Contents

1 Energy and Its Meaning

2 Stored Energy
Stored Energy Vs Transient Energy
Energy Types
3 Transient Energy
Heat Transfer
Work Transfer
4 Expressions for Displacement Work Transfer
Displacement Work
Isochoric Process
Isobaric Process
Isothermal Process
Polytropic Process
5 Power
Power
SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 1 / 38
Contents
1 Energy and Its Meaning
2 Stored Energy
Stored Energy Vs Transient Energy
Energy Types
3 Transient Energy
Heat Transfer
Work Transfer
4 Expressions for Displacement Work Transfer
Displacement Work
Isochoric Process
Isobaric Process
Isothermal Process
Polytropic Process
5 Power
Power
SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 2 / 38
Energy and its Meaning

Energy
• Energy is the capacity of doing work.
• Ability to provide force for certain time.
• Unit: Joule (J), Nm

Forms of Energy
• Potential Energy (PE)
• Kinetic Energy (KE)
• Chemical
• Electrical etc.

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 3 / 38

Contents
1 Energy and Its Meaning
2 Stored Energy
Stored Energy Vs Transient Energy
Energy Types
3 Transient Energy
Heat Transfer
Work Transfer
4 Expressions for Displacement Work Transfer
Displacement Work
Isochoric Process
Isobaric Process
Isothermal Process
Polytropic Process
5 Power
Power
SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 4 / 38
Stored Energy Vs Transient Energy

Stored Energy Transient Energy

Cannot cross (or remains within) Can cross the boundary of the
the boundary of system system
Can be defined for a State or an Can be defined only for a Pro-
Instant cess
Are Thermodynamic Properties Are not Thermodynamic Prop-
erties
Are State Function Are Path function
Their cyclic integral is Zero Their cyclic integral is non-Zero
They have unique value at each They do not have value at equi-
equilibrium state librium state.
Eg: Internal Energy (U), Total En- Eg: Work Transfer (δW ), Heat
ergy (E) Transfer (δQ)

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 5 / 38

Stored Energy

Internal Energy
• Energy of the System due to its molecular activity.
• Molecular KE due to moment of molecules.
• Molecular PE due to Intermolecular force of attraction.
• Sum of both Molecular KE and Molecular PE.
• Energy due to Collision and Vibration of molecules.
• Function of temperature. As the temperature increases, molecular activities increses and
the internal energy increases

U = mcv T

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Stored Energy
Internal Energy

Figure: Types of internal energy

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 7 / 38
Stored Energy

Internal Energy
Following Microscopic Energies make up Sensible Energy
• Translational Energy: Kinetic energy due to the movement of molecules in free space.
• Rotational Kinetic Energy: Due to rotation of molecules about an axis.
• Vibrational Kinetic Energy: Due to vibration of molecules about their common center of
mass.
• Spin Energy: Due to spin of molecules around their axes.
• Latent Energy: Energy associated with Phase Change.
• Molecular Potential Energy: The internal energy associated with binding force between
molecules of substance, between atoms of molecules etc.

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 8 / 38

Stored Energy

Potential Energy
• Energy Due to Position and Configuration
• Water stored in a reservoir. Compressed Spring
• It is a macroscopic energy.
PE = mgz

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Stored Energy

Kinetic Energy
• Energy due to motion.
1
KE = mv̄ 2
2

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 10 / 38

Stored Energy

Total Energy
• Sum of all available Energies.
1
TE = U + mv̄ 2 + mgz
2
• Specific Energy:
E 1
e= = u + v̄ 2 + gz
M 2

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 11 / 38

Macroscopic Vs Microscopic Energy

Figure: Microscopic Vs Macroscopic Energy

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 12 / 38
Macroscopic Vs Microscopic Energy
Macroscopic Potential Energy
Based on the external positional
reference (gravitational: height,
spring: displacement, etc.)
Due to the influence of some
external effects such as gravity,
magnetism, electricity, and sur-
face tension.
Can be utilized to produce useful
effect. Can be easily converted to
other form of energy.
Sums-up to give the Total Energy
of a system.
SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Microscopic Potential En-
ergy
Based on the internal posi-
tional reference.
Due to molecular or atomic
bonding and molecular/atomic
structure.
Hard to utilize to produce use-
ful effect.
Sums-up to give the total Inter-
nal Energy of the system.
13 / 38
Contents
1 Energy and Its Meaning
2 Stored Energy
Stored Energy Vs Transient Energy
Energy Types
3 Transient Energy
Heat Transfer
Work Transfer
4 Expressions for Displacement Work Transfer
Displacement Work
Isochoric Process
Isobaric Process
Isothermal Process
Polytropic Process
5 Power
Power
SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 14 / 38
Energy Transfer

Energy Transfer
• When the system Interacts with the surrounding, the interaction can take place either in
the form of Heat Transfer or Work Transfer.
• Heat Transfer and Work Transfer is differentiated whether the interaction is due to the
Temperature Difference or due to any other factor.

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 15 / 38

Energy Transfer

Heat Transfer
• Energy Transfer, without the transfer of mass, due to Temperature Differences
• Heat transfer is denoted by Q and its SI unit is Joule (J )
• Heat received by the system = Positive(+ve)
• Heat lost by the system = Negative(-ve)

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 16 / 38

Energy Transfer

Work Transfer
• Energy Transfer due to properties other than Temperature.
• Pressure, Gravitational Potential, Electric Potential etc.
• Work transfer is said to take place if the total effect can be converted to the lifting of load.
• Chemical Energy in battery → Electric Energy → Drive Motor → Lift the load
• Work done By the system = Positive(+ve)
• Work done On the system = Negative(-ve)

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 17 / 38

Energy Transfer

Work Transfer
• In some thermodynamics processes, energy transfer takes place without observable
macroscopic displacement. Hence, classical mechanics, definition of work transfer might
not always be applicable in thermodynamics.
• Work transfer is said to take place if the total effect can be converted to the lifting of load.

Work Transfer Concepts

• When energy is supplied to or supplied by battery, there is no displacement, however,
Work Transfer can be defined as, ’Energy Transfer due to properties other than
temperature’. Hence, we can conclude that the energy interaction from a battery is work
transfer.

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 18 / 38

Energy Transfer
Work Transfer Concepts
• To visualize the work transfer without displacement, we can first make an arrangement
where transferred energy is used to lift the weight.
• Like, connecting battery to motor -> motor to pulley -> lift the weight.

Figure: Work Transfer between system and surrounding

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 19 / 38
Work-Heat Similarities

Similarities between Heat Transfer and Work Transfer

• Both are forms of energy with unit of Joule (J ) and are transient type
• Both are recognized at the boundaries of the system as they cross the boundary. Both
are Boundary Phenomenon
• System possess energy, but not heat or work.
• Both are associated with a process, not state. Unlike properties, heat or work have no
meaning at a state.
• Both are path functions

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Work-Heat Differences
Work Transfer
Transfer of energy, without transfer of
mass, because of any property differ-
ence other than temperature.
It is Organized form of energy so, con-
sidered High Grade Energy.
Work transfer to the system is negative
and work transfer from the system is
positive.
Area under P – V diagram.
SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer
Transfer of energy, without transfer
of mass, because of temperature dif-
ference between the system and the
surroundings.
It is Disorganized, hence Low Grade
Energy.
Heat transfer to the system is positive
and heat transfer from the system is
negative.
Area under T – S diagram.
21 / 38
Steady State and Unsteady State Heat Transfer
Steady State Heat Transfer
The temperature of the object do not
vary with respect to time.
For the steady-state heat transfer, the
energy entering the object is equal to
the energy leaving from the object,
Ein = Eout
Example: Heat generation because
of electrical current.
SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Unsteady State Heat Transfer
The temperature of the object vary
with respect to time.
For the unsteady state heat transfer,
the energy entering the object is not
equal to the energy leaving from the
object, Ein , Eout
Example: Heating or cooling of water,
Heating of metal in a furnace..
22 / 38
Contents
1 Energy and Its Meaning
2 Stored Energy
Stored Energy Vs Transient Energy
Energy Types
3 Transient Energy
Heat Transfer
Work Transfer
4 Expressions for Displacement Work Transfer
Displacement Work
Isochoric Process
Isobaric Process
Isothermal Process
Polytropic Process
5 Power
Power
SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 23 / 38
Mechanical Work

Displacement Work
⃗ displaces a body by displacement S
Force F ⃗ in the same direction.
Work Done:
⃗ ·S
W =F ⃗

Or: Z
W= ⃗ · dS
F ⃗

For same direction, Z

W= FdS

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 24 / 38

Displacement Work

Expression for Displacement Work

Consider Piston Cylinder device which expands from position x1 to position x2 .

Figure: Piston moving from x1 to x2

Let P be the gas pressure at any position in-between.

Displacement ds takes place due to pressure.
Then, Gas Force (F) = PA

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 25 / 38

Displacement Work

Expression for Displacement Work

Figure: Piston from x1 to x2

Z x2
Work = Fds
x1
Z x2
Work = PAds
x1
Z V2
Work = PdV
V1

Work = Area Under P-V Diagram.

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Isochoric Process

Expression for Work Transfer

Z
W= PdV = 0

Figure: Constant Volume Heating

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 27 / 38

Isobaric Process

Expression for Work Transfer

Z
W= PdV

Z V2
W= P1 dV
V1
Z V2
W = P1 dV
V1

W = P1 (V2 − V1 ) Figure: Constant Pressure Heating

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Isothermal Process

Expression for Work Transfer

In Isothermal process we have:

PV = Constant

So:
PV = P1 V1 = P2 V2

Figure: Constant Temperature Process

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 29 / 38

Isothermal Process

In Isothermal process we have:

PV = Constant
So:
PV = P1 V1 = P2 V2

P1 V1
P=
V
Z
W= PdV
Z V2
P1 V1
W= dV
V1 V

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 30 / 38

Isothermal Process

In Isothermal process we have:

Z V2
PV = Constant 1
W = P1 V1 dV
So: V1 V
PV = P1 V1 = P2 V2

V
P1 V1 W = P1 V1 [ln(V )]V21
P=
V
Z
W= PdV
W = P1 V1 (ln(V2 ) − ln(V1 ))
Z V2
P1 V1
W= dV
V1 V (V )
W = P1 V1 ln (V2 )
1

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 30 / 38

Isothermal Process

In Terms of Volume In Terms of Pressure

V2 P1
W = P1 V1 ln W = P1 V1 ln
V1 P2

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Isothermal Process

Figure: Constant Temperature Process

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 32 / 38

Polytropic Process

A thermodynamic process defined by

PV n = Constant

So:
PV n = P1 V1n = P2 V2n
n= polytropic index

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Polytropic Process

Figure: Polytropic Process

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Polytropic Process

P1 V1n
P=
Vn
Z
W= PdV

V2 P1 V1n
Z
W= dV
V1 Vn
Z V2
1
W = P1 V1n dV
V1 Vn

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 35 / 38

Polytropic Process

P1 V1n #V2
P= V 1−n
"
Vn W= P1 V1n
Z 1−n V1
W= PdV
 1 −n
 V2 − V11−n 

V2 P1 V1n P1 V1n
Z
W=  
W= dV 1−n
V1 Vn
Z V2
1
W = P1 V1n dV P2 V2 − P1 V1
V1 Vn W=
1−n

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 35 / 38

Polytropic Process

Value of index,n Equation Process

0 P = Constant Isobaric
1 PV = Constant Isothermal
γ PV γ = Constant Adiabatic
∞ V = Constant Isochoric

SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 36 / 38

Contents
1 Energy and Its Meaning
2 Stored Energy
Stored Energy Vs Transient Energy
Energy Types
3 Transient Energy
Heat Transfer
Work Transfer
4 Expressions for Displacement Work Transfer
Displacement Work
Isochoric Process
Isobaric Process
Isothermal Process
Polytropic Process
5 Power
Power
SPT Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 37 / 38
Power

Power
Rate of Heat or Work Transfer

δQ
Q̇ =
dt

δW
Ẇ =
dt
Unit: Watt, hp

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