HISTORY OF RADIO

Early beginnings - It is impossible to say exactly where the

story of radio starts. The early scientists who saw and
investigated the effects of electricity and magnetism were
crucial to the story. But a number of people also noticed effects
that were probably caused by radio waves. Galvani is thought
to have witnessed the effects of electromagnetic waves as he
was investigating the conduction of electricity. Others too
including Henry, Edison and others may also have witnessed
effects as well.
Maxwell proves the existence of e/m waves - It was James
Clerk Maxwell who first proved the existence of an
electromagnetic (e/m) wave. He proved it mathematically, and
published his findings in a number of papers. Much of this early
work was performed whilst he was at Kings College London.
His work was summarized in a book entitled "Treatise on
Electricity and Magnetism." In 1871 Maxwell moved to
Cambridge where he became the first director of the Cavendish
Research Laboratory.
1887 Hertz discovers radio waves - In a series of experiments
started in 1887 Heinrich Hertz proved the physical existence of
radio waves that Maxwell had shown to exist mathematically.
His transmitter consisted of a simple spark gap across an
induction coil with a loop of wire to act as an antenna. The
receiver consisted of a smaller gap in a loop the same size as
that in the transmitter. In his experiments Hertz also discovered
many of their properties. The results of his experiments
performed in 1887-88 were published between 1888-90. Whilst
other people had seen the effects before, nobody had realized
what they were, and Hertz is rightly credited with having
discovered radio or Hertzian waves as they were first called.
1894 The coherer is popularized - The coherer, an item used
to detect radio waves took many years to develop with the
earliest observations dating back to 1850. The first person to
use the idea of the coherer was a Frenchman named Edouard
Branly. He discovered that the resistance of a glass tube filled
with metal filings fell to a few hundred ohms when an electrical
discharge occurred nearby. The filings could then be "de-
cohered" by a sharp tap on the tube. These devices were
effective in detecting the transmissions of a spark transmitter.
The idea was popularized by Oliver Lodge, especially as a
result of a lecture he gave in 1894.
1894 Marconi's first experiments - In the autumn of 1894
Marconi performed his first experiments with radio waves in
the attic of his parent’s house in Bologna. Initially he was only
able to achieve distances of a few meters, but he made
significant progress, steadily increasing the distance over which
he sends the signals. He managed to send signals over a distance
of about 2 kilometers, and realizing the possibilities of the
system for maritime communications he gave a demonstration
to the Italian authorities. Unfortunately they were not
impressed, and as a result Marconi moved to England.
1897 Marconi demonstrates radio waves travel over water -
Marconi gave his first public demonstrations in December
1896. One major use for radio could be in crossing stretches of
water. Cables were expensive and very vulnerable. Accordingly
in the summer of 1897 Marconi set up a link spanning the 14
kilometers of the Bristol Channel. After this Marconi put on
many other demonstrations and gave lectures: many were to the
press and in this way he was able to gain the maximum amount
of publicity. It also stimulated the interest of other
experimenters.
1899 First cross channel link - Marconi steadily increased the
range of his wireless system. In the spring of 1899 a first link
was set up to cross the English Channel between an existing
station at South Foreland in England and a station set up at
Wimereux near Bologna in France. This was the first
international wireless transmission. Another demonstration was
organized later in the year and it was found that the signals from
Wimereux could be heard back at Marconi's factory in
Chelmsford over 130 kilometers away.
1901 First transatlantic transmission - With the successes in
using radio waves to cross the English channel Marconi turned
his eyes towards greater distances and being able to send
messages across the Atlantic. If he could succeed in this he
would be able to use his system to send messages across the
Atlantic more cheaply than using a cable, and also keep in
contact with ships over vast distances. Marconi started this
venture by setting up stations at Poldhu in Cornwall England
and Cape Cod in Massachusetts, USA. Storms destroyed the
huge antennas at both sites, and Marconi rebuilt the antenna at
Poldhu, but relocated the station from Cape Cod to a site in
Newfoundland. However the letter "S" being transmitted by the
station in England was just received although with great
difficulty in Newfoundland on 12th December 1901.
1904 Fleming invents the diode valve - Professor Ambrose
Fleming of University College London acted as a consultant to
Marconi and he was very aware that detectors used in the
receivers were the weak link in the receiving equipment of the
day. Having seen the Edison effect - an effect Edison
discovered when he was trying to extend the life of electric light
bulbs, Fleming wondered whether this could be used to detect
radio signals. He gave details to his assistant who set up an
experiment that worked. The diode valve had been discovered.
It consisted of a heated element in an evacuated glass bulb. A
second element was also placed in the bulb but not heated. It
was found that an electric current only flowed in one direction
with electrons leaving the heated cathode and flowing towards
the second element called the anode, and not in the other
direction.
1906 De Forest invents the triode - In the USA de Forest,
replicated Fleming's diode and went a stage further by adding
an additional element to give a device he called an Audion.
Although de Forest applied for several patents in the years
between 1905 and 1907, the invention of the triode is normally
taken to be 1906. Initially the triode was only used as a detector.
Its operation was not understood, and this prevented its full
potential from being utilized.
1912 The triode is used as an amplifier - It took some time
before the full potential of the triode was realized. Eventually it
was de Forest who succeeded in using it as an amplifier and in
1912 he built an amplifier using two devices. This was
demonstrated to AT&T who understood its potential for use as
a repeater in long distance telephone circuits.
1918 Armstrong invents the superhet - Although thermionic
valves (tubes) enabled far greater performance to be gained in
radio receivers, the performance of the devices was still very
poor and receivers of the day suffered from insensitivity and
poor selectivity. During the First World War a considerable
amount of effort was devoted into resolving these problems. An
intermediate solution was developed by a Frenchman named
Lucien Levy, but in 1918, Edwin Armstrong developed a
receiver where the incoming signal was converted down to a
fixed intermediate frequency. Here it could be satisfactorily
amplified and filtered. Unfortunately the idea did not gain much
acceptance at first because the war ended, and superhet
receivers were very expensive because of the numbers of valves
they used. It took until the late 1920s before the number of
transmitting stations rose to a level that the performance of the
superhet was required and further developments meant they
could be made more cheaply.
1920 Early broadcasts by the Marconi Company - The
possibilities of broadcasting entertainment and news using
radio soon arose. In Britain initial transmissions were made by
the Marconi Company from their Chelmsford works for
experimental purposes. These broadcasts started in February
1920. Although only two daily programmes were broadcast
they had an enormous impact. The famous international singer
Dame Nellie Melba took part in one on 20th June 1920.
1921-23 Short wave transatlantic success - Long distance
communications had until now been concentrated on the long
wavelengths. Accordingly radio amateurs had been only
allowed to use the short wave bands which were thought to be
of little commercial value. However in the USA a number of
amateur stations had made contacts over considerable
distances. This made people wonder whether it would be
possible to make contact across the Atlantic. After several sets
of tests commencing in 1921 contact was finally made between
the American stations 1MO and 1XAM and the French station
8AB in November 1923. Then in October of 1924 a station at
Mill Hill School in the North of London made contact with one
in Dunedin New Zealand on the opposite side of the globe.
Meanwhile commercial interests were also exploring the
capabilities of the short wave bands, and a number of links were
set up.
1922 2LO and the BBC - In May 1922 the Marconi Company
was allowed to set up a broadcast station in London. Later in
the year the British Broadcasting Company was formed and this
took over the station that had the famous call 2LO. Initially it
only had a power of 100 watts, which gave it a maximum
coverage of about 40 miles. Later with a power of 1.5 kW its
coverage was greatly increased.
1925 International Broadcasting - The Westinghouse
Company set up a short wave broadcasting station (KDKA) in
East Pittsburgh which transmitted on a wavelength of 62.7
meters. This was successfully received and rebroadcast in
Britain. In Britain the amateur station 2NM run by Gerald
Marcuse started broadcasts in 1927. These gained great
popularity and shortly after their start the BBC commenced
broadcasts from an experimental station. However it took until
1932 before the Empire service (the forerunner of the BBC
World Service) was officially opened, broadcasting from
Daventry in the Midlands.
1934 Frequency Modulation - Although wideband FM is
widely used today it took many years for its advantages to be
discovered, previously everyone had tried to improve its
performance by reducing the bandwidth. It was Edwin
Armstrong who made the breakthrough. However it took many
years for him to convince people about its superiority. In 1934
he brought his idea to the attention of RCA, and a year later he
set up a demonstration. Then in 1939 he used his own money to
finance a station to prove that the system worked. Shortly after
this the idea began to take off and by January 1940 150
applications for FM broadcast stations had been submitted in
the USA. In 1954 the BBC launched its wideband FM service.
1945 Arthur C Clarke proposes geostationary satellites - Up
until this time all international communications relied on either
short wave radio transmissions or cable links. Short wave radio
was unreliable and subject to high levels of interference, and
international telephone cables were exceedingly expensive. In
1945 the author Arthur C Clarke wrote a historic article in
Wireless World describing a system that used satellites in
geostationary orbit. Signals would be transmitted up to the
satellite that would rebroadcast them back to the earth. In view
of their altitude above the earth the signals would be able to be
received many thousands of miles away from the original
transmitting station. Clarke calculated that only three satellites
would be required to cover around the globe. His idea was
revolutionary, and it took many years before the technology
was available for it to be implemented.
1957 Sputnik 1 launched - On 4th October 1957 the USSR
(Russia) launched the first satellite into orbit. The satellite was
in a very low orbit which took 96 minutes to circle the earth. It
only transmitted a bleep, but it was sufficient to prove that
satellites could be successfully put into orbit.
1958 SCORE launched - the first communication satellite
which broadcasted a Christmas message from President
Eisenhower - "Peace on Earth, Good will toward men". The
main purpose of the SCORE project was to prove that an atlas
missile could be put into orbit.
1962 Telstar launched - Several other satellites followed
Sputnik. Some were launched by the Soviet Union, and others
by the Americans. However the launch of Telstar proved to be
a major milestone in satellite development. On 23rd July 1962
it was used to make the first live transatlantic television
transmissions. Signals from the USA were seen live in many
homes around Europe, making communication history. Another
satellite named Relay was used to beam the pictures of the
funeral of the Late President Kennedy to people all over the
world. Since then the number of satellites has considerably
increased, along with improvements in technology. Now most
international communications are routed via satellites. Apart
from this they provide many other useful functions including
navigation, geological surveys, weather information, direct
television broadcast and so forth.

Combined, the U.S. and U.S.S.R. launched six satellites in

1958, 14 satellites in 1959, 19 in 1960 and 35 in 1961. In 1962,
the United Kingdom and Canada launched satellites of their
own, along with the 70 satellites launched by the U.S. and
U.S.S.R.
SAMUEL MORSE
In many respects Samuel Morse was a most
unlikely person to become a leading technology
inventor, developing the Morse Code, Morse Keys
and the Morse telegraph system, a new
communications system that would revolutionize the
world. It has been said that it was the "Internet" of the Victorian
age. Later further developments were made in the form of the
telephone, allowing voice communications over wires.
Although the name of Morse is well known for his Morse code,
comparatively few people realize he was one of the best artists
to come from the North American continent.

He managed to gain the support of Congress and received

a grant of $30,000 to set up an experimental line
between Baltimore and Washington, a distance of
about 40 miles. Despite a number of major
setbacks it took less than a year to complete and
on the 28th May 1844 he sent the famous first
A Camelback key dating
message which read "What hath God wrought?" from approximately 1860
 With this system operating interest grew very fast. Many of
the railroad companies saw the possibilities of the new system
and they started to have systems installed. In fact after only four
years more than 5000 miles of line had been installed to take
the new telegraph system. In addition to this orders soon started
to come in from Europe as they heard about the system and how
it performed. With all of these orders Morse became very
wealthy.
 This key gained its name from the fact that it had a "hump"
in its back. The key also has a sounder on the same base making
it what was often termed a KOB or Key On Base

The New Code

Although the original code that Morse had derived served
its purpose well it had several limitations. Some letters had
pauses in them, others had dashes that were longer than others,
and there was no provision for accents required by some
European languages. These problems meant that the code was
not always easy to use. As a result of this a new code was
devised and introduced in 1851. It bore many similarities to the
old one but it was much easier to send having no spaces in the
letters themselves and standard lengths for all the dots and
dashes. In fact this code is called the International Morse Code
and it is the one that is used today.

Activity: Research on the International Morse code

ANDRE-MARIE AMPERE
Andre Marie Ampere was one of the pioneers of
modern electronics. He effectively made the first
electrical measuring instrument (electronic test
equipment), thereby enabling people to understand
how much current was flowing in a circuit. Along
with his mathematical derivations of electricity, he made a truly
major input to the early science of electricity.
Ampere's birth
Andre-Marie Ampere was born on 20th January 1775 in
Lyon, France. From an early age he could be seen to be brilliant,
mastering many aspects of mathematics by the age of 12. In
1801 he became professor of physics and chemistry at Bourg
and eight years later he was invited to take up the post of
professor of mathematics at Ecole Polytechnique in Paris.
Ampere's work
Ampere's major break though came in 1820 after he heard
about the discovery that Hans Christian Oersted had made in
observing that a magnetic needle was deflected when placed
near a current carrying cable. Ampere was given to sudden
flashes of inspiration. True to form he developed a relationship
between electricity and magnetism within a week and he had
prepared a paper for publication.

Ampere formulated a law of electromagnetism, often called

Ampere's Law that mathematically describes the magnetic
force between two currents. In addition to this he undertook
many experiments from which he managed to explain some
electromagnetic phenomena that had been observed.

However one of the major reasons why he is associated

with electric currents in particular is that he was the first person
to develop an instrument to measure the magnitude of the
current flowing in a conductor. This was of immense
importance because up until this time no quantitative work had
been possible and this opened up the way for a far greater
understanding of electricity and current flow. In later work by
other scientists this instrument was called a galvanometer.

Last years
Ampere died in Marseilles on 10th June 1836. In
recognition of the importance of his work, the unit of current
was named after him.
CAPTAIN H.J. ROUND
Captain Henry Round is a
little known genius in the field
early radio development. As a
result of his efforts H.J. Round
had a great impact on British H.J. Round's
Autodyne Receiver
history. His developments in radio direction
finding noticed the movement of the German navy which he
reported and this resulted in the Battle of Jutland, the largest
naval battle of the First World War. In addition to this H.J.
Round made significant contributions to the development of the
thermionic valve or tube, and he also worked successfully on
the development of ASDIC.

As for his character, Captain H.J. Round was something of

an individual and an extrovert. He was also short in stature, and
his looks were said to be similar to those of Winston Churchill,
even down to a cigar. He also had a dislike for unnecessary
protocol, preferring to get to the point as soon as possible.
EDWIN HOWARD ARMSTRONG
Edwin Armstrong was a man who gave much
to the development of radio or wireless
technology. Starting at a very young age, he
developed the first regenerative radio receiver, was
the first to develop and construct a superhet or
superheterodyne receiver, and he also saw the
benefits of wideband FM which he again
pioneered. Without Edwin Armstrong, radio technology would
have not developed as fast as it did.
 Armstrong had a keen interest in radio, building early radio
sets while still at high school. On graduating from high school
he moved to Columbia University to study engineering. It was
while he was here that he made his first discovery. He
investigated the action of de Forest's Audion triode valve that
in these early days of wireless was not well understood. In the
summer of 1912 he devised a circuit that fed part of its output
back into the input to give what is called a regenerative circuit.
So successful was this that he could hear distant stations
without the need for headphones. Although others came up with
the idea around the same time as Armstrong, he is normally
credited with the invention of the regenerative receiver. He
received his degree in 1913 and filed a patent for his idea.
GEORG SIMON OHM
Ohm is a name synonymous with the very basis
of electricity. Every school child that studies
physics will have heard of Ohm's Law. Yet behind
the name for the unit of resistance is a very real
man. Someone who performed experiments that
was at the forefront of the technology of the time.

In 1820 the phenomenon of electromagnetism had only just

been discovered. Ohm was fascinated by electricity and started
to make some investigations. However even basic
measurements like measuring current were difficult. Measuring
current was accomplished by measuring the magnetic flux
around the conductor. Whilst doing this Ohm noticed that the
type of conductor had an effect on the flux and as a result he
performed experiments to find out if there might be any
relationship between the voltage, current and the material of the
wire.

Ohm derived a relationship between them, but his first

attempt was incorrect, involving logarithms. However Ohm
continued to work on the problem. He refined his results and
used improved batteries that were a major source of error. Using
the improved system he was able to establish a new relationship
that was very much like the one we know today.

Ohm was now confident of his results and published them.

However the scientific community were very skeptical, and
some people even ridiculed him. Fortunately a few people
recognized his work and this enabled him to move on to Berlin
to proceed with further research

Activity: State the Ohm’s Law and its significance.

GUGLIELMO MARCONI
Marconi is often called the “Father of Radio” for
the many developments he made to radio, and
although he probably did more than any other
person to advance radio technology, he freely
admitted that he did not invent it. However he left
behind him a great legacy, with a company that
made many wireless sets from commercial equipment to
domestic sets that are collected by vintage wireless enthusiasts.
 With Marconi's interest fired with ideas of Hertzian Waves,
he started by repeating the experiments of Heinrich Hertz who
had discovered the presence of the waves. Marconi soon
realized that the sensitivity of the coherer (the device used to
detect the radio waves) was crucial to the range which could be
achieved. As a result he set about trying to improve its
sensitivity by a process of trial and error and he achieved a
considerable degree of success.

Activity: Explain how the Marconi antenna operates.

HANS CHRISTIAN OERSTED
In these early days of electricity, the facts that
we take for granted were not known and it took
great men like Hans Christian Oersted to discover
them.

In the winter of 1819-1820, Hans Christian Oersted gave a

number of lectures on electricity and magnetism to a small
group of advanced students. One that he wanted to try was the
effect of a closed electrical circuit (i.e. with a current flowing)
on a magnetized needle. Unfortunately he did not have time to
try it before the lecture, and decided to postpone it. However
during the lecture he changed his mind and tried it. Despite the
fact that the wire was thin and the resistance high, a sufficient
current flowed to deflect the needle - his theories had been
proved.
HEDY LAMARR
Hedy Lamarr was once known as the world's
most beautiful woman. Yet apart from being a
Hollywood icon, Hedy Lamarr had a varied and
interesting life and was an accomplished scientific
inventor. With a co-inventor George Antheil she
invented a radio system for preventing jamming using a system
known as frequency hopping. This is in widespread use today.
In her film career Hedy Lamarr caused a worldwide scandal
when she appeared nude on screen in a film and she went on to
become one of Hollywood's biggest stars in the 1940s. In her
private life it is said that she escaped from her jealous first
husband by drugging a guard and in total she married six times.
Yet despite all her claims to fame Hedy Lamarr died in modest
surroundings in Florida in the USA having made not a penny
from her scientific invention.
JAMES CLERK MAXWELL
James Maxwell is arguably one of the most
important scientists of the nineteenth century.
Many scientists rank him alongside names such as
Albert Einstein and Sir Isaac Newton. This is
because his revolutionary work in defining
electromagnetic radiation in terms of his field equations formed
the foundations for many others to develop their work upon. It
lead to the discovery and understanding of radio waves and the
development of radio and wireless technology that is an integral
part of today's world. Indeed such is the importance of his work
that Albert Einstein described it as the "most profound and most
fruitful that physics had experienced since the time of Newton."

Today RF engineers know of the name Maxwell as a result

of his equations. Some might be able to write down or
manipulate his equations, but very few people would know
much of the man himself.
JOHANN KARL FREIDRICH GAUSS
Johann Karl Friedrich Gauss was born in 1777 in
the small town of Braunschweig, Germany. His name
is associated with the unit of magnetic flux as a result
of the work he carried out in his lifetime on
magnetism. However he was a brilliant
mathematician and it is in this area that he made some of his
most significant contributions, particularly in the areas of
number theory, geometry, and calculus, as well as physics and
astronomy.
JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING
Professor Sir John Ambrose Fleming is one of the
great men of radio and electronics. His invention of
the thermionic valve or vacuum tube could be said to
be the beginning of modern electronics. It enabled
wireless and later electronics technology to move
forward, enabling many, what would now be termed vintage
wireless sets to be manufactured. Although the invention of the
thermionic valve or vacuum tube is his major claim to fame, he
also made many important contributions to the field of electrical
machinery.
MICHAEL FARADAY
Called the Father of Electrical Engineering and
the greatest scientist of his day, Michael Faraday
came from a humble background and received little
formal education. In his lifetime he achieved a great
amount in many spheres of scientific discovery
whilst also being a brilliant and charismatic lecturer. Michael
Faraday is best known for formulating the laws of
electromagnetic induction, and laying the foundations
necessary to make electric motors, dynamos and transformers.
On top of this he devised the laws of electrolysis, was the first
to liquefy chlorine, to isolate benzene and he also discovered
magneto-optical effects. Through all of this he was a deeply
religious and humble man whose scientific knowledge and
religious beliefs were in harmony.
NIKOLA TESLA
Nikola Tesla was one of the greatest scientists of
all time, and well ahead of others of his day. Much of
the importance of his work has not been realized until
recent years and as a result he is not accorded the full
credit he is due.

In his life he was something of an eccentric and he was a

loner, having very few friends. When he died he was on his
own, his body being discovered possibly a day or more after his
death. Yet in his life his scientific achievements were truly
impressive. He invented an enormous variety of electrical items
from the induction motor, to the fluorescent light. He was well
ahead of his time in the newly developing field of wireless,
beating Marconi in many areas, and he also successfully
demonstrated applications of wireless including remote control.
OLIVER HEAVISIDE
The name of Oliver Heaviside may not be heard
as much these days but he made many major
contributions to radio and wireless technology in his
day. In fact the ionospheric layers were often called
the Heaviside layers in honor of the fact using
mathematical methods he postulated the existence of an ionized
layer above the Earth from which radio waves could be
reflected or refracted back to ground. However he made many
more valuable discoveries using his mathematical methods,
explaining many of the problems that affected signal
transmission in his day.

As a person Oliver Heaviside lacked many social skills. He

was opinionated, and impatient with those less intelligent than
himself. However his intelligence could not be questioned, and
it was all the more remarkable as a result of the fact that he was
largely self-taught.

Activity: Explain how the Kennely-Heaviside layer affects radio

communications.
ALESSANDRO VOLTA
It is widely known that the Volt is the unit of
electromotive force and that it is named after
Alessandro Volta who was an Italian scientist and
pioneer of electrical science. What is less well
known is that he invented the first primary battery and in doing
so he moved electrical science from the electrostatic era into
electrodynamic age. His invention of the electrical battery made
possible many further developments, and the basic ideas for his
electrical batteries are still in use today.
 Some years earlier when electrical science was still firmly
focused on electrostatics, he also proposed the idea of a unit of
electric tension. Fortunately his suggestion was not taken up
because one of these early units equated to 13.3 kV!

In his day Volta was a scientist of great fame. Not only was
he a leader in the area of electricity, but he also made significant
discoveries in the field of chemistry.
REGINALD AUBREY FESSENDEN
The name of Reginald Aubrey Fessenden is not
as widely known as it deserves. Also he is often
quoted as being an American, a fact which Canadians
hotly contest as Fessenden was born in Canada. In
his life, RA Fessenden achieved a considerable amount,
pushing back the frontiers of radio or wireless technology of the
day. He held many firsts, and without his drive and insight,
radio technology would have developed considerably more
slowly than it did.
 Fessenden's most notable achievements include the first
audio radio transmission in 1900, the first two way transatlantic
transmission in 1906 and the first broadcast of entertainment,
also in 1906. Many of these were well ahead of their time, and
showed his insight, not only into the technical aspects of radio,
but also the commercial elements as well.
SIR EDWARD VICTOR APPLETON
Sir Edward Victor Appleton was one of the key
figures of the twentieth century who contributed to
the knowledge of radio and the ionosphere and hence
improved our knowledge of the way in which radio
waves propagate in the HF portion of the spectrum.
Edward Appleton received a Nobel prize in 1947 for his work,
the technique for which laid the foundations for the
development of radar. He became Sir Edward Appleton when
he was knighted in 1941.
SIR OLIVER LODGE
Although the name of Sir Oliver Lodge is not
known in many circles, he was nevertheless a very
important pioneer in the development of the new
technology of wireless or radio transmission. Oliver
Lodge is credited with a number of inventions without
which the development of the newly discovered technology of
radio communications would have been much slower.

In his life, Oliver Lodge succeeded in many areas and he

achieved world fame for his pioneering work in radio
communications and was one of the first to transmit a message
by wireless. He also performed many other investigations into
Wireless technology and coined the name "coherer" for this
early form of radio signal detector. In another area of his
researches he invented electric spark ignition, and he also
undertook a considerable amount of research into psychic
phenomena.
THOMAS ALVA EDISON AND THE INVENTION
FACTORY
It has been said that Thomas Edison is more
responsible than anyone else for creating the
modern world as we know it today. With inventions
such as the phonograph, the electric light bulb, and
1093 patents to his name this is possible quite true.
But surprisingly for such a great genius he was slow to learn as
a child, not even talking until he was four years old. During his
life it was said he was a "fiend for work" and although he had a
rather course nature he met many of the leading figures of his
day.

Activity:
1. Research on the true inventor of telephone and action made
by the US congress.
2. Who are the proponents of ac and dc? Explain which is better
to use in radio communications.
ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Communication means to share one’s thought with others.

It is a bidirectional process. The term communication refers to
the sending, processing and reception of information by
electrical means.

Depending upon the types of information to be sent and

received the following systems have been developed over the
years:
 Radio
 Telephony
 Telegraphy
 Broadcasting
 Radar
 Radio telemetry
 Radio aids to navigation (etc.)
 Any communication system must fulfill the following two
basic requirements: accurate communication and fast
communications.

The ratio S/N (useful signal power/noise signal power) is

an important parameters in evaluating the performance of a
system and for accurate transmission, this should be as high as
possible.
Block diagram of a communication system
Communication – the process of transferring information by
means of an electrical signal from one point to another
through wire or propagation in space.

Communication system – totality of the mechanism that allows

information transfer from source to destination.

Information – the physical manifestation of the system coming

from the source to destination.

Source – originator of the information

Transmitter – any device that encodes or radiates
communication signal

Modulation – process of altering or varying signal from the

channel

Encoder – a device that systematically alter the form of the

signal to make it suitable for transmission
Transmission Channel – an electrical or electromagnetic unit or
connection between the transmitter and receiver that
bridges the distance between source and destination.

Noise – any unwanted form of electrical energy

Decoder – reproduces the signal so that it could be understand

in the destination

Receiver – extracts the desired signal from the channel through

tuning
Destination – end user of the electrical signal

Components of a Transmitter
1. Transmitting Antenna – radiates electromagnetic waves
2. Modulating Amplifier – accomplishes the modulation
process
3. Oscillator – it produces the carrier wave
Components of a Receiver
1. Receiving Antenna – captures the signal in space
2. Demodulator – extracts the signal from the carrier wave
3. Oscillator – it incorporates the inside tuning circuit
TYPES OF SIGNAL AND TRANSMISSION PATHS

Types of signal
1. Analog signals – these are represented by voltage
waveforms that have different amplitudes at different
instants of time. Analog signals are used in many systems,
although the use of analog signals has declined with the
advent of cheap digital signals.
2. Digital signals – these signals comprise of pulses occurring
at discrete intervals of time. The pulses may occur singly at
a definite period of time or as a coded group. Digital signals
are signals that are represented by binary numbers, "1" or
"0". The 1 and 0 values can correspond to different discrete
voltage values, and any signal that doesn’t quite fit into the
scheme just gets rounded off.
What are the Pros and Cons?
Each paradigm has its own benefits and problems.

Analog
Analog systems are less tolerant to noise, make good use of
bandwidth, and are easy to manipulate mathematically.
However, analog signals require hardware receivers and
transmitters that are designed to perfectly fit the particular
transmission. If you are working on a new system, and you
decide to change your analog signal, you need to completely
change your transmitters and receivers.
Digital
Digital signals are more tolerant to noise, but digital signals
can be completely corrupted in the presence of excess noise. In
digital signals, noise could cause a 1 to be interpreted as a 0 and
vice versa, which makes the received data different than the
original data. Imagine if the army transmitted a position
coordinate to a missile digitally, and a single bit was received
in error? This single bit error could cause a missile to miss its
target by miles. Luckily, there are systems in place to prevent
this sort of scenario, such as checksums and CRCs, which tell
the receiver when a bit has been corrupted and ask the
transmitter to resend the data. The primary benefit of digital
signals is that they can be handled by simple, standardized
receivers and transmitters, and the signal can be then dealt with
in software (which is comparatively cheap to change).
The Difference between Digital and Discrete
Digital quantity may be either 0 or 1, but discrete may be
any numerical value i.e 0,1....9.

Which is Better?
There is no way to say which type of signal is better or
worse. Modern digital systems often require more expensive
components (consider the difference in price between old TV
sets, and new HDTV sets), although lower-end digital systems
can be moderately priced. Analog systems need to be built with
a complex array of Op Amps, resistors, capacitors, diodes, etc,
while a digital system can be implemented with a generic
microcontroller, and some quick programming.

Sampling and Reconstruction

The process of converting from analog data to digital data
is called "sampling". The process of recreating an analog signal
from a digital one is called "reconstruction".
Transmission paths
1. Transmission Line – termed as Line Communication. The
most common form is telephone networks. Communication
is carried out using overhead lines on poles and also by use
of buried cables.
2. Radio waves – termed as Radio Communication. In this type
of communication propagation of signals through
atmosphere is used.
MODE OF TRANSMISSION

There are two basic modes of transmission; the simplest is

one way transmission, normally referred as simplex. In simplex
communications, the information travels in one direction only.
A common example of simplex communications is radio and
television broadcasting.
 A two-way transmission is referred to as duplex. Half
duplex is two way communications where one party transmits
at a time. The communication is two way, but the direction
alternates. Example of half duplex communication is those used
by the military, fire, police and other services. Full duplex is
two way communications simultaneously. An example is when
individual communicates with one another over the telephone;
each can transmit and receive at the same time.
A B Simplex A to B only

A B
Half duplex A to B or B to A

A B Full duplex A to B and B to A

SIMPLEX (ONE WAY)

1. AM and FM RADIO BROADCASTING. Commercial

stations broadcast music, weather reports, as well as other
programs and information.

2. TV BROADCASTING. Commercial stations broadcast a

wide variety of entertainment, informational and
educational program.
3. CABLE TELEVISION. The distribution of movies,
sports events, and other programs by local cable companies
to subscribers by coax cable. Cable stations originate some
programming, but they primarily distribute “packaged”
programming received by satellite from services such as
HBO, CNN, Cinema One, etc.
4. FACSIMILE. The transmission of printed visual material
over the telephone lines. A facsimile, or fax machine scans
a photo or other documents and converts it into electronic
signals that are sent over the telephone system for
reproduction in original printed form by other fax machine
at the receiving end.
5. WIRELESS REMOTE CONTROL. A mechanism that
controls missiles, satellites, robots, and other vehicles or
remote plants or stations. A garage door opener is a special
form of remote control which uses a tiny battery-operated
transmitter in the car to operate a receiver in the garage that
activates a motor to open or close the door.
6. PAGING SYSTEM. A radio system for paging
individuals, usually in connection with their work. Persons
carry tiny battery-powered receivers or “beepers” that can
pick up signals from a local paging station that receives
telephone requests to locate and page individuals when they
are needed.
7. NAVIGATION AND DIRECTION-FINDING
SERVICES. Transmission by special stations of signals
that can be picked-up by receivers with highly directional
antennas for the purpose of identifying exact location
(latitude and longitude) or determining direction and/or
distance from a station.
8. TELEMETRY. The transmission of measurements over a
long distance. Telemetry systems use sensors to determine
physical conditions at a remote location.
9. RADIO ASTRONOMY. Radio signals including infrared
are emitted by virtually all heavenly bodies such as stars
and planets. By using large directional antennas and
sensitive high gain receivers, these signals may be picked
up and used to plot stars location and study the universe.
10. SURVEILLANCE. Surveillance means discreet
monitoring or “spying”. Electronic techniques are widely
used by police forces, governments, the military, business
and industry, and others to gather information for the
purpose of gaining some competitive advantage.
11. TELETEXT AND VIEWDATA. The transmission of text
and graphical data to be displayed on a TV receiver with an
appropriate adapter. Teletext data is transmitted by
telephone lines, whereas viewdata or videotext is
transmitted during the vertical picture blanking intervals on
standard TV broadcast signals.
12. MUSIC SERVICES. The transmission of continuous
background music for doctor’s offices, stores, elevators,
and so on by local FM radio stations on special high
frequency subscribers that cannot be picked up by
conventional FM receivers.
DUPLEX (TWO WAY)

13. TELEPHONES. One-on-one verbal communications over

the vast worldwide telephone networks employing wire,
radio inlay stations and satellites. Cordless telephones
provide short distance convenience communication without
restrictive wires. Cellular radio systems provide telephone
service in vehicles and for portable use.
14. TWO-WAY RADIO. Commercial, industrial and
governmental communications between vehicles or
between vehicles and a base station. Examples: police, fire,
taxi, forestry service, trucking companies, etc. Other forms
of two-way radios are used in aircraft, marine, military, and
space applications. Government applications are broad and
diverse and include embassy communications, Treasury,
Secret Service, and CIA.
15. RADAR. A special form of communications that makes
use of reflected microwave signals for the purpose of
detecting ships, planes, and missiles and for determining
their range, direction, and speed. Most radar is used in
military applications, but civilian aircraft and marine
services also use it. Police use radar in speed detection and
enforcement.
16. SONAR. Underwater communications in which audible
baseband signals use water as the transmission medium.
Submarines and ships use sonar to detect the presence of
enemy submarines. Passive-sonar uses audio receivers to
pick up water prop, and other noises. Active sonar is like an
underwater radar where reflections from a transmitted
audio pulse are used to determine direction, range, and
speed of an underwater target.
17. AMATEUR RADIO. A hobby for Individuals interested in
radio communications. Individuals may become licensed
“hams” to build and operate two-way radio equipment for
personal communication with other “hams”.
18. CITIZENS RADIO. Citizens or citizens band (CB) radio
is a special service that any individual may use for personal
communication with others. Most CB radios are used in
trucks and cars for exchanging information about traffic
conditions and for emergencies.
19. DATA COMMUNICATIONS. The transmission of
binary data between computers. Computers frequently use
the telephone system as the medium. Devices, called
modems, make the computers and telephone networks
compatible. Data communications also take place over
terrestrial microwave relay links and satellites.
20. LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LANs). Wired (or
wireless) interconnections of personal computers within an
office or building for the purpose of sharing mass storage,
peripherals, and data.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

In order for information to be transmitted in space it must

be first converted into electrical signals which then radiate in
space. Such signals consist of both electric and magnetic fields,
these electromagnetic signals travel through space for long
distances. Electromagnetic signals are also referred as radio
frequency (RF) waves.
 Electromagnetic waves are signals that oscillate, that is, the
amplitude of the electric and magnetic fields vary at a specific
rate. The field intensities fluctuate up and down given number
of times per second. The electromagnetic waves vary
sinusoidally. Their frequency is measured in cycles per second
(cps) or Hertz (Hz). These oscillations may occur at a very low
frequency or at an extremely high frequency. This entire range
of frequencies is referred to as the electromagnetic spectrum.
 The relationship between frequency f and wavelength λ is
given as:
c

f

where c = speed of light given as 3 x 108 m/s

λ = wavelength in meters
f = frequency in hertz.

Activity: Solve the following problems:

PROBLEM. What is the wavelength of 57 MHz?
Solution:
PROBLEM. If the wavelength is given as 2.4 m, what is the
frequency?
Solution:
Why can’t the information signals be radiated directly?
1. Antenna length is usually one quarter or one-half the waves
it is set up to transmit. For example, in audio signals, the
antenna would be impractical because of the size and cost.

A good example is the United States Navy installation at

Cutler, Maine. This transmitter, which covers a range of
frequencies from 14 to 30 kHz, is used for long-range
communications with Navy ships and submarines. The
Navy chose this frequency range because of the advantages
of VLF propagation. Information sent to submerged
submarines must be transmitted on a VLF carrier because
these signals can penetrate salt water. A VLF carrier offers
another advantage: it propagates along the curvature of the
earth rather than off the ionosphere. This eliminates the dead
communication area called skip zones which result from the
ionospheric effect on higher frequencies. Ground
absorption, which increases with frequency, is held to a
minimum in this frequency band.
The antenna arrays for this system resemble a gigantic
spider web spun in the sky. The antenna can be visualized
as a huge capacitor; the web of the antenna forms one plate
of the capacitor; and a screen of wires placed in the earth to
reduce losses forms the other. The ground wires extend into
the ocean to form a better conductor. Both webs of the
antenna cover two square miles.
The four-square-mile peninsula on which this transmitter is
located is entirely covered with a buried ground wire system
which uses 11,000,000 feet of No.6 bare copper wire. The
antenna system consists of two six-pointed star-shaped arrays,
each made up of six diamond-shaped panels of eight cables
each. The six diamonds are supported on a center tower 980 feet
high, six inner towers 875 feet high and six outer towers 800
feet high for a total of 26 towers for the two arrays. The
structures are designed to withstand wind speeds of 120 mph. it
is 6,100 ft. (over a mile) from one point to an opposite point of
the star, so that the overall dimension of the dual array is
roughly one mile by two miles.
2. Simultaneously transmitted audio signals would interfere
with one another since they occupy the same frequency
range. The audio portion of the spectrum would be nothing
but a jumble of hundreds or thousands of simultaneous
communications.
Electromagnetic Spectrum Table
 Name Frequency
Extremely Low Frequency ELF 30 – 300 Hz
Voice Frequency VF 300 – 3,000 Hz
Very Low Frequency VLF 3 – 30 kHz
Low Frequency LF 30 – 300 kHz
Medium Frequency MF 300 – 3,000 kHz
High Frequency HF 3 – 30 MHz
Very High Frequency VHF 30 – 300 MHz
Ultra High Frequency UHF 300 – 3,000 MHz
Super High Frequency SHF 3 – 30 GHz
Extremely High Frequency EHF 30 – 300 GHz
Infrared Light 300 – 3,000 GHz
Infrared Light 3 – 30 THz
Infrared Light 30 – 300 THz
Visible Light 300T – 3,000 THz
Ultraviolet Light 3 – 30 PHz
X-rays 30 – 300 PHz
Gamma Rays 300 PHz – 3,000 PHz
Cosmic Rays 3 – 30 EHz
 Specific Values
Direct Current 0 Hz
Power frequency 10 – 1,000 Hz
Audio frequency 20 – 20,000 Hz
Voice frequency 300 – 3,400 Hz
Video frequency 50 Hz – 4.5MHz
Supersonic or ultrasonic 25 kHz – 2 MHz
Heat or Infrared 1 – 430 THz
Visible Light Frequency 430 – 1,000 THz
Ultraviolet 1 – 60 PHz
X-rays 60 PHz – 30 EHz
APPLICATIONS

EXTREMELY LOW FREQUENCIES. Extremely low

frequencies (ELFs) are those in the 30- to 300-Hz range. These
include ac power line frequencies (50 and 60 Hz are common)
as well as those frequencies in the low end of the human range.
VOICE FREQUENCIES. Voice frequencies (VFs) are those
in the range of 300 to 3,000 Hz. This is the normal range of
human speech. Although human hearing extends from
approximately 20 to 20,000 Hz, most intelligible sound occurs
in the VF range.
VERY LOW FREQUENCIES. Very low frequencies (VLFs)
include the higher end of the human hearing range up to about
15 or 20 kilohertz (kHz). Many musical instruments also make
sounds in this range as well as in the ELF and VF ranges. The
VLF range is also used in some government and military
communications. For example, VLF radio transmission is used
by the navy to communicate with submarines.
LOW FREQUENCIES. Low frequencies (LFs) are those in
the 30- to 300-kHz range. The primary communications
services in this range are those used in aeronautical and marine
navigation. Frequencies in this range are also used as
subcarriers. Subcarriers are signals which carry the baseband
modulating information but which, in turn, modulate another
higher-frequency carrier.
MEDIUM FREQUENCIES. Medium frequencies (MFs) are
in the 300- to 3,000-kHz range. The major application of
frequencies in this range is AM radio broadcasting (535 to 1605
kHz). Other services in this range include various marine and
aeronautical communications applications.
HIGH FREQUENCIES. High frequencies (HFs) are those in
the 3- to 30-MHz range. These are the frequencies generally
known as short waves. All kinds of two-way radio
communications take place in this range as well as some
shortwave radio broadcasting. Voice of America and Radio
Free Europe broadcasts occur in this range. Government and
military services use these frequencies for two-way
communications. Amateur radio and CB communications also
occur in this part of the spectrum.
VERY HIGH FREQUENCIES. Very high frequencies
(VHFs) cover the 30- to 300-MHz range. This is an extremely,
popular frequency range and is used by many services including
mobile radio, marine and aeronautical communications, FM
radio broadcasting (88 to 108 MHz), and television channels 2
through 13. Radio amateurs also have numerous bands in this
frequency range.
ULTRAHIGH FREQUENCIES. Ultrahigh frequencies
(UHFs) cover the 300- to 3,000-MHz range. This too is an
extremely widely used portion of the frequency spectrum. It
includes the UHF television channels 14 through 69. It is also
widely used for land mobile communications and services such
as cellular telephones. The military services widely us these
frequencies for communications. In addition, some radar and
navigation services occupy this portion of the frequency
spectrum. Radio amateurs also have bands in this part of the
spectrum. Incidentally, frequencies above the 1,000-MHz range
are called microwaves.
SUPERHIGH FREQUENCIES. The superhigh frequencies
(SHFs) are those in the 3- to 30-GHz range. These are
microwave frequencies that are widely used for satellite
communications and radar. Some specialized forms of two-way
radio communications also occupy this region.
EXTREMELY HIGH FREQUENCIES. Extremely high
frequencies (EHFs) extend from 30 to 300 GHz. Equipment
used to generate and receive signals in this range is extremely
complex and expensive. Presently there is only a limited
amount of activity in this range, but it does include satellite
communications and some specialized radar. As technological
developments permit equipment advances, this frequency range
will be more widely used. Signal directly above this range are
generally referred to as millimeter waves.
INFRARED. Those electromagnetic signals whose
frequencies are higher than 300 GHz are not referred to as radio
waves. Special names are given to the various bands in the
spectrum beyond that point. The infrared region is sandwiched
between the highest radio frequencies and the visible portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum. It occupies the range between
approximately 0.01 millimeter (mm) and 700 nanometers (nm)
or 0.7 to 10 microns (µm). Infrared frequencies are often given
in microns, where a micron is one millionth of a meter (m).
Infrared is divided into two areas, long infrared (0.01 mm to
1000 nm) and short infrared (1000 to 700 nm).
Infrared refers to radiation generally associated with heat.
Anything that produces heat generates infrared signals. Infrared
is produced by light bulbs, our bodies, and any physical
equipment that generates heat. Infrared signals can also be
generated by special types of light- emitting diodes.

Infrared signals are used for various special kinds of

communications. For example, infrared is used in astronomy to
detect stars and other physical bodies in the heavens. Infrared is
also used for guidance in weapons systems where the heat
radiated from airplanes or missiles can be picked up by infrared
detectors and used to guide missiles toward these targets.
Infrared is also used in most new TV remote- control units
where special coded signals are transmitted by infrared to the
TV receiver for the purpose of changing channels, setting the
volume, and other functions.

Infrared signals also have many of the same properties as light.

Optical devices such as lenses and mirrors are often used to
process and manipulate infrared signals.
THE VISIBLE SPECTRUM. Just above the infrared region
is the visible spectrum we ordinarily refer to as light. Light is a
special type of electromagnetic radiation that has a wavelength
in the 0.4- to 0.8-pm range. Light wavelengths are usually
expressed in terms of angstroms (Å). An angstrom is one ten-
thousandth of a micron. The visible range is approximately
8000 Å (red) to 4000 Å (violet).

Light is widely used for various kinds of communications.

Light waves can be modulated and transmitted through glass
fibers just as electric signals can be transmitted over wires.
Fiber optics is one of the fastest growing specialties of
communications electronics. The great advantage of light wave
signals is that their very high frequency gives them the ability
to handle a tremendous amount of information. That is, the
bandwidth of the baseband signals may be very wide.

Light signals can also be transmitted through free space.

Various types of communications systems have been created
using a laser that generates a light beam at a specific visible
frequency. Lasers generate an extremely narrow beam of light
which is easily modulated with voice, video, and data
information.

Beyond the visible region are the x-rays, gamma rays, and
cosmic rays. These are all forms of electromagnetic radiation,
but they do not figure into communications systems and, as a
result, we will not cover them here.
TYPES OF RADIO EMISSIONS

Each type of radio emission is classified according to its

bandwidth, method of modulation, nature of the modulating
signal, and type of information transmitted on the carrier signal.
It is based on characteristics of the signal, not on the transmitter
used.

This designation system was agreed at the 1979 World

Administrative Radio Conference (WARC 79), and gave rise to
the Radio Regulations that came into force on 1 January 1982.
DESIGNATION DETAILS

Bandwidth
The bandwidth is expressed as three digits and a letter that
occupies the position normally used for a decimal point. The
letter indicates what unit of frequency is used to express the
bandwidth.
H indicates hertz
k indicates kilohertz
M indicates megahertz
G indicates gigahertz.
Example. 500H
Example. 2M50
FIRST SYMBOL
Type of modulation of the Main Carrier
Emission of unmodulated carrier N
Emission in which the main carrier is AMPLITUDE
MODULATED
Double-sideband A
Independent sideband B
Vestigial sideband C
Single-sideband with full carrier H
Single-sideband with reduced or variable carrier R
Single-sideband with suppressed carrier J
Emission in which the main carrier is ANGLE-
MODULATED
Frequency modulation F
Phase modulation G
Emission in which the main carrier is amplitude and D
angle-modulated either simultaneously or in a pre-
established sequence
Emission of PULSES
Sequence of pulses without modulation P
Sequence of pulses
PAM K
 PDM/PWM L
PPM M
Phase or frequency modulation within each Q
pulse
Combination of pulse modulation methods V
None of the above X
SECOND SYMBOL
Nature of Signal(s) Modulating the Main Carrier
No modulating signal 0
One channel containing quantized or digital
1
information, no subcarrier
One channel containing quantized or digital
2
information, using a subcarrier
One channel containing analog information 3
More than one channel containing digital
7
information
More than one channel containing analogue
8
information
Combination of analogue and digital channels 9
None of the above X
THIRD SYMBOL
Type of transmitted information
No transmitted information N
Telegraphy (manual) A
Telegraphy (automatic) B
Facsimile C
Data transmission, Telemetry or Telecommand D
Telephony E
Television F
Combination of any of the above W
None of the above X
FOURTH SYMBOL
Details of information
Two-condition code, elements vary in quantity
A
and duration
Two-condition code, elements fixed in quantity
B
and duration
Two-condition code, elements fixed in quantity
C
and duration, error-correction included
Four-condition code, one condition per "signal
D
element"
Multi-condition code, one condition per "signal
E
element"
Multi-condition code, one character represented
F
by one or more conditions
Monophonic broadcast-quality sound G
Stereophonic or quadraphonic broadcast-quality
H
sound
Commercial-quality sound J
Commercial-quality sound-frequency inversion
K
and-or "band-splitting" employed
Commercial-quality sound, independent FM
signals, such as pilot tones, used to control the L
demodulated signal
Grayscale images or video M
Full-color images or video N
Combination of two or more of the above W
None of the above X
FIFTH SYMBOL
Nature of Multiplexing
None used N
Code-division C
Frequency-division F
Time-division T
Combination of Frequency-division and Time- W
division
None of the above X
The following are the designations of different signals:

For Amplitude Modulation

A0 No modulation
A1 Telegraphy; on-off; no other modulation
A2 Telegraphy; on-off; amplitude-modulated one
A3 Telephony; DSBFC
A3A Telephony; SSBRC
A3J Telephony; SSBSC
A3H Telephony; SSBFC
A3B Telephony; ISB
A3Y Digital voice modulation
A4 Facsimile
A5C Television with vestigial sideband
A9B Telephony or telegraphy with ISB
A9Y Nonvoice digital modulation

Frequency or Phase-Modulated (FM/PM)

F1 Telegraphy; FSK
F2 Telegraphy; on-off; frequency-modulated one
F3 Telephony; FM or PM
F3Y Digital voice modulation
F9Y Nonvoice digital modulation
F4 Facsimile
F5 Television
F6 Telegraphy; four-frequency duplex

Pulse-Modulated
P0 Radar
P1D Telegraphy; ASK
P2D Telegraphy; pulse-carrier tone-modulated
P2E Telegraphy; pulse-width tone-modulated
P2F Telegraphy; phase or position tone-modulated
P3D Telephony; amplitude-modulated pulses
P3E Telephony; pulse-width modulated
P3F Telephony; pulse phase or position-modulated

Common and important examples

N0N Continuous, unmodulated carrier - as previously
commonly used for radio direction finding (RDF) in
marine and aeronautical navigation.
A1A Signaling by keying the carrier directly (aka CW or
OOK) - as currently used in amateur radio. This is often
but not necessarily Morse code.
A2A Signaling by keying a tone modulated onto a carrier so
that it can easily be heard using an ordinary AM
receiver - as previously used for station identifications
of some RDF transmissions. This is usually but not
exclusively Morse code. (An example of modulated
continuous wave)
A3E AM speech communication - as used for aeronautical
VHF communications
F3E FM speech communication - as used for marine and
many other VHF communications
J3E SSB speech communication - as used on HF bands by
marine, aeronautical and amateur users
A3E or A3EG
Normal AM broadcast - as found on public LF and MF
bands
F1B FSK telegraphy
F2D Data transmission by frequency modulation of a radio
frequency carrier with an audio frequency FSK
subcarrier. Often called AFSK/FM.
F8E or F8EH
 Normal FM stereo broadcast - as found on public VHF
band, and as the audio component of broadcast
television transmissions
G1B PSK31 (BPSK31)
C3F or C3FN
Broadcast television video signals