moreno et al., 2003) achieved successful dehydration that microwave causes only slight modifications in the
of avocado pulp with very slight oil quality changes in idioblastic cells shape, whereas other pretreatments pro-
comparison with conventional processes. dos Santos et al. duce irregularity and roughness in the cells (Ortiz et al.,
(2014) demonstrated that oil yield was higher when avo- 2004).
cado pulp was dried by lyophilization and petroleum ether Recently, new supplementary technologies have been
was used for the extraction (45%–57%), in comparison to implemented with the purpose of decreasing the pollution
pulp treated with circulating air at 40 or 70◦ C (25%–33%). and improving the yield and the quality of the extracted
Similar results were previously reported by Mostert et al. avocado oil. These technologies include ultrasound-
(2007) who achieved higher oil yield extracted from assisted extraction (Martínez-Padilla et al., 2018; Tan, et al.,
pieces of ripe and unripe avocados dried by freeze-drying 2017, 2018a, 2018b, 2018c, 2018d), supercritical fluid extrac-
(68%–72%) than those treated by oven-drying (63%–70%). tion (Abaide et al., 2017; Barros et al., 2016; Corzzini et al.,
On the other hand, Moreno et al. (2003) reported that the 2017; Tan, 2019; Tan et al., 2018a), and pressurized fluids
combination of microwave–hexane was the most efficient (Abaide et al., 2017). Operational conditions and results
method for avocado oil extraction (almost 70% yield) regarding these technologies for the extraction of avocado
in comparison with microwave–squeezing, microwave– oil are compiled in Table 2.
acetone, and vacuum oven–hexane. However, in a later The emission of organic volatile compounds, fire and
study (Ortiz et al., 2004), the same authors observed that explosion hazards, and possible toxicity due to toxic
the microwave–squeezing method was more efficient residues are the main disadvantages of the use of sol-
(yield of 67%) than the extraction with hexane (59%) vent extraction methods. However, the low exposition of
and acetone (12%). Santana et al. (2015) observed that plant material to mechanical stress, the high oil yields, and
oil from avocado pulp dried with microwave achieved the development of continuous solvent-extraction systems
similar oil yield (56%), but better-quality features (acid stand out as advantages of these methods (Rosenthal et al.,
and peroxide values) compared with oil from avocado 1996). However, tissue water content, solvent quantity, and
pulp dried by oven with forced air. These quality prop- temperature and time of extraction are important factors to
erties are probably related to the damage caused by consider for higher oil yield (Costagli & Betti, 2015; Qin &
the different pretreatments, because it has been shown Zhong, 2016).
trifugation at 6000 × g produced a good oil extraction (up

3.2 Aqueous extraction and man and Neeman (1987) previously demonstrated that cen-
centrifugation
to 65%) from fresh avocado flesh blended with water con-
The centrifugation-assisted aqueous extraction method taining 5% NaCl, at 75◦ C. In addition to the lower risk of
has been developed to reduce energy costs and air pollu- fire and explosion in the process, its main advantages are
tion by solvents (Eyres et al., 2001). This extraction method the high-quality product with high purity and the sensi-
is based on the diffusion of oil-medium compounds in tivity to the environment that make this method ideal for
water, resulting in the release of oil previously embedded the extraction of avocado oil (Qin & Zhong, 2016; Rosen-
in the original structure (Rosenthal et al., 1996). The pro- thal et al., 1996). On the other hand, low yield, high energy
cess to obtain avocado oil by aqueous extraction and cen- and enzyme costs, and high effluent levels are the main dis-
trifugation is shown in Figure 2b. In general, this method advantages. Undoubtedly, the oil extraction assisted with
involves the peeling and destoning of the fruit, followed by enzymes, centrifugation, and salts significantly enhances
mashing. Then, the paste is treated in a reactor with hot the avocado oil yields, but such yields have shown a great
water, enzymes, and salts (NaOH, CaCO3 , CaSO4 , chalk, variability mainly due to the centrifugal force, concentra-
etc.) to promote the oil release (Bizimana et al., 1993; Buen- tion and type of enzymes, water temperature and time of
rostro & López-Munguia, 1986). Once the pulp slurry is reaction, and dilution ratio. Improvements in the processes
formed and oil is released from the tissue, the oil recov- continue to establish optimal yields of avocado oil in the
ery from the emulsion is performed by gravity (in this case avocado oil industry.
by centrifugation) (Costagli & Betti, 2015; Werman & Nee-
man, 1987). Wastewater can be re-centrifuged to separate
the solids. 3.3 Mechanical extraction by cold
Thermal, mechanical, and enzymatic processes destroy pressing
cells, and the oil from the resultant oil–water emulsion
is recovered (Werman & Neeman, 1987). The addition of The extraction of avocado virgin oil with the cold press-
hot water to the tissue (avocado mash) to dissolve the ing method is similar to that for the extraction of olive
oil-medium compounds facilitates the release of oil and oil (Permal et al., 2020). This method was first developed
inhibits the lipolytic enzyme activity, which hydrolyzes in New Zealand for applications in the culinary indus-
and oxidizes nutritional components of the oil thereby try, mainly as cooking oil or in salads (Eyres et al., 2001).
decreasing the quality of the product (Qin & Zhong, 2016; Pressing involves a compression step to release the liquid
Werman & Neeman, 1987). On the other hand, the use of from the plant porous matrix. To carry out this process,
enzymes (mostly hydrolytic) such as proteases, pectinases, screws or hydraulic/mechanic presses can be used (Qin &
cellulases, and hemicellulases to break the cell wall struc- Zhong, 2016; Schwartzberg, 1997). In the case of cold press-
ing, the avocado tissue is squeezed by mechanical screw
presses at temperatures below 50◦ C to prevent alterations
ture and promote the release of oil bodies is commonly
employed to obtain higher oil yields (Domínguez et al.,
1994; Rosenthal et al., 1996). Additionally, changes of spe- in the oil (Rydlewski et al., 2020), maintaining the qual-
cific conditions such as extraction pH and temperature are ity and sensory and composition characteristics of the vir-
also needed to some extent due to the variation in physic- gin oil (Permal et al., 2020; Tan, 2019; Wong et al., 2014).
ochemical characteristics of the avocado tissues (Rosen- In general, the cold-pressing method includes the peeling
thal et al., 1996). However, factors such as the concentra- and destoning of the fruit followed by mashing, oil extrac-
tion and type of enzyme, temperature and time of reaction, tion by horizontal decanter centrifuge, and oil purification
and dilution ratio (plant material:water) are of great impor- and recovery by vertical centrifuges (Figure 2c) (Costagli &
tance to improve the oil yield (Qin & Zhong, 2016). Betti, 2015; Permal et al., 2020; Qin & Zhong, 2016; Wong
Currently, centrifugation has replaced gravity separa- et al., 2014). Thermal and mechanical pretreatments are
tion due to the higher oil yields obtained (Qin & Zhong, used before squeezing to enhance the extraction of the oil
Munguía (1986) used centrifugation at 12,300 × g for avo-

2016; Rosenthal et al., 1996). Buenrostro and López- (Savoire et al., 2013).
Avocado fruit that does not meet requirements for fresh
cado oil recovery, obtaining the highest yield (up to 70%) market, especially for export, is commonly treated with
using α-amylase. These results were also dependent on ethylene for uniform fruit ripening and to extract high-
temperature and dilution ratio (optimal conditions at 65◦ C quality virgin oil (Tan, 2019; Wong et al., 2014). After
that the same centrifugal force (12,300 × g) yielded 78%,

and 1:5, respectively). Bizimana et al. (1993) demonstrated removing dirt, dust, and residues from the surface of
more than the lower velocity (6000 × g). In contrast, Wer-

the fruit by washing, avocados are peeled and pitted on
a destoner by rotary paddles smashing the fruit against
internal wall of stainless-steel screen, resulting in a fine and enzymes during malaxing reduces the pulp–water–oil
pulp for an efficient mashing process (Costagli & Betti, paste viscosity and breakdown cell walls releasing oil from
2015; Tan, 2019; Wong et al., 2014). The skin separation the idioblast cells (Wong et al., 2010, 2014). Although it
determines the oil quality due to the effect of different has been indicated that industrially it is common to add
pigment contents in the pulp. The pulp is characterized water and exogenous enzymes during oil extraction by cold
by the presence of chlorophylls and carotenoids, whereas pressing (Costagli & Betti, 2015; Permal et al., 2020), there
the skin is abundant in chlorophylls and anthocyanins, are very few studies that report this effect on the extraction
which confer green to dark coloration (Ashton et al., of oil, specifically on avocado using cold pressing. Buen-
2006). Krumreich et al. (2018) observed that avocado oil rostro and López-Munguia (1986) applied water (1:4 ratio)
extracted by the cold-pressing method exhibited a higher and different enzymes (pectinase, α-amylase, protease, and
content of carotenoids (104–105 mg/kg), chlorophylls (1.3– cellulase) to increase the avocado oil yield and to replace
1.4 mg/kg), phenolic compounds (721–774 mg/kg), and α- the pressing. Schwartz et al. (2007) added pectinolytic and
tocopherol (58–65 mg/kg) in comparison to oil extracted hemicellulitic enzymes, individually and mixed at differ-
with petroleum ether. Wong et al. (2011) demonstrated that ent concentrations during avocado oil extraction by press-
the content of carotenoids and chlorophylls increased from ing, and concluded that the mixture of enzymes in concen-
1.1 to 3.2 µg/g and from 7 to 28 µg/g, respectively, due to tration of 1:1 achieved the highest oil yield (80%). Signifi-
increasing the skin proportion from 0% to 100%. The high cant increases in the yield of other oils by the addition of
content of carotenoids and chlorophylls in cold-pressed water and exogenous enzymes during cold pressing have
avocado oil may be indicative of an oil of health-related also been reported (Concha, et al., 2004; Soto et al., 2007;
benefits, in comparison to avocado oil obtained by other Zuñiga et al., 2003).
methods (Ashton et al., 2006; Santos & Fernandes, 2020). Once the oil is released from the avocado matrix (in
The high concentrations of pigments may also affect the oil the form of oil-in-water emulsion), the separation of oil
stability during storage (Wong et al., 2014). from the solid and aqueous phases is achieved by centrifu-
The fine pulp obtained in the destoner is transported to gation in a horizontal decanter (Tan, 2019; Wong et al.,
the malaxer where it is processed by mashing to release 2014), which separates the lighter phase (oil) from the
the oil from the flesh. Mashing is carried out by slowly heavy phases (aqueous and solids) due to the difference
turning the paste inside a D-shaped tank covered by a hot in density and miscibility (Bizimana et al., 1993). The
water jacket, which maintains the extraction temperature heavy phase corresponding to the pomace is discarded.
between 45 and 50◦ C (Wong et al., 2010). This temperature The remaining oil phase, still containing considerable lev-
favors a decrease in pulp viscosity where tissue cells allow els of water, is vertically centrifuged at 45–50◦ C. This pro-
the release of small oil droplets coalescing to form larger cess produces oil with moisture levels below 0.2%, which is
droplets (Costagli & Betti, 2015; Wong et al., 2014). The sparged by nitrogen gas to remove oxygen, and filtered to
finely dispersed emulsion inside the cells of avocado pulp remove protein and solid residues (Wong et al., 2014). The
reduces the oil extraction, and therefore, malaxing time is resulting water during the purification step, which usu-
decisive to achieve the rupture of cell walls and disruption ally contains a small quantity of residual oil, is recovered
of the emulsion structure (Lewis et al., 1978). Martínez- through a second purification step in a vertical centrifuge
Padilla et al. (2018) observed a significant effect of the (Costagli & Betti, 2015). Some of the inconveniencies of
malaxing time on the avocado oil yield, because malaxa- this method include low production capacity, high con-
tion for 60 min exhibited oil yield of 10.6%, whereas malax- sumption of energy (horsepower per ton of oil extracted),
ation for 0, 15, and 30 min resulted in oil yields of 5.7%, and low extraction yield, and the main advantages are that
8.0%, and 9.7%, respectively. This fact became more evident cold-pressing method is considered as a clean technology
when Yang et al. (2018) observed that malaxation time of due to its limited impact on the environment (mainly due
30, 60, 90, and 120 min exhibited oil yields of 0.8%, 5.7%, to the absence of solvents), production of oil with culinary
10%, and 12% in fresh weight, respectively, indicating a applications, and high health benefits (Permal et al., 2020;
strong effect of malaxation time. Longer malaxation times Wong et al., 2011, 2014).
could result in a more effective natural and mechanical Alternative methods for avocado oil extraction have
enzymatic action inhibiting the interference of lipoproteic lately been proposed in order to enhance the yield
or lipophilic particles of the paste that absorb the oil itself and maintain desirable characteristics of the oil. These
(Domínguez et al., 1994). The additional application of methods mainly include the use of liquefied petroleum
treatments such as ultrasound may improve the oil separa- gas (LPG), supercritical fluid with carbon dioxide (SFE-
tion and the extractability, suggesting a decreased malaxa- CO2 ), and ultrasound-assisted aqueous extraction (UAA),
tion time in industrial processes without affecting its qual- which have sometimes shown better results, mainly
ity (Martínez-Padilla et al., 2018). The addition of water in oil yield (Abaide et al., 2017; Barros et al., 2016;
Botha, 2004; Corzzini et al., 2017; Duque et al., 2012; 5 SOME LSBC PRESENT IN AVOCADO
Mostert et al., 2007; Reddy et al., 2012; Tan et al., 2017, OIL
2018a). These results and conclusions in comparison with
those of traditional extraction methods are shown in Research on bioactive compounds in the diet has increased
Table 2. considerably in recent years due to their potential contri-
bution to human health. Avocado oil comprises high lev-
els of different types of important LSBC (Flores et al., 2019;
4 REFINING PROCESS OF AVOCADO Yahia, 2012), attracting great interest to explore their health
OIL benefits (Carvajal-Zarrabal et al., 2014a; Del Toro-Equihua
et al., 2016; Dreher & Davenport, 2013; Kopec et al., 2014;
For culinary uses, avocado oil is bottled without under- Unlu et al., 2005). However, different factors such as meth-
going the refining process to maintain most of its natu- ods and conditions of extraction, harvest season, variety,
ral attributes, retaining its characteristic green color, taste, and fruit ripening stage can influence the content of LSBC
flavors, and aromas (Woolf, et al., 2009). On the other in the fruit as well as in the oil (Table 3). In this section,
hand, the use of avocado oil in the pharmaceutical indus- we discuss several classes of LSBC in avocado oil and the
try forces the refining process to be carried out. This refin- different factors that affect them.
ing process focuses on the removal of undesirable com-
ponents such as pigments (chlorophylls and carotenoids),
pungent odors, phospholipids, and metals, and to mini- 5.1 Fatty acids
mize the loss of desirable components. However, such pro-
cess involves also factors as stability of the oil, the conver- On average, MUFA comprise 37%−86% of the total fatty
sion process, and consumer preferences for taste and color acids content of avocado oil (Table 1), and oleic acid is
(Satriana et al., 2019). the most abundant of these (Nogueira-de-Almeida et al.,
The refining process includes several operations such 2018). The lowest oleic acid levels in oil from avocado
as degumming, neutralization, bleaching, winterizing, and pulp extracted by Soxhlet using petroleum ether have been
other local (Ijo bundar = 35.9% and Merah bundar = 43.4%)

deodorizing (Figure 2d) (Msika & Legrand, 2010; Rosen- reported in “Ijo Panjang” cultivar (21.7%), compared to
and commercial (Fuerte = 55.6% and Shepard = 33.3%)

thal et al., 1996; Ruíz-Méndez & Dobarganes, 2011; Woolf
et al., 2009). Degumming stage removes gums and phos-
phatides, which are insoluble in the oil due to hydra- cultivars (Manaf et al., 2018) (Table 3). Green and Wang
tion (Ruíz-Méndez & Dobarganes, 2011). This step involves (2020) reported lower oleic acid levels than those men-
cado oil (extra virgin = 19.7% and unspecified = 21%).

treatments with weak (phosphoric or citric) or strong (sul-
furic or hydrochloric) acids and stirring at 50–60◦ C (Msika
tioned earlier, but these values were from commercial avo-
& Legrand, 2010). In the neutralization step, free fatty Galvão et al. (2014) also reported low oleic acid levels in
acids, color bodies, and metallic pro-oxidants are usu- oil from “Barker” avocados (32.7%), compared to “For-
ally removed with basic agents such as sodium hydrox-
ide, potassium carbonate, or a tertiary amine at 80◦ C
tuna” and “Collinson” avocados (51.4% and 51.3%, respec-
tively), using Soxhlet (hexane) as extraction method. On
during approximately 30 min (Ruíz-Méndez & Dobar- the other hand, low oleic acid levels in avocado oil (40.2%)
ganes, 2011). Subsequently, bleaching removes pigments
and residual soaps at high temperatures (150–210◦ C) using
were also reported by Carvalho et al. (2015), who compared
oil extracted from “Hass” avocado from several locations
acidified activated earth (calcium and magnesium alumi- at different ripening stages (13%–33% of dry matter con-
nosilicates) or charcoal (obtained from peat, wood, lignite, tent). On the contrary, Schwartz et al. (2007) obtained the
coal, or coconut husks), although a pungent odor in oil is highest oleic acid content (75%) in avocado oil from the
noted during this step (Human, 1987; Msika & Legrand, same variety. Differences in the content of oleic acid are
2010). During winterizing, generally oxystearin is added to also observed comparing avocado oil from different vari-
promote the crystallization of the high-molecular-weight eties but using the same extraction method. For exam-
stearins, which precipitate and are removed by decanting ple, by using Soxhlet method, similar percentages of oleic
and filtration (Human, 1987). The pungent odor caused acid were obtained in oil from “Hass” avocados (57%–
by malodorous molecules and volatiles compounds dur- 59%) (Meyer & Terry, 2008; Reddy et al., 2012) (Table 3).
ing bleaching is finally eliminated in a deodorizing step However, in oil from “Philippine 240” (Gatbonton et al.,
under steam jets sparging at high vacuum and elevated
temperatures (180◦ C) (Human, 1987; Msika & Legrand,
2013) and “Fuerte” (Reddy et al., 2012; Tan et al., 2017,
2018a) avocados, the oleic acid content was lower (42%–
2010). 45%, 49% and 41%, respectively). The same behavior was
TA B L E 3 Content ranges of lipid-soluble bioactive compounds (LSBC) in avocado oil affected by different factors as variety, ripening stage, harvest season, and extraction method
Fatty acids (%)
Factor involved MyristicC14:0 PalmiticC16:0 StearicC18:0 PalmitoleicC16:1 OleicC18:1 LinoleicC18:2 LinolenicC18:3 Reference
AO from Fortuna variety 26–29 55–60 11.9–13.0 Abaide et al.,
extracted by SFE-CO2 and LPG 2017
at different conditions
Commercial AO subjected to 0.06 18.7–19.2 0.51–0.55 7.9 54.4–54.7 0.5–0.6 Berasategi et al.,
heat (0. 3, and 9 hr) 2012
AO from Hass variety from 0.2–0.6 17–24 0.94–2.7 6.2–17.1 42–59 8.7–18.3 0.2–1.6 Carvalho et al.,
different geographic area and 2015
ripening stage
AO from different varieties and 0.05–0.5 13–36 0.5–2.7 4.3–9.2 11–51 13–29 0.7–18.3 Carvajal-
issue Zarrabal et al.,
2014a, 2014b
AO from Philippine 240 variety 24–27 9.6–12.6 42–45 16.6–19.1 1.5–2.2 Gatbonton et al.,
extracted by Soxhlet method 2013
using Hex or Et
Different commercial avocado 0.1 10–18 0.5–4.0 0.1–8.6 19–69 10–55 0.1–0.4 Green & Wang,
oils 2020
AO from Brenda variety extracted 19–21 2.7–7.0 57–65 10.5–11.0 0.4–0.6 Krumreich
at different methods and et al., 2018
conditions
AO from different local and 22–36 0.6–1.0 6–19 22–56 14–21 1.1–2.2 Manaf et al.,
imported varieties 2018
(Continues)
4135
4136
Fatty acids (%)
Factor involved MyristicC14:0 PalmiticC16:0 StearicC18:0 PalmitoleicC16:1 OleicC18:1 LinoleicC18:2 LinolenicC18:3 Reference
AO from Hass variety extracted 19.9 8.8 57.7 12.4 1.12 Meyer & Terry,
by Soxhlet and UTH 2008
AO from unknown variety 15–21 0.48–0.72 5.9–8.9 52–60 13.7–15.3 1.4–2.07 Moreno et al.,
extracted by different methods 2003
AO from Fuerte and Hass 12–23 0.07–0.4 4–11 47–73 9–16 0.02–0.4 Ozdemir &
varieties at different harvest Topuz, 2004
season and ripening
AO from Fuerte and Hass 0.3–1.6 16–25 12.8 4.9–17.9 42–60 Reddy et al.,
varieties by different extraction 2012
methods
AO from different varieties 0.02–0.13 20–23 0.5–1.1 3.9–5.6 56–67 7.1–15 0.37–1.03 Salgado et al.,
2008
AO from Hass variety extracted 24–26 0.36–0.45 12–14 46–49 10.9–11.7 0.57–0.64 Santana et al.,
by different method 2015
AO from Fuerte variety 0.03 8.61 0.70 8.61 75.1 8.76 0.74 Schwartz et al.,
2007
AO from unknown variety by 28–35 0.2–1.1 6.6–8.5 41–43 15–19 1.5–2.2 Tan et al., 2017,
UAA and Soxhlet methods 2018a
AO from Hass variety at different 0.01–0.02 7–11 0.03–0.8 2.4–3.9 70–74 11–13 2.1–4.1 Villa-Rodríguez
ripening stage et al., 2011
AO from different varieties 15–30 0.3–1.6 4.4–7.4 44–64 13–18 1.09–2.03 Yanty et al.
(2011)
(Continues)
Carotenoids and chlorophylls pigments (µg/g oil/g fruit)
Factor involved Lutein Neoxanthin Violaxanthin β-carotene Total carotenoids Chlorophylls Reference
AO from Hass variety extracted 0.5–150 0–8 0–3 n.d. 0–230 2–210 Ashton et al., 2006
by different solvents, tissues,
and ripening stage

Different commercial avocado oil n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 7–100 Green & Wang, 2020
AO from Brenda variety extracted n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 72–105 1.0–1.4 Krumreich et al., 2018
Hass avocado from different 3–8 0.5–12 0.4–4.8 0.1–1 6–31 n.d. Lu et al., 2009
geographic area and harvest
season
Hass avocado at different 53–74 n.d. n.d. n.d. 53–74 436–586 Pedreschi et al., 2014
postharvest ripening stages
Hass avocado at different 3–6 n.d. n.d. 0.3–0.9 4–7 Villa-Rodríguez et al., 2020
AO from Hass variety extracted 1–3 0.3–0.9 8–28 Wong et al., 2011
by cold pressing and adding
skin at different proportions
Tocopherols (µg/g oil)
Factor involved α-Tocopherol β-Tocopherol γ-Tocopherol δ-Tocopherol Total tocopherols Reference
Different commercial avocado oil 0.03–0.39 n.d.−0.581* n.d.−0.23 0.03–0.91 Green & Wang, 2020
AO from Brenda variety extracted 40.5–65.3 40.5–65.3 Krumreich et al., 2018
AO from different local and 32.4–45.0 n.d.–2.0 0.3–4.2 n.d.–0.08 32.8–50.2 Manaf et al., 2018
imported varieties
Hass avocado at different 171–213 34–42 1.5–2.7 0.91–1.06 115–256 Pedreschi et al., 2014
AO from unknown variety by 69–227 14–30 83–256 Tan et al., 2018b
UAA and Soxhlet methods
Hass avocado at different 85–125 5–9.5 n.d.−80 90–183 Villa-Rodríguez et al., 2020
Note: For more detailed information, review the Supporting Information.
Abbreviations: AO, avocado oil; Et, ethanol; Hex, hexane; LPG, liquefied petroleum gas; n.d., not detected; SFE-CO2 , supercritical fluid extraction with carbon dioxide; UAA, ultrasound-assisted aqueous; UTH, Ultra-
Turrax homogenization; *β-tocopherol + γ-tocopherol.
4137
observed for palmitoleic acid with 13% in oil from “Hass” monly evaluated in commercial avocado oil, but individual
avocado and 7% in oil from unknown varieties. On the carotenoid compounds are scarcely reported. Carotenoids
other hand, palmitic acid levels, the most abundant sat- are lipid-soluble pigments, and therefore their quantifica-
urated fatty acids (SFA), were higher in avocado oil from tion in avocado fruit involves the extraction of oil with
“Philippine 240” (27%), “Fuerte” (24%), and “Ijo Panjang” different methods, mainly by the Soxhlet method. Thus,
(36%) avocados than in oil from “Hass” avocado (18%) in this section, we consider carotenoid content data in
(Gatbonton et al., 2013; Manaf et al., 2018; Reddy et al., avocado tissue and oil. The most abundant carotenoid
2012; Tan et al., 2017, 2018a). When ripening stages were in avocado oil is lutein, followed by neoxanthin, vio-
compared, changes in SFA, MUFA, and polyunsaturated laxanthin, and β-carotene, although in most cases these
fatty acids (PUFA) had no clear tendency, because indi- last carotenoids are not reported (Table 3). The pres-
vidual fatty acids increase in intermediate ripening stages ence of these carotenoids in avocado oil is because oil
but decrease during advanced ripening stages, depend- is mainly extracted from the flesh, and these carotenoids
ing on the avocado fruit variety (Ozdemir & Topuz, 2004; are most common in this tissue. Although the content
Villa-Rodríguez et al., 2011). As with regard to the har- of these carotenoids follows this tendency, Ashton et al.
vest season, a clear effect is observed for SFA, where the (2006) reported that oil from fruit skin exhibited higher
content of palmitic and stearic acids tends to decrease, carotenoids levels than that present in dark, pale, and yel-
whereas oleic acid increases in avocado oil from fruit har- low flesh. Such behavior was unexpected because antho-
vested in later seasons (Ozdemir & Topuz, 2004). Because cyanins are abundant in the skin. The content of chloro-
structural lipids (phospholipids and glycolipids) are part phylls and carotenoids in the skin of green fruit decreases
of the cell membranes, and idioblasts contain mainly stor- as fruit ripening advances (Ashton et al., 2006). The same
age lipids (triglycerides) (Requejo-Tapia, 1999), their com- tendency was observed by Wong et al. (2011), who reported
position during fruit ripening and storage has been related higher carotenoids concentrations in oil with added avo-
to fruit postharvest changes and deterioration, and the cado peel during extraction, compared to oil without added
increase of lipid components during ripening is attributed avocado peel. On the other hand, although it is well known
to the partial cell wall breakdown, increasing lipid recov- that carotenoids are thermolabile molecules, Krumre-
ery (Meyer & Terry, 2008; Mostert et al., 2007). It has been ich et al. (2018) demonstrated that avocado oil extracted
suggested that fatty acids profile is dependent on environ- by pressing and solvent at 60◦ C contained higher total
ment adaptation (Blakey, 2011), implying a potential use as carotenoids (103–105 and 85–89 µg/g oil/g fruit, respec-
biomarkers in the avocado fruit growing areas (Donetti & tively) than oils extracted at 40◦ C (75 and 72 µg/g oil/g
Terry, 2014). fruit, respectively). During oil extraction, the pigments
Apparently, avocado fruit variety is one of the most are not completely extracted due to their solubility dif-
important factors affecting the LSBC content. For example, ferences (Ashton et al., 2006); therefore, temperature of
the content of fatty acids in avocado oil from different vari- 60◦ C was not enough to degrade the pigments but favored
eties shows a great variability, most evident being the effect their release from idioblast cells and their solubility in the
on oleic acid (Table 3). The second most influential factor oil resulting in higher concentrations (Ashton et al., 2006;
on fatty acids content seems to be the extraction method, Wong et al., 2014). The effect of extraction method was also
which favors the content of oleic acid, but decreases the evident in the collection of these data (Table 3). Regard-
content of SFA when oven drying and extraction by hex- ing fruit ripening, apparently carotenoids are synthesized
ane are employed. Also, although the pressing method pro- during the first 8 days after fruit harvest, resulting in high
duces less oil than the solvent method, the product has the total carotenoids levels (mainly lutein) in the oil, but the
highest percentages of oleic acid, indicating a lesser effect content of these pigments tends to decrease in subsequent
on the MUFA degradation. The effect of other factors, such days, although these changes are not usually significant
as harvest season, on the content of individual fatty acids (Ashton et al., 2006). Also, carotenoids levels increase in
is not yet fully understood and needs to be investigated fur- oil from fruit harvested in late seasons in comparison to
ther. oil from fruit harvested in early seasons (Lu et al., 2009).
5.2 Carotenoids 5.3 Chlorophylls
Avocado fruit contains considerable quantities of pigments Chlorophylls are pigments present in green plants and
including chlorophylls and carotenoids, which confer a are responsible for the absorption and conversion of solar
dark green appearance on avocado oil (Ashton et al., energy into chemical energy during the process of photo-
2006; Woolf et al., 2009). Total carotenoids content is com- synthesis (Ashton et al., 2006). Virgin avocado oil contains
high levels of chlorophyll (Table 3), which is why the oil enhances the extraction of tocopherols compared to the
has an emerald-green color (Tan, 2019). In contrast, the use of solvents (Krumreich et al., 2018). In the same way,
level of chlorophylls of virgin olive oil is low (Rodríguez- SFE-CO2 generated a product containing greater toco-
Carpena et al., 2012). Although chlorophyll can have a neg- pherols content in avocado oil (Tan et al., 2018b). Another
ative effect on the oxidative stability of the oil through the factor with a significant influence on the content of toco-
photooxidation of the oil when exposed to light (Guillén- pherols in avocado oil is the avocado fruit variety. Manaf
Sanchez & Paucar-Menchado, 2020), consumers consider et al. (2018) observed that avocado oil extracted from fruit
its distinctive green color as a beneficial attribute and com- of Indonesian varieties (Merah bundar, Ijo bundar, and
mercial advantage (Woolf et al., 2009). Exposure to light Ijo Panjang) had higher tocopherol content (50, 46, and
eties (Fuerte = 37 µg/g oil and Shepard = 33 µg/g oil).

and oxygen should be avoided to reduce the oxidative insta- 50 µg/g oil, respectively) compared to commercial vari-
bility of virgin avocado oil and to increase its shelf life by
storing in dark bottles, as well as flushing with nitrogen in The impact of the stage of fruit ripening on the tocopherol
the storage tanks and during the bottling process. content is not very clear. For instance, Villa-Rodríguez
In general, the chlorophyll level in avocado oil is rela- et al. (2020) observed that tocopherol levels in avocado
tively high and similar to that of the carotenoids (up to oil increased during fruit ripening from 90 µg/g oil (in
586 µg/g oil) (Pedreschi et al., 2014), it varies according fruit at first day of storage) to 183 µg/g oil (after 8 days
to the type of avocado fruit tissue from which the oil is of storage), and then tended to decrease. A similar behav-
extracted, most abundant being in the skin (peel) than in ior was observed by Pedreschi et al. (2014) who reported
the flesh (Ashton et al., 2006). For this reason, avocado an increase of tocopherols in oil from slightly soft avo-
peel is sometimes added during the oil extraction process cado fruit (advanced ripening) compared to oil from a firm
(Wong et al., 2011). Similarly, virgin avocado oil is abundant fruit (less ripened), and the tocopherols content tended to
in chlorophylls in comparison to refined avocado oil (Tan, decrease with the softening of avocado fruit. These results
2019). This is evidenced by Green and Wang (2020) who suggest that avocado oil from fruit at intermediate ripen-
compared 22 avocado oils sold in the United States and ing stages contains the highest tocopherol levels and may
observed that virgin avocado oils contained considerably have better health impact. However, other factors should
higher chlorophyll content (11–100 µg/g oil) than refined also be considered, such as time of harvest, fruit ripening
oils (not reported). Similar to carotenoids, the method of oil stage, growing region, extraction methods, avocado vari-
extraction has a significant effect on chlorophyll content, eties, and the LSBC profile. These data are likely to provide
the cold-pressing method being the most efficient com- novel insights to consider the possible nutrient–nutrient
pared to the use of solvents. In addition, the application interactions involved in the research outcome.
of moderate temperatures (60◦ C) during the oil extraction
enhances the release of chlorophylls from cell tissues, but
not on their degradation (Krumreich et al., 2018). 6 EFFECTS OF AVOCADO OIL ON
HUMAN HEALTH
5.4 Tocopherols There is a high correlation between the consumption of

foods of plant origin and the prevention of CVD, diabetes,
The α-tocopherol form is the most important active form cancer, and age-related macular degeneration (Dreher &
of vitamin E. Tocopherols have been found in avocado oil Davenport, 2013; Yahia et al., 2018). Although there is a cor-
with a high variability in concentration (from 0.034 up to relation between consumption of high-fat diet and some
256 µg/g oil), and the consumption of these compounds has chronic diseases, foods with high fat content such as veg-
been associated with a reduction in the incidence of CVD etable oils, olives, nuts, and seeds, among some others,
(Table 3). with high content of MUFA and PUFA and low SFA, are
Industrial processing of fruit products can result in the considered as “healthy” foods (Pham et al., 2020; Wang &
loss of vitamin E. The α-tocopherol is unstable being oxi- Hu, 2017). Besides its high content of MUFA, avocado (oil
dized during processing and storage, but this behavior is and fruit) is characterized by high phytochemicals content,
not observed in virgin and refined avocado oils, because rendering it as a potential healthy food for the prevention
total tocopherol content does not show a clear trend when of several diseases (Yahia, 2012; Yahia & Woolf, 2011).
comparing such samples. On the contrary, the use of mod- Avocado contains considerable levels of phytochemicals
erate temperatures (60◦ C) during oil extraction has a pos- including phenolic compounds, carotenoids, tocopherols,
itive effect, leading to higher tocopherols levels than in and chlorophylls, which have beneficial effects on health.
oils extracted without temperature application. Similar to In addition, it has been established that LSBC of avocado
carotenoids and chlorophylls, the cold-pressing method oil (fatty acids, carotenoids, chlorophylls, and tocopherols)
confer antioxidant properties (Lu et al., 2005, 2009; Meyer ex vivo techniques are needed to confirm and further
& Terry, 2008, 2010; Pham et al., 2020). Studies in animals describe the antioxidant potential of avocado oil.
and humans (Table 4) show that avocados (fruit and oil)
help control weight, reduce the probability of diabetes (Del
Toro-Equihua et al., 2016), regulate blood cholesterol lev- 6.2 Cardiovascular diseases
els implicated in liver metabolism (Carvajal-Zarrabal et al.,
2014a), and help in skin care (Kopec et al., 2014; Unlu et al., Oxidative stress contributes to endothelial dysfunction and
2005). In addition, unsaponifiable components containing the atherosclerotic process (Li et al., 2013). However, it
antioxidants regulate anti-inflammatory processes impli- has been shown that diets containing avocado oil reduce
cated in cancer (Stücker et al., 2001). triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), and low-density
lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) in plasma, indicating a pos-
itive effect for decreasing cardiovascular risks (Rosales
6.1 Antioxidant activity et al., 2005). These beneficial effects are attributed mainly
to fatty acid composition and other phytochemicals in avo-
Avocado is one of the fruits of lipophilic nature with high cado fruit and oil (Yahia, 2012; Yahia & Woolf, 2011; Yahia
antioxidant capacity, mainly attributed to their high con- et al., 2018), which can exercise their biological activities
tent of LSBC, which are correlated with the prevention of through different mechanisms.
vascular health and anticancer activities, diabetes, and so Oleic acid is the major MUFA in avocado oil and prob-
forth (Espinosa-Alonso et al., 2017). Ortiz-Avila, Esquivel- ably one of the main components responsible for the ben-
Martínez, et al. (2015) and Ortiz-Avila, Gallegos-Corona, eficial effects attributed to avocado oil consumption. Oleic
et al. (2015) demonstrated that avocado oil consumption acid can decrease LDL by increasing acyltransferase activ-
prevented the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) ity to increase the synthesis of cholesterol esters, which
in diabetic rats, delaying the onset of diabetic encephalopa- stimulate the action of LDL receptors, favoring the LDL
thy. The antioxidant potential was attributed to a less sus- uptake and reducing its presence in plasma (Silva-Caldas
ceptibility of oleic acid than PUFA to damage by ROS. Also, et al., 2017). In addition, a decrease of TG in plasma and
a direct action to accumulate LSBC in mitochondria (vita- an increase of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL)
mins, carotenoids, chlorophylls, and tocopherols) reduc- may increase the hydrolysis of long-chain fatty acids in
ing ROS levels could be involved. Other mechanism proba- TG by lipoprotein lipase, which are incorporated into HDL
bly implicated is the synthesis of new mitochondria-target particles (Perona et al., 2010; Rashid et al., 2003). On the
antioxidants decreasing lipid peroxidation and maintain- other hand, oleic acid induces lower endogenous TC syn-
ing optimal levels of the mitochondrial redox state. In thesis (Silva-Caldas et al., 2017), and therefore, avocado
a previous study, Ortiz-Avila et al. (2013) also suggested oil (rich in oleic acid) may also decrease TC and LDL.
that antioxidant activity of avocado oil in diabetic rats was Other mechanisms possibly involved in the prevention of
attributed to attenuating the alterations-induced oxidative CVD by oleic acid include its anti-inflammatory and vas-
stress in the electron transport chain. culature protective activities by decreasing the expression
Hydrophilic bioactive compounds such as pheno- of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6
lic compounds may act through radical scavenging by (IL-6) gene (Baer et al., 2004; Scoditti et al., 2015). Wer-
donation of hydrogen atom and chelation of transi- man et al. (1989) observed an increase of hepatic lipids
tion metals such as iron and copper (Rodríguez-Carpena and a decrease of TG in blood of rats fed with unre-
et al., 2011). Another possibility is that antioxidant fined avocado oil and avocado seed oil. Avocado seed oil
enzymes (glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, was also reported to decrease the levels of LDL and HDL
hemeoxygenase-1, and catalase) are enhanced, inactivat- in rats (Werman et al., 1991). Kritchevsky et al. (2003)
ing the intracellular ROS in the endothelium (Yamagata, demonstrated that avocado oil exhibited a similar behav-
2017). Such mechanisms have also been proposed for LSBC ior to olive and corn oils on the atherogenicity in rabbits.
carotenoids. They suggested that MUFA have a greater influence at the
Most studies estimated the antioxidant activity of beginning of the atherogenesis process (during LDL oxi-
avocado oil using in vitro analyses, including the trolox dation and inflammatory processes), whereas PUFA are
equivalent antioxidant capacity, the ferric reducing antiox- more effective in the later stages. Low levels of choles-
idant power, the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, and the terol (45.8 mg/dl) and LDL (26.5 mg/dl) were also reported
2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) in rats fed with avocado oil (de la Torre-Carbot et al.,
radical scavenging activity assays, which have been highly 2015). However, in comparison to rats fed with canola,
correlated to tocopherols, phytosterols, and carotenoids safflower, soybean, grape seeds, and partially hydro-
(Tan et al., 2018a). Future research including in vivo and genated oils, this was mainly attributed to the fatty acids
TA B L E 4 Studies on the effects of avocado oil on different diseases during the last 15 years
Bioactive
compounds
Experimental conditions involved Results Conclusions and drawbacks Reference
Study model: animal (male Sprague–Dawley Oleic and linoleic An important effect in the decreasing of TG, Avocado oil and its antioxidant content Carvajal-
weaned rats) acids. VLDL, and LDL levels and hs-CRP was suggest a positive effect on health, because it Zarrabal et al.,
Fed with basal diet + sucrose (30%) + Polyphenols, proan- evidenced by the two avocado oil type, generates important changes in the 2014a
olive/avocado oil (7.5%). Glucose, LD, TC, thocyanidins, indicating a partial reversal in the biochemical indicators related to the
TG, phospholipids, LDL, HDL, VLDL, tocopherols, and inflammatory processes. development of metabolic syndrome,
creatine kinase, and hs-CRP concentration carotenoids reducing inflammatory events.
were analyzed as cardiovascular risk profile Studies that establish the optimal time for AO
markers supplementation with metabolic changes
are necessary to elucidate the effects on
inflammatory markers and the
cardiovascular risk profile.
Study model: animal (male Sprague–Dawley Oleic and linoleic Bilirubin and total protein levels were A similarity was observed between the Carvajal-
weaned rats) acids. modified by sucrose intake, indicating an biochemical markers for both AO extraction Zarrabal et al.,
Rats fed with basal diet + sucrose (30%) + Polyphenols, proan- affectation in liver, but avocado oil methods. The effects of AO were also similar 2014b
olive/avocado oil (7.5%). Serum glucose, TG, thocyanidins, administration showed a regeneration of to those of olive oil.
TC, phospholipid, globulin, albumin, total tocopherols, and liver function. However, avocado oil did not The similarity of the effects on the biochemical
protein, direct bilirubin, SGOT, GP-T, carotenoids show changes in α-amylase levels, markers of liver function between AO and
cholinesterase, alkaline phosphatase, and suggesting that abnormalities in pancreatic olive oil suggests that AO consumption
α-amylase levels were determined levels as function were not prevented. could be beneficial in the control of diseases
biochemical markers of liver function with an altered metabolic profile.
Study model: animal (Wistar rats) MUFA, PUFA, Rats fed with soybean oil and AO showed Avocado and soybean oils offered the best De la
Addition of soybean, avocado, safflower, sterols, and lower LDL (29 ± 9 and 27 ± 11 mg/dl, results in comparison to partially Torre-Carbot
canola, grape seed, and partially tocopherols respectively) and TC values (48 ± 11 and hydrogenated oil that had a et al., 2015
hydrogenated oils at two different 46 ± 6 mg/dl, respectively) than rats fed hypercholesterolemic effect on rats.
concentrations (14.4% and 25.6%) to the diet with hydrogenated oil (49 ± 28 and It was difficult to find significant differences in
of Wistar rats and evaluated its tolerance 70 ± 31 mg/dl, respectively). This effect was all the variables.
and lipid profile for 5 weeks attributed to bioactive components such as
MUFA, PUFA, sterols, and vitamin E.
Study model: animal (male Wistar rats) MUFA and PUFA Rats fed with 20% and 10% AO exhibited lower The dietary addition of OC could reduce Del
Fed with standard diet + sucrose and AO at insulin resistance, whereas control insulin resistance and glucose tolerance; Toro-Equihua
5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% for 8 weeks. After treatment and 30% AO showed similar however, this effect is dependent on the oil et al., 2016
that time, an IPGTT was performed. After 1 insulin resistance responses. Consumption concentration.
week, an IPITT was performed to determine of AO reduced body weight gain in Wistar
insulin resistance. rats caused by the high sucrose diet.
(Continues)
4141
4142
Bioactive
compounds
Study model: healthy humans Unsaturated fatty The consumption of CM or TM showed similar AO consumed by healthy volunteers regulates Furlan et al.,
Healthy volunteers (13) consumed a CM (eggs, acids (oleic acid) response of HDL and GLP-1; however, TC, the negative physiological impact related to 2017
butter, bacon, potatoes wheat bread, and and phytosterols LDL, CRP, IL-6, glycemia, and postprandial high calorie and hyperlipidic meals. This
iced sugar) or a TM (butter replaced by AO). profiles of insulin were improved by TM. assumption is evidenced because the results
Biomarkers in blood (insulin, TC, LDL, exhibited affinity to improve endotoxemia,
HDL, TG, CRP, IL-6, LBP, CD14, and the gut protection against inflammation, and
hormone GLP-1) were determined during reduction of atherosclerosis risk factors.
240 min. The effect of AO in reducing endotoxemia
opens the possibility for further research.
Study model: animal (male Wistar rats) Oleic acid, AO decreased diastolic (21%) and systolic (16%) Avocado oil has a similar behavior to losartan Márquez-
Hypertensive rats supplemented with losartan carotenoids, and blood pressures and alleviated impaired decreasing systemic blood pressure and Ramírez et al.,
or AO for 45 days were studied by vascular sterols renal vasodilation in hypertensive rats. renal vasodilation in hypertensive rats in 2018
responses in perfused kidney. In addition, Decrease of membrane potential (84%), association with improved kidney
ROS, membrane potential, and GSH were increase of ROS levels (51%) in mitochondrial function and decreasing ROS
examined in kidney mitochondria. mitochondria, and the increase of levels of trough diminution of GSSG levels in the
oxidized GSH (48%), caused by complex I, which was related to a blocking
hypertension, were normalized by avocado of Ang-II actions. Thus, AO could be
oil at a comparable degree than losartan. proposed as nutritional product to mitigate
the adverse effects on kidney hypertension.
Study model: animal (male and female Wistar PUFA and MUFA, An increase in percentage wound contraction, AO, rich in oleic acid and essential fatty acids, de Oliveira
rats) mainly oleic acid reepithelialization, density of collagen, which attenuate inflammatory cells and et al., 2013
Injured rats (excisional wound model) were tensile strength, and anti-inflammatory increase collagen synthesis, could be
treated by applying 50% semisolid activity was observed in rats with SSFAO or considered as an alternative in
formulation of AO (SSFAO) and in natura AO compared to negative control. pharmaceutical formulations for treating
avocado oil for 14 consecutive days. skin wounds.
Study model: animal (male Wistar rats) Oleic acid and AO improved the activities of complexes II and This research help to confirm that AO Ortiz-Avila
Diabetic rats fed with traditional diet + 1 ml of carotenoids III and the protection against damage by attenuates the kidney disease during et al., 2013
AO for 90 days. Kidney mitochondria were Fe2+ induced by oxidative stress and diabetes by modulating signaling by ROS
isolated, and lipid peroxidation, activity of diabetes. It also decreased ROS in and improving the mitochondrial function
the ETC complexes, cytochromes c + c1 and Fe2+ -damaged mitochondria. induced.
b, and ROS production were measured. Benefits of AO in mitochondria showed no
relationship with lipid peroxidation;
however, they could be related to
carotenoids, which are also present in AO.
(Continues)
Bioactive
compounds
Study model: animal (male Wistar rats) Carotenoids, The low deterioration of mitochondrial Mitochondrial dysfunction of the brain caused Ortiz-Avila,
Diabetic rats fed with rodent diet + 1 ml of AO tocopherols, membrane potential (∆Ψ𝑚 ), mitochondrial by oxidative stress during diabetes is Esquivel-
for 90 days. After that time, the effects of AO chlorophylls, respiration, increase of complex III activity, prevented by the consumption of AO. These Martínez,
in oxidative status and mitochondrial vitamins, and decreasing ROS concentrations, lipid effects result in a decrease in diabetic et al., 2015
function of brain were evaluated. oleic acid peroxidation, and the improved GSH/GSSG encephalopathy; however, more research is
ratio suggest that AO improves the needed.
mitochondrial function of brain in diabetic
rats.
Study model: animal (male Wistar rats) Oleic acid and other Mitochondrial respiration and activity of Results imply that AO improves mitochondrial Ortiz-Avila,
Diabetic rats fed with a standard rodent diet + antioxidants complex I were reduced in diabetic rats with ETC function by attenuating the deleterious Gallegos-
1 ml of AO for 90 days. After that, the effect an increase of ROS using a complex I of oxidative stress in diabetic rats’ liver by Corona, et al.,
of AO in liver mitochondrial by decreasing substrate. This was related with an oxidized modifying the fatty acid conformation of 2015
unsaturation of acyl chains of membrane state of GSH. All these alterations were mitochondrial membranes. These findings
lipids and/or by improving ETC prevented by AO except by the changes in might have also significant implications in
functionality and decreasing ROS was mitochondrial fatty acid composition. the progression of NAFLD in experimental
evaluated. AO did not prevent polyphagia and models of steatosis.
hyperglycemia but did normalized
hyperlipidemia.
Study model: animal (male Goto–Kakizaki Oleic acid and Avocado oil decreased hyperglycemia at AO counteracts increased ROS levels and Ortiz-Avila
rats) sterols intermediate levels between control and impaired peroxidation of lipids in et al., 2017
Diabetic rats were fed with a standard rodent diabetic rats. Diabetic individuals displayed mitochondria from type 2 diabetic rats. This
diet plus oral daily dose of 1 ml AO for 3, 6, augmented lipid peroxidation and depletion effect could be attributed to an increase in
and 12 months. The effects of avocado oil on of reduced GSH throughout the study, total glutathione pool in mitochondrial
glycemia, ROS levels, lipid peroxidation, and whereas ROS increased at the 3rd and 12th membranes or to the hypoglycemic effect of
glutathione status in kidney mitochondria months and total glutathione content the oil.
from type 2 diabetic Goto–Kakizaki rats diminished at the 6th and 12th months. AO
were evaluate for 1 year. improved all these defects and augmented
the mitochondrial content of oleic acid.
Study model: animal (male murine mice) MUFA, The results showed a positive trend of HDL, This suggests that an atherogenic effect could Ortiz-Moreno
Rats fed with hypercholesterolemic diet plus carotenoids, and and an increase in LDL and total be generated when modulating the lipid et al., 2007
2.5% or 5.0% of commercial and IPN phytosterols cholesterol, due to the high combination of intake.
Mexican oils (CMO and IPNO, respectively) fats and oils provided in the diet. The IPNO
and New Zealand oil (NZO). The serum generated the least increase in the
concentrations of TC, LDH, HDL, and TG concentrations of total cholesterol and LDL,
were determined. in addition to presenting the least
atherogenic damage in a hypercaloric diet.
(Continues)
4143
4144
Bioactive
compounds
Study model: animal (male Wistar rats) Oleic acid and Rats fed with diet rich in AO showed a slightly AO modifies the fatty acid content in cardiac Salazar et al.,
Rats fed with control diet and 10% of AO for a other bioactive higher AngII-induced blood pressure and renal membranes depending on tissue. 2005
2-week period. The effect of AO on the blood compounds response than control rats. Renal arachidonic acid is suggested as a key
pressure response to the fatty acid AO induced a rise in oleic acid content (from factor in vascular responses.
composition and AngII of renal and cardiac 13.2% to 15.5%) in cardiac microsomes. In
membranes on male Wistar rats was renal microsomes, α-linolenic acid content
evaluated. was decreased from 0.34% to 0.16%, whereas
the arachidonic acid increased from 24% to
26%, compared to control.
Study model: animal (male Sprague–Dawley MUFA (oleic acid) The serum LDL and TG levels were Oral administration of VAO has comparable Tan et al., 2018c
rats) Phytosterols significantly reduced, whereas the HDL effect as simvastatin on decreasing the LDL
Hypercholesterolemic rats orally (β-sitosterol, level was significantly increased using and TG levels, whereas HDL levels
supplemented with VAO (450 and campesterol, 900 mg/kg of VAO and simvastatin-treated improved. The liver damage was markedly
900 mg/kg) and simvastatin (10 mg/kg) for stigmasterol, and rats when compared with their respective reduced following the treatment. Current
4 weeks. Changes in lipid profile, ∆5-avenasterol) baseline values. findings suggest potential
anthropometric, liver biomarkers, and liver hypocholesterolemic and hepatoprotective
histology by VAO administration were benefits of VAO, and it could be a strategy
determined. for the prevention and treatment of chronic
diseases.
Study model: animal (male Sprague–Dawley Phytosterols, Daily consumption of VAO (450 and Assessment revealed that VAO treatment Tan et al., 2018d
rats) unsaturated fatty 900 mg/kg) and simvastatin (10 mg/kg) could partially recover the metabolism
Hypercholesterolemic rats orally acids, exhibited significant reduction of total dysfunction induced by
supplemented with VAO (450 and tocopherols, cholesterol, LDL and TG levels, and hypercholesterolemia through gut
900 mg/kg) and simvastatin (10 mg/kg) for carotenoids, and significant increment of HDL level. microbiota metabolism, lipid, energy, and
4 weeks. LDL, HDL, TC, and TG profiles polyphenols amino acid.
were determined, and urinary metabolomics
using NMR was measured.
Abbreviations: AngII, angiotensin II; CD14, cluster of differentiation 14; CM, control meal; CRP, C-reactive protein; ETC, electron transport chain; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide-1; GP-T, glutamic pyruvic transaminase;
GSH, glutathione; GSSG, glutathione disulfide; hs-CRP, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein; IL-6, interleukin-6; IPGTT, intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test; IPITT, intraperitoneal insulin tolerance test; LBP, lipopolysac-
charide binding protein; LD, lactic dehydrogenase; LDL, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; NAFLD, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; ROS, reactive oxygen species; SGOT, glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase; TC, total
cholesterol; TM, test meal; VAO, virgin avocado oil.
composition, sterols, and vitamin E; however, the correla- oil on the absorption of carotenoids from the same matrix,
tion between levels of these compounds and their effect and the contribution of such absorption to the CVD pre-
on TC and LDL was not considered (de la Torre-Carbot vention, are needed.
et al., 2015). In a more detailed study, Carvajal-Zarrabal Tocopherols (vitamin E) are characterized with potent
et al. (2014b) demonstrated that avocado oil administration lipoperoxyl radical-scavenging activity due to their abil-
to rats reduced the TG, LDL, and very low-density lipopro- ity to donate hydrogen ions from their phenol group
tein (VLDL) levels, and partially reverted the inflammatory on the chromanol ring (Mathur et al., 2015). The main
processes through the decrease of the high-sensitivity C- mechanisms involved in the cardiovascular risk preven-
reactive protein (hs-CRP) that may have resulted from the tion include the inhibition of monocyte superoxide pro-
inhibition of IL-6 expression. The effect of avocado oil on duction mediated by protein kinase C, and the increase
the CVD prevention is well established, but further studies of NO production, a factor required for the normal vas-
are needed to elucidate if the different types of avocado oil cular function (Mathur et al., 2015). Furthermore, toco-
act differently on cardiovascular risk, and to identify which pherols can be ω-hydroxylated and β-oxidized in the liver
of the different lipophilic phytochemicals is mostly related to produce 13′-hydroxychromanols/carboxychromanols,
to the CVD prevention, as well as specifically identify the which inhibit eicosanoids catalyzed by 5-lipoxygenase (5-
markers involved in the inflammatory processes. LOX) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and suppress nuclear
There is evidence that phytochemicals present in fruits factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and STAT3/6 signaling pathways,
and vegetables reduce the inflammation and oxidative resulting in anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects
stress, and therefore the CVD risk (Pagliaro et al., 2015; Vas- (Jiang, 2014). Li et al. (2013) found inactivation of NF-
anthi et al., 2012). Studies addressing the effect of the avo- κB inflammatory route and IL-6 in postprandial serum
cado oil phytochemicals on CVD are scarce, but it is to be of healthy volunteers after consumption of hamburger
expected that avocado oil may exert cardioprotective func- with avocado. On the other hand, low levels of cholesterol
tion due to its high phytochemicals content. (45.8 mg/dl) and LDL (26.5 mg/dl) were observed in rats fed
The antioxidant action of several carotenoids is sug- diets with avocado oil, but not in rats fed diets with other
gested to be one mechanism by which they exert their ben- vegetable and partially hydrogenated oils, attributing such
eficial effects (Ciccone et al., 2013), although other mech- behavior to the high levels of tocopherols and fatty acids
anisms such as modulating gene expression, cell growth (de la Torre-Carbot et al., 2015).
regulation, and gap junction communication may also be Although avocado is characterized by the presence
involved in their biological actions (Rao & Rao, 2007). Mar- of moderate amounts of phenolic compounds, it has
tin et al. (2000) proposed that carotenoids might modulate been reported that polyphenols are one of the most
atherogenic processes in the vascular endothelium. It has abundant of the phenolic classes in this fruit (Dreher &
also been established that xanthophylls, mainly lutein, are Davenport, 2013). Polyphenols may promote vasodilator
highly protective against progression of early atherosclero- activity as a consequence of their antioxidant activity by
sis in humans and animals through lowering of VLDL and neutralizing the ROS and improving the NO availability,
intermediate-density lipoprotein and by reducing inflam- anti-inflammation by the inhibition of COX and LOX
mation and oxidative stress in the artery wall (Ciccone enzymes and NF-κB repression, and anti-atherogenic
et al., 2013; Dreher & Davenport, 2013; Dwyer et al., effect through attenuation of the onset and development
2001; Hozawa et al., 2007). Márquez-Ramírez et al. (2018) of lipid accumulation in the arterial wall due to their
observed an improvement of mitochondrial function and ability to limit LDL oxidation (Quiñones et al., 2013).
endothelium vasodilation and renal function in hyperten- Wang et al. (2010) demonstrated that the phenolic and
sive rats fed diets with avocado oil. They attributed this procyanidins contents in avocado fruit were highly corre-
action to the cytosolic accumulation of carotenoids from lated to the antioxidant activity. However, in a study with
avocado oil, which prevented the transformation to perox- oils from different avocado varieties (Mexican creoles and
ynitrite (ONOO– ) from nitric oxide (NO), the main induc- Hass), the phenolic content exhibited a low to moderate
tor of oxidative damage. This biologic action is highly correlation to the antioxidant activity, but was associated
dependent on carotenoids absorption, which is favored to strong inhibitory effect on COX-1 and COX-2 activity of
by dietary fat solubilizing and releasing carotenoids for avocado oils, even higher than naproxen and ibuprofen,
transfer into the micelles and subsequently in the circula- but dependent on a specific selectivity (Espinosa-Alonso
tory system (Cervantes-Paz et al., 2016). Avocado fruit pos- et al., 2017). Thus, it is possible that although the content of
sesses lipid and water characteristics that make it a distinc- phenolic compounds in avocado oil is low, it is linked to the
tive food matrix that favors the absorption of carotenoids antioxidant activity and therefore, it is related to the anti-
(Kopec et al., 2014; Unlu et al., 2005). In this regard, stud- inflammatory activity and the CVD prevention. However,
ies involving the effect of lipid composition from avocado research involving the consumption of avocado oil and the
determination of its content of phenolic compounds and Chlorophylls prevent skin cancer by inhibition of ultra-
their effects is needed to confirm this possibility. violet (UV) light-induced ROS and lipid peroxidation (Jeon
According to the evidences presented above, the effect et al., 2009). Other studies have also shown antimuta-
of avocado consumption on CVD has been widely eval- genic and anticarcinogenic effects by chlorophylls deriva-
uated in humans (Abdel-Moneim et al., 2017; Fulgoni tives (chlorophyllins) (Akai et al., 1996). The protective
et al., 2017; Furlan et al., 2017; Mahmassani et al., 2018; mechanism of chlorophylls and their derivatives could be
Pieterse et al., 2003, 2005; Wang et al., 2011, 2013, 2015) and attributed to the formation of a complex between the por-
in animals (Campuzano-Bublitz et al., 2016; Gouegni & phyrin ring of chlorophylls and the carcinogens–mutagens
Abubakar, 2013; Olagunju et al., 2017; Rodríguez-Sanchez (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic amines,
et al., 2015; Salazar et al., 2005; Shehata & Soltan, 2013) and aflatoxin B1), resulting in the prevention of DNA
and is mainly attributed to the fatty acids content (Silva- adduct formation and in the reduction of bioavailability of
Caldas et al., 2017). However, the effect of avocado oil dietary carcinogens or mutagens (Iṅanç, 2011).
consumption on CVD is limited, and it is also mostly Dietary intake of carotenoids has been associated with
attributed to fatty acids, whereas the effects of phyto- the prevention of several types of cancer in different
chemicals such as carotenoids, phenolic compounds, toco- tissues. Specifically, lutein and zeaxanthin (the main
pherols, and chlorophylls in the oil on cardiovascular pro- carotenoids in avocado oil) may functions in ocular health,
tection have received limited attention. Therefore, further in prevention of CVD, stroke, and cancer (Tanaka et al.,
research that focuses on the consideration of lipid-soluble 2012). They are also protective molecules against erythema
phytochemicals in avocado oil, which probably have sim- in human skin that is attributed to excessive UV light
ilar or maybe higher beneficial effects on CVD than fatty exposure linked to skin cancer and precancerous lesions
acids, is needed. (Tanaka et al., 2012). Although there does not appear
to be an association between plasma lutein and zeax-
anthin concentration and gastric cancer, intake of these
6.3 Cancer carotenoids has been reported to decrease colon cancer
in men and women (Jenab et al., 2006; Slattery et al.,
It has been shown that PUFA exhibit apoptotic effects 2000; Tsubono et al., 1999). Proposed mechanisms respon-
through the calcium (Ca2+ ) release from intracellular sible for the anticarcinogenic activity of lutein have been
stores (Evans et al., 2015; Kim et al., 2014). Oleic acid has proposed to include its interaction with the mutagens 1-
also been reported to have this effect by inhibiting the nitropyrene and aflatoxin B1 and gene stimulation implied
store-operated Ca2+ entry implied in nonexcitable cells sig- in T-cell conversions by mitogens, cytokines, and anti-
naling to stimulate gene regulation and cell growth (Car- gens (de Mejía, Loarca-Piña, et al., 1997; de Mejía, Ramos-
rillo, del Mar Cavia, et al., 2012). In addition, the antitu- Gómez, et al., 1997; Park et al., 1999).
mor effects of oleic acid may be due to the activation of Lutein and zeaxanthin are not cytotoxic to normal cells
specific cellular pathways. Such mechanisms include the but decrease the viability of cancer cells. These xantho-
inhibition of the overexpression of the oncogene HER2 phylls tend to form a higher proportion of monomeric frac-
implicated in metastasis of human cancers (Menendez & tion in cancer than normal cells, suggesting a differential
Lupu, 2006), and the increase in intracellular ROS pro- metabolism useful in diagnosis of cancer (Grudzinski et al.,
duction or caspase 3 activity (Carrillo, Cavia Camarero, 2018).
et al., 2012). Studies involving the effect of avocado oil Although there are no studies demonstrating the effect
consumption on cancer prevention are unavailable, but of avocado oil tocopherols on the prevention of cancer,
the chemopreventive effect of avocado has been evidenced Lu et al. (2005) demonstrated that an extract from avo-
(Ding et al., 2007, 2009; Lu et al., 2005). Jackson et al. cado rich in tocopherols caused the in vitro inhibition of
(2012) show that the higher daily intake of MUFA by men androgen-dependent and androgen-independent prostate
who consumed 60 g/day or more of avocado is related cancer cell lines, probably acting via downregulation of
to a lower risk of prostate cancer, in comparison to men cyclin-related signaling (Galli et al., 2004). It is therefore
with intakes of less than 12 g/day. The possible anticarcino- assumed that this anticancer effect may be caused by avo-
genic effect of fatty acids from avocado oil merits further cado oil due to its high tocopherols content.
investigation.
It has been shown that the consumption of green vegeta-
bles is related to the prevention of various types of cancer 6.4 Age-related macular degeneration
in humans and animals (Balder et al., 2006; de Vogel et al.,
2005; Voorrips et al., 2000), being attributed to chlorophylls Oxygen partial pressure is relatively low in most tissues
and their derivatives (Li et al., 2007). but extremely high in the outer segments of the retina,
increasing the concentration of singlet oxygen by pho- total protein levels, when consuming sucrose. Ortiz-Avila
tosensitization, and can result in irreversible damage of et al. (2013) reported that dietary avocado oil supplemen-
cell structures (Ham et al., 1984). Lutein and zeaxanthin tation in diabetic male Wistar rats improved the activities
have a passive antioxidant function by their light-filtering of complexes II and III of the electron transport chain and
capability in the inner Henle fiber layers, preventing the the protection against damage by Fe2+ induced by oxida-
generation of radicals by blue light and their possible tive stress and diabetes, and decreased ROS generation in
oxidative chain reactions. This is mainly attributed to their Fe2+ -damaged mitochondria. They associated these results
plex III linked to the loss of cytochromes c + c1 .

ability of absorbing blue light before impinges on the radi- with a protective effect on the transfer of electrons in com-
cals that damage photoreceptor cells (Krinsky et al., 2003).
Additionally, it has been suggested that macular pigments The role of chlorophylls as hypoglycemic agents is
might deter the onset of age-related macular degeneration thought to be mediated by the inhibition of free radicals,
attenuating blue light in the photoreceptor cells and because chlorophylls donate their electrons to such free
the retinal pigment epithelium affected by N-retinyl- radicals and form complexes with peroxyl radicals to gen-
N-retinylidene ethanolamine (A2E) (Shaban & Richter, erate stable molecules (Alsuhaibani et al., 2017). In avocado
2002). Another possibility is that plasma lutein may oil, chlorophyll and its derivatives are implicated in oxi-
prevent thickening of the ciliary arteries (Krinsky et al., dation; however, at adequate conditions (absence of light
2003). Further research on the effects of xanthophylls in and oxygen) they exhibit antioxidant properties (Ramos-
avocado oil on the protection of the macula is warranted. Aguilar et al., 2019). On the other hand, carotenoids such
as lutein in avocado oil may interact with transcription
factors (NRF-1 and PGC-1α) in the mitochondrial dys-
drial respiration and ∆Ψ𝑚 during diabetes (Ortiz-Avila,

6.5 Diabetes function, demonstrating a protective effect on mitochon-
Diabetes is characterized by a metabolic disorder in insulin Esquivel-Martínez, et al., 2015). Specifically, the antidia-
levels or resistance to insulin actions that result in hyper- betic effect of chlorophylls and carotenoids from avocado
glycemia (Cortés-Rojo et al., 2019; Tabesh, 2017). MUFA oil have received minimal attention due to the extent of
have been proposed as the main blockers of insulin their oxidation and instability in the oil, despite the sug-
resistance by high-fat diets and simple monosaccharides, gestion that these pigments are strongly related to diabetes
although it has also been suggested that PUFA intake is prevention (Ortiz-Avila, Esquivel-Martínez, et al., 2015).
related to fluidity of cell membrane, and inversely related
to resistance induced by sucrose (Del Toro-Equihua et al.,
2016). During its passage through the intestine, oleic acid 7 CURRENT AND POTENTIAL USES
stimulates L and K intestinal cells for a greater release OF AVOCADO OIL
of incretins GIP and GLP-1, which improves insulin sen-
sitivity (Gerhard et al., 2004). In addition, oleic acid can 7.1 Pharmaceutical and cosmetic
alter the insulin production through the inhibitory effect of applications
TNF-α, favoring the phosphorylation of serine via insulin-
signaling cascade (Vassiliou et al., 2009). The antidiabetic Avocado oil is characterized by high iodine and peroxide
effect of avocado oil in different organs (liver, kidney, and values, unsaponifiable matter, MUFA (Berasategi et al.,
brain) has been proposed to be related to the activation of 2012; Flores et al., 2019; Villa-Rodríguez et al., 2011), chloro-
factors such as TNF-α, NF-κB, TGF-β1, HIF, PAI-1, and AP- phylls, tocopherols, and carotenoids (Ashton et al., 2006;
1, which are involved in the production of ROS via lipid Lu et al., 2005, 2009; Rodríguez-Carpena et al., 2012; Villa-
peroxidation and mitochondrial membrane potential, and Rodríguez et al., 2011), which are linked to chronic degen-
the GSH/GSSG ratio, which in turn affect nicotinamide erative diseases risk prevention (Carvajal-Zarrabal et al.,
adenine dinucleotide (NADH) levels in liver mitochondria 2014a, 2014b; Dreher & Davenport, 2013). This supports the
during diabetes (Cortés-Rojo et al., 2019). Table 4 summa- potential use of the oil in the pharmaceutical industry. Its
rizes results from different studies evaluating the antidia- beneficial effects on health have been previously discussed
betic effect of avocado oil, mainly in rats. Carvajal-Zarrabal in the above sections and in Table 4.
et al. (2014a) showed that avocado oil supplementation On the other hand, the predominant use of avocado oil is
in diabetic rats decreased the TG, VLDL, LDL, and hs- in the cosmetic industry due to its high vitamin E content
CRP levels, revealing a partial reversal of the inflamma- and emollient properties (Eyres et al., 2001; Flores et al.,
tory process. Furthermore, they (Carvajal-Zarrabal et al., 2019; Naeimifar et al., 2020). However, for this function,
2014b) observed that avocado oil regenerated liver function the crude avocado oil needs to be refined before its incor-
in rats that had been adversely affected by bilirubin and poration into cosmetic products (Costagli & Betti, 2015),
implying additional and costly processing. In the cosmetics refined coconut oils was at 170◦ C and 232◦ C, respectively,
industry, avocado oil is used in skincare products, because unlike avocado oil that requires temperatures of around
of its sun screening property and rapid absorption into the 250◦ C for unrefined form and 271◦ C for refined form to
skin. For instance, it is used in formulations of creams reach its smoking point. This suggests that the smoke point
for massage muscle and psoriasis, and soaps for dandruff also depends on the refining process and handling dur-
treatment (Dunford, 2017). ing transport and storage in shops and kitchens. On the
other hand, Berasategi et al. (2012) demonstrated that sta-
bility of fatty acids, phytosterols, and vitamin E in avo-
7.2 Sensory properties and culinary uses cado oil was similar to that of olive oil during heat treat-
ment. Similarly, Guillaume et al. (2018) showed that both
In addition to pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications, avocado oil and virgin and extra virgin olive oils were
the specific sensory properties of avocado oil, mainly a more stable at temperatures of 25–240◦ C during 0–360 min
buttery and nonpungent flavor, draw the attention of con- than oils of canola, rice bran, grapeseed, coconut, high
sumers as a delicate oil for application in culinary recipes, oleic peanut, and sunflower, indicating a decrease in their
whether in fresh or processed foods (Dunford, 2017; Tan smoking point during heat treatment and linking it to the
et al., 2018a; Woolf et al., 2009). Due to its physicochemi- increase in FFA. This supports the advantage of avocado
cal properties, avocado oil has been compared to olive oil, oil compared to other vegetable oils during cooking.
which has a pungent and bitter flavor (Woolf et al., 2009), The increased desire of consumers for natural products
which is why it has gained ground over other vegetable oils of better nutritional quality and less harmful effects has
in the culinary industry in recent years. contributed to the commercialization of avocado oil, con-
Avocado oil is mainly used in raw form in salads, but siderably increasing the demand for avocado cultivation,
its high smoke point (above 250◦ C or 482◦ F) confers it a and finding other additional applications for the oil that
special property for its application in shallow pan frying had not been previously considered.
for the preparation of different processed dishes (Dunford,
2017). Heating at temperatures beyond its smoke point
causes oxidation and degradation of bioactive compounds, 8 TENDENCIES IN THE USE OF
and generates toxins in the oils; however, these implica- AVOCADO OIL
tions are dependent of the oil type, as well as time and type
of fried product in the culinary process (Berasategi et al., Currently, avocado oil is used for the production of struc-
2012; Oji & Vivian, 2020). tured lipids, using immobilized lipases (regiospecific sn-
Similar to olive oil, avocado oil is characterized by a high 1.3) to modify the positional distribution of fatty acids in
MUFA content, which confers it a high smoking point, the glycerol backbone to increase the nutritional proper-
making these two oils highly stable (Dunford, 2017; Tan ties (Caballero et al., 2014; Nkosi et al., 2020). In addition,
et al., 2018a). Temperature at which oils show a contin- it is used as a source of phospholipids in the production
uous bluish smoke is defined as smoke point, indicating of emulsions and natural surfactants for the food indus-
breakdown of fat to glycerol, and subsequently to acrolein try due to its interfacial characteristics (Züge et al., 2017),
(main component of the bluish smoke). Thus, smoke point improving palatability properties and significantly increas-
is highly dependent on the FFA content and chain length, ing the bioavailability (Wang et al., 2018). Arancibia et al.
but minimally influenced by partial glycerides and degree (2017) formulated O/W nanoemulsions with 10% of avo-
of unsaturation (Guillaume et al., 2018). The most volatile cado oil and observed an improvement in properties such
fatty acids lower the smoke point during frying, thereby as dispersibility of water in the encapsulated oil and good
diminishing its usefulness. Hence, the smoke point is a physical and chemical stability, increasing the bioavail-
fundamental measurement for any oil used for cooking ability of health-promoting LSBC. Wang et al. (2018) pre-
(Eyres, 2015). pared high internal phase emulsions using avocado oil
In comparative matters, there are few scientific stud- and citrus nanofibers and tannic acid as stabilizers. Such
ies that accurately demonstrate the smoking point of avo- emulsions remain stable by low levels of lipid hydroperox-
cado oil over other vegetable oils. However, Eyres (2015) ides, malonaldehyde, and hexanal after applying thermally
reported smoke point for avocado oil of 220◦ C (with no enhanced storage (Guillén-Sanchez & Paucar-Menchado,
specification of whether it was in refined or unrefined 2020). Similarly, Dias et al. (2018) evaluated the rheologi-
form), above olive oil (156–200◦ C) and refined coconut cal and encapsulation properties, and stability of W1/O/W2
oil (170◦ C), but below refined canola oil (230◦ C). These emulsions containing avocado oil, and concluded that avo-
data are consistent with those reported by Oji and Vivian cado oil has a great potential as food ingredient due to its
(2020) who showed that the smoke point of unrefined and functionality for multiple emulsions. Furthermore, it has
been also employed as organic phase for interface between refined) and result in a wide variability in yield, physico-
two immiscible electrolyte solutions, which presented vis- chemical characteristics, nutritional properties, and LSBC
cosity properties that favored the ion transfer at the liq- content. Although the beneficial health effects of avocado
uid/liquid interface (Chen et al., 2020). oil are mainly attributed to unsaturated fatty acids, high
In addition to the pharmaceutic, cosmetic, and food levels of carotenoids, chlorophylls, and tocopherols are
industries, avocado oil has been employed in other appli- also strongly linked to weight control, reduction of the
cations such as nanotechnology and environmental care. probability of diabetes, regulation of blood cholesterol lev-
Avocado oil is used in the degradation of biopolymers els implicated in liver metabolism, and skin care. The spe-
because it acts as a carbon source for bacterium Cupri- cific properties of avocado oil are of interest for its appli-
avidus necator H-16 in the synthesis of polyhydroxyalka- cation in the cosmetics, pharmaceutical industry, and as
noates (Flores-Sánchez et al., 2017). Another current appli- edible oil. However, the new tendencies in its applica-
cation is the nanoparticles’ synthesis with avocado oil. tion include production of structured lipids, phospholipids
Kumar et al. (2018) used avocado oil to produce gold source in the production of emulsions and natural sur-
nanoparticles in the presence of direct sunlight and factants, and palatability properties. Properties such as
noted that nanoparticles were capped with carboxylic acid smoke point and stability during heat processing have not
groups of fatty acids in avocado oil and exhibited a higher been considered in detail. Thus, characteristics such as
antioxidant activity than the avocado oil. In addition, avo- dynamic rheological properties, microstructural changes,
cado oil was also used to prepare nanoparticles of copper to flavor, and color during its smoke point need to be further
evaluate the film-formation capability and tribological per- investigated in order to increase its use in the development
formance. Such nanoparticles led to a reduction in friction of diverse healthy products.
and wear (Shafi et al., 2018).
Although avocado oil is increasingly being used in phar- AC K N OW L E D G M E N T
maceutic, cosmetic, and food industries, recent applica- This work is part of the research project “Determinación de
tions in other areas have provided interesting findings acil-transferasa y posibles genes involucrados en la esterifi-
(Nkosi et al., 2020; Sotelo-Mazon et al., 2020; Szlapak cación de carotenoides, su potencial de absorción y actividad
Franco et al., 2020). Production of structured lipids for antioxidante en frutos de aguacate” funded by CONACyT
nutritional properties, phospholipids source in the produc- (I1200/169/2019, MOD.ORD./38/2019, CB2017-2018, GEN-
tion of emulsions and natural surfactants, and palatability ERAL, A1-S-28359).
properties, among others, are the new tendencies in the
use of avocado oil. However, all the attributes of avocado AU T H O R CO N T R I B U T I O N S
oil will depend on its characteristics and properties, which Braulio Cervantes-Paz conceptualized the idea of the
vary according to fruit conditions and other mentioned fac- study; curated the data; assisted in formal analysis, inves-
tors. For this reason, further studies involving avocado oil tigation, and methodology; wrote the original draft; and
with different properties and presentations (crude, virgin, reviewed and edited the manuscript. Elhadi M. Yahia
refined, etc.) are necessary to determine the oil type with conceptualized the idea of the study; curated the data;
better attributes in the different areas of applications. assisted in formal analysis, investigation, methodology,
project administration, supervision, validation, and visu-
alization; acquired funding; provided resources; wrote the
9 CONCLUSIONS original draft; and reviewed and edited the manuscript.
Global data show that significant quantities of avocado are CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
designated for oil production, although it is not enough to The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
meet consumer demand. Preferences for avocado oil are
based on its sensory properties, color, consistency, and high ORCID
content of health-promoting LSBC. The most used method Braulio Cervantes-Paz https://orcid.org/0000-0001-
for the extraction of avocado oil is the use of solvents; how- 6976-9684
ever, cold pressing is used to produce avocado oil for culi- Elhadi M. Yahia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3557-8975
nary uses, although with less yields. Alternative methods
have emerged in order to enhance the yield and main- REFERENCES
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How to cite this article: Cervantes-Paz B, Yahia
by pressing. Process Biochemistry, 39(1), 51–57. https://doi.org/10.
1016/S0032-9592(02)00286-8 EM. Avocado oil: Production and market demand,
bioactive components, implications in health, and
S U P P O RT I N G I N F O R M AT I O N tendencies and potential uses. Compr Rev Food Sci
Additional supporting information may be found online Food Saf. 2021;20:4120–4158.
in the Supporting Information section at the end of the https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12784
article.
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Avocado oil: Production and market demand, bioactive components,

Article in Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety · June 2021

Braulio Cervantes-Paz Elhadi M. Yahia

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COMPREH ENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY

Avocado oil: Production and market demand, bioactive

Braulio Cervantes-Paz1,2 Elhadi M. Yahia1

1Facultad de Ciencias Naturales,

1 INTRODUCTION lar diseases (CVD) (Cascio et al., 2012). Nevertheless, it has

4120 © 2021 Institute of Food Technologists!

trifugation at 6000 × g produced a good oil extraction (up

Munguía (1986) used centrifugation at 12,300 × g for avo-

that the same centrifugal force (12,300 × g) yielded 78%,

more than the lower velocity (6000 × g). In contrast, Wer-

other local (Ijo bundar = 35.9% and Merah bundar = 43.4%)

and commercial (Fuerte = 55.6% and Shepard = 33.3%)

cado oil (extra virgin = 19.7% and unspecified = 21%).

and ripening stage

5.2 Carotenoids 5.3 Chlorophylls

eties (Fuerte = 37 µg/g oil and Shepard = 33 µg/g oil).

5.4 Tocopherols There is a high correlation between the consumption of

plex III linked to the loss of cytochromes c + c1 .

drial respiration and ∆Ψ𝑚 during diabetes (Ortiz-Avila,

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