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The Toponymy of the Nippur Region during the 1st Millennium B.C.
within the General

Framework of the Mesopotamian Toponymy
Author(s): Ran Zadok
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Die Welt des Orients, Bd. 12 (1981), pp. 39-69
Published by: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (GmbH & Co. KG)
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25683005 .
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The Toponymy of the Nippur Region during the
1stMillennium B.C. within the General Framework
of theMesopotamian Toponymy*)
By Ran Zadok, Haifa
0. Introduction
1st-millenniumNippur sources mention no less than 186 settlements, 58 canals,

two rivers and threemeadows.1) 221 of these 249 toponyms are mentioned in
theMuraSu Archive (see Tables Nos. 1,2 below).
Table No. 1: Settlements in the Nippur Region during the 1stMillennium B.C.f
No. Name of Settlement and Reference No.2)
A-ba-as-ta-nu 2.2.6.1.1.1.1.1
Ad-di-ia-a-a 2.2.2.1.1.1
Ah-M-a-nu 22.1 A .1.1
f Not mentioned in the Murasu Archive.
*) Abbreviations as in CAD, but note the following:

AOP = W. Boree, Die alten Ortsnamen Palastinas (Leipzig, 1930; repr. Hildesheim, 1968);
APNM = H. B. Huffmon, Amorite Personal Names in the Mari Texts (Baltimore, 1965); BT
=
The Babylonian DISO = Ch.-F. Jean & J. Dictionnaire des

Talmud; Hoftijzer, inscriptions
=
semitiques de l'Ouest (Leiden, 1965); FB Forschungen und Berichte (Staatliche Museen,
Fs. Dupont-Sommer = a Andre
Berlin, DDR); Hommages Dupont-Sommer (Paris, 1971);
HdAW 3, 1, 1 = F. Hommel, Ethnologie und Geographie des alten Orients (Handbuch der
= Israel Oriental = H. Don
Altertumswissenschaft, 3, 1, 1, Munich, 1926); IOS Studies; KAI
ner & W. Rollig, Kanaanaische und Aramaische Inschriften (1 [2nd ed.], Wiesbaden, 1968;
= J.
2, 3: ibid, 1964); Landschaft Obermeyer, Die Landschaft Babyloniens im Zeitalter des
Talmuds und des Gaonats = M. W.
(Frankfurt a/M., 1929); MPLAB Stolper, Management and
Politics in Later Achaemenid Babylonia: New Texts from the Murasu Archive (doctoral disser
=
tation, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1974); RGTC Repertoire Gôgraphique des
-
Textes Cuneiformes. WSB = R. Zadok, On West Semites in Babylonia during the Chaldean
and Achaemenian Periods: An Onomastic -
Study (Jerusalem, 1977).
Note: Year numbers in bold type mean that they fall before the Christian era (B.C.), as
are other date designations (centuries, millennia) in our study unless otherwise stated. Since
all the N/LB localities discussed below will be included in our forthcoming RGTC 8, we do
not supply references for them, but give them in the normalized
transcription under which
-
they are listed in RGTC 8. I should like to thank Prof. Dr. W. Rollig (Tubingen) who very
kindly gave his critical reading to the whole manuscript and made valuable methodological
suggestions. It is needless to say that only I am responsible for any shortcomings and mistakes
found in this article.
M See Table No. 1 below (Nos. 46, 97, 178).
2) This number refers to my article in IOS 8, 1978.
40 Ran Zadok
Name of Settlement and Reference No.
+Alu-la-Âd-di!-da-a-a 2.2.7.2.1.3.1
+Alu-Âr/Ar-ba-a-a 2.2.7.2.1.1.1
Alu-Sa&aSkdpe 2.2.6.0.1.5
+Alu-la-mHa-am-rrii-id 2.2.7.2.4.1
+Alu-$a-mHa-an-di-di 2.2.7.2.1.4.1
+Alu-te-m Ku-ru-ul-la-a-a 2.2.7.2.1.2.1

+Alu-$a-Lusdnuri 22.1.2.2A
Alu-la-^maqtutu 2.2.2.1.1.2
+Alu-$a-Nabu-udammiq 22.1222
Alu-la-Nippure 2.2.7.1.1.2
+Alu-$a-l"Qu-ra-ba-tu-u-a 2.2.7.2.1.1.2
+Alu-Sa-tirab-ariq(?/)'bi [-Nabu'-iq-bi] 2.2.7.2.1.1.3
+Alu-Sa-$ullum 2.2.7.2.1.1.4
A-ra-zu-u-a 2.2.6.3.5
i4r-fc 2.2.6.2.4.1
/Ir-tffl-' 2.2.7.1.1.3
Ar-zu-hi-in-ni 2.2.2.1.1.3
+,4-fcH...] 2.2.7.2.2.3
2.2.7.2.1.L5
Bdb-Nar-Derat 22.6.2.5.1
Bdb-Nar-Subat-Ea 222AAA
Ban-ni-e-M 2.2.1.1.1.1
+Ba-a[r-r]e?-e-[...} 2.2.7'.2.2.4
Ba-as-sa-nu 2.2.2.1.1.5
?e7 2.2.6.2.1.1
Bi$tu-s'a-l"rab-urdti 2.2.2.1.1.6
Bit-mAb-di-ia 2.2.2.1.1.7
Bit-mAbi-ia-a-hu 2.2.1.1.1.2
Bit-mAhi-la-ri-im 2.2.1.1.1.3
Bit- Ak-ki-e 2.2.6.1.1.1.1.2
Bit-Apia 2.2.2.1.1.8
Bit-Ardija 2.2.2.1.1.9
Bit-mAr-za-' 2.2.1.1.1.4
Bit-mBa-ga-' -da-a-ti 2.2.6.2.8.2
Bit-Ba-ha-ri 2.2.1.1.1.5
Bit-Baldssu 22.1AAA
Bit-Bdniya 2.2.1.1.1.6
Bit-mBa-re-na- 2.2.7.1.1.5
Bit-Belti 2.2.6.2.6
2.1.2.3
Toponymyof theNippurRegion 41
Bit-Da-ad-di-ia 2.2.7.1.1.6
Bit-Dajjdnat 2.2.6.1.1.1.1.3
Bit-Enlil (meadow)
Bit-Eribd 2.2.2.1.1.10
Bit-mGa-la-la-nu 2.2.2.1.1.11
Bit-Ga-dMi-lu 2.1.2.4
Bit-Gi-ra- 2.2.7.1.1.7
Bit-mHa-ad-di-ia 2.2.1.1.1.7
Bit-mHa-du-ru 2.2.2.1.1.12
Bit-mHa-na-na- hur-ba-tu^ 2.2.1.1.1.8
Bit-HdS-bi-il-im-ma hur-bat 2.2.1.1.1.9

Bit- Ha-d$-M-mur 2.2.2.1.1.13
Bit- Ig-la- 2.2.7.1.1.8
Bit-I-U-pd-a-a 2.2.6.2.8.1
Bit-Il-M-ka-' 2.2.6.1.1.1.1.4
Bit-mIl-te-eh-la-a-a 2.2.7.1.1.9
Bit-mIl-te-eh-ri-nur-V 2.2.2.1.1.14
Bit-Ki-ki-e 2.2.6.1.1.1.1.5
Bit-Kind 2.2.2.1.1.15
Bit-^Mdr-nvn.na 2.2.6.2.1.2
Bit-*Ma-ru-du 2.2.2.1.1.16
Bit-Murdnu 2.2.2.1.1.17
Bit-Murd?u 2.2.1.1.1.10
Bit-Nabu-gdmil 2.2.7.1.1.10
Bit-Nabu-ittija 2.2.7.1.1.11
t-Nand-erel 2.2.6.3.11
t-Na-si-ka-' 2.2.7.1.1.12
t-Na-tas-e-el2.2.1AAA3
t- Na-ti-ir 2.2.7.1.1.14
t-^Par-ri-sa-a-a 2.2.7.1.1.15
t-Ha-ta-ni-M 2.2.7.1.1.16
t-^rab-kdsir 2.2.6.2.7
t-^rab-tdbihi 2.2.6.2.4.2
t-[Ra-]mu-nu-il 2.2.7.1.1.58
t-Rehetu 2.2.3.1.1.1
't-^reSi 2.2.2.1.1.18
t-Sin-eriba 2.2.7.1.1.17
t-Sin-liSir 2.2.6.0.1.4
t-x"Sur-ra-a-a 2.2.2.1.1.19
t-Samal 2.2.2.1.1.20
42 Ran Zadok
Bit-Suld 2.2.3.1.1.2
Bitu-Sa-muhhi-bitdni 2.2.7.1.1.21
Bitu-te-pdn-ekalli 2.2.3.1.1.3
Bit-mTa-ba-la-a-a 2.2.2.1.1.21
Bit-Taqbi-lffir 2.2.7.1.1.18
Bit-Tattannu 2.2.7.1.1.19
Bit-1* Uk-ka-ma-' 2.2.7.1.1.20
Bit-U-sa-ar-ta 2.2.2.1.1.22
Bit-Zababa-ereS 2.2.1 A A .22
Bit-mZa-bhin 2.2.4.1.1.1
+Bit'mZa~za-ak-ku 2.2.7.2.3.1
Bit-Zera-Mr 2.2.1 A A.23
Bit-mZuk'ki-tu4 2.2.1.1.11
Di-di-e (meadow)
EnUl-aMb$u-iqbi 2.2.6.3.3
Esaggilija 2.2.7 A A.24

Ga-ba-li-ni 2.2.6.0.1.8
Ga-di-ma-tu4 2.2.6.0.12
GaAe-e 2.2.6.0A.6
Ga-lu-tu 2.2.6.2.7.1
Ga-am-bu-la-a-a 2.2.4.1.1.2
Ga-am-ma-le-e 2.2.7 A A.25
Gi-il-su 2.2.7 A A.26

+Gu-ti-e 2.2.7.2.3.2
Ha-am-ban-a-a 2.2.6.0.1.11
Ha-am-ba/ma-ri 2.2.7 A A.27
+Ha-ar-bi-e 2.2.7.2.1.2.3
Ha-ru-ba-tUt 2.2.6.2.3.3
Ha-dS-bci-af-a) 2.2.6.1.1.1.1.6
Ha-at-ta-a-a 2.2.6
Hartal~lu-u-a 2.2.4.1.1.3
Ha-za-tu 2.2.1A A.28
Hi-du-tir'-a 2.2.2 A A.23
KHi-in-da-a-a 2.2.1 A A.29
Hi-in-da-na-a-a 2.2.7.1.1.30
Hu-u-pu-Sa-Ba-ri-ki-lil/Tamel] 2.2.1 A A.3
Hu-u-pu-Sa-Bit-Murdnu 2.2.1 A A.32
HussetiâÂd-ra-hu-u 2.2.1 A A.33

Husseti-$a-mAd-di'ia 2.2.6.0.1.3
Husseti~$a-A-uq~qa-du 2.2.6.2.2.1
Husse ti-Sa-A murra -pa-qu 2.7.1.1.34
Husse ti-$a-Bau~eres' 2.2.7.1.1.35

Husse ti-la-D anna 2.2.5.1.3
Husseti-Sa-Kalbd 2.2.2.1.1.24
Husse ti-Sa^Ma-gu-uS 2.2.6.0.1.9
Hussetiâ-Mdrat-De-ru-tu^ 2.2.4.1.1.4
Husseti-Sa-Mdre-Ahunu 2.2.6.3.4
Husseti-3a-mMu-la-ki-id 2.2.1 A A.36
Husseti-fo-Nabu-ndsir 2.2.1 A A.31
Husseti-lorNdsir 2.2.6.0.1.1
Husseti-Sa-mQa-'-ma-nu 2.2.1.1.1.39
Hussethla^r[ee(?)] 2.2.6.1.1.1.1.7
Husseti-M-Zarutu 2.2.6.0.1.10
l-bu-le-e 2.2.7.1.1.40
+Im-ma-lat 2.2.7.2.1.1.6
Im-[mir?}-tu4 2.2.6.3.13
+Isin
H-qal-lu-nu 2.2.6.1.1.1.1.8
Kap-ri-Li-ri-im-mi 2.2.5.1.1
Kdr-Ninurta 2.2.2.1.1.25
Kuzabatu 2.2.6.1.1.1.1.9
Larak 2.2.5.1.2
Ma-al-sa-am 2.2.6.3.2
Man-de-ra-a-a 2.2.4.1.1.5
+Ma$kattu-s'a-A murru .2.7.2.4.2
Mi-li-du 2.2.1.1.1.12
Na-di-i-ni 2.2.7.1.1.41
Na-qi-di-ni 2.2.6.2.8.2
+Na-qad-$a-Ku-na-a 2.2.7.2.1.24
+Neberi-s'aA*Aslur 2.2.7.2.4.3
Nebertu 2.2.2 A A.26
Ninurta-aMbs'u-iqbi 2.2.1 A A.42
Panddnu 2.2.7.1.1.43
Parak-Morri 2.2.1 A A .44

Parakku 2.2.2.1.1.27
Par-lu-lu 2.2.6.2.10
Pusdja 2.2.3.1.1.4
Qaltu 2.2.3.1.1.5
Qat-na-a-a 2.2.7.1.1.45
+Qi-da-ri 2.2.7.2.3.3
44 Ran Zadok
Qi-du-du 2.2.7.1.1.46
Ra-bi-ia 2.2.7'.1.1.47
Re~de(?)-em-hu 2.2.7.1.1.48
KReSe 2.2.1 A.1.49
Stn-beftunu 2.2.3.1.1.6
Si-pi-ra-'-ni 2.2.7.1.1.50
Suqija 2.2.7.1.1.51
$d-hu-ma-a-a 2.2.1A A. 52
Sd-lam-me-e 2.2.2A A.28
Sap-pu-ut-tu^ 2.2.7.1.1.53
Sdr-a-ba-ni 2.2.5.1.3
$e-la-' 2.2.6.2.8
$ur-Hi-lu-nu 2.2.7.1.1.54
SwM-nu 2A.2.2
Ta-ah-mi-ia (meadow)
Tarbas-ummani 2.2.7.1.1.55
Til-A-a-bi 2.2.6.3A A
Til-Gab-bar-ri 2.2.6.1.1.1.1.10
Til-Hur-di'i 2.2.6.0.1.7
Til-Ra-hi-mu 2.2.6.1.1.1.1.11
Titurru 2.2.6.1.1.1.1.12
Ugar-Kdsir 2.2.6.2.9
Us(?)-[...]ta(?)-ra-' 2.2.7'.1.1.56
+Za-ma-me-e 2.2.1.2A.2.5
Za-am-bu-ra-a-a 2.2.1 A A.51
+[...\Ea 2.2.1.2A.2.2
Table No. 2: Canals in the Nippur Region during the 1stMillennium B.C.
Name of Canal No. Name of Canal
Addu-aba-usur 1. B/Pal-ti-ia
Ahu-W +8. Banitu
Bab Bi-na-nu 9. Bel
Ba-di-'-tu* 10. Bel-aba-usur
Ba-di-ia-a-tu^ M Ia-di-ih-ia-a-ma 11. Bel-ahhe-erTba

Balatu 12. Cutha
Name of Canal No. Name of Canal
Derat 36. ReZu

Dur-ineja 37. Ru-hi-e
E-ba?-nu 38. Sah-ti-ma-nu
Enlil 39. Sin

Euphrates-of-Nippur 40. Sin-mdgir
Gi-da-ah 41. Sum
Gu-ba-ri Sa-Addu-aba-usur v. Addu-aba
Hi-in-da-ri usur
Hu-u-pu 42. Sa-atdndti
/-[...] 43. Sal-la
I-li-ia Sa-mdhise v.Mahise

Ka-ba-ru/ri 44. Sa-Mi-si-ra-a-a
Kute v. Cutha 45. iSd-na-a
Larak 46. ?a-Naq-qi-tuA

Mahise 47. Sanu
Mi-li-du 48.
Saputtu
MuSezib-Bel 49. Sarri
Nabu-kiSir 50. Sa-Silld
Namgar-dur-Enlil 51. Silihtu
Na-tu-nu 52, *?ubat-Ea
Nergal-ddnu 53. Talimu

Ninurta +54, Ta-ba-nu-a
Pekod 55. Tdbihe

Pihatu 56. U-pa-[...]
Piqudu v. Pekod 57. UStanu
Pur at Nippur v. Euphrates-of 58. Za-me-e
Nippur
The documentation from Nippur begins in the 3rd millennium B.C.3) and ends
in the late Achaemenian period4). The fact that no less than 300 locales (settle
ments and canals) are recorded in sources fromMB Nippur5) enables us to fol
low the changes in the local toponymy of the Nippur region from theMB period
(the 2nd half of the 2nd millennium B.C.) to the 1stmillennium B.C.
3) Most of the OAkk documentation is published in TuM 5; For Ur III material see, e.g.,
BE 3/1; TuM NF 1/2; Th. Fish, Iraq 5, 1939, p. 157f. Most of the OB documents are in
cluded inOECT 8; PBS 8/1; Cig-Kizilyay-Kraus,
Nippur (Istanbul, 1952); R. T. O'Callaghan,
JCS 8, 1954, p. 137ff.
4) Editions of MB documents are listed in the following footnote. For a list of
complete
the documents from lst-millennium Nippur see my forthcoming prosopography of N/LB
Nippur.
5) See the lists inBE 14, 15, 17/1;PBS 1/2,2/2; and cf.Brinkman,
MSKH, 1.
46 Ran Zadok
Locales in the Nippur region are mentioned not only in sources originating
inNippur itself,but also in other N/LB documents, as well as inNA sources,
mainly royal inscriptions.
In evaluating the material we assumed that from the toponyms one can learn
to some extent about the ethnic composition of the region under discussion, but
that it is impossible to draw conclusions regarding changes in the distribution of
the settlements6), as in certain cases it is possible that settlements continued to
exist on their site and only their names were changed.
1. Linguistic Affiliation
We think thatwe can prove thatmost of the toponyms of the Nippur region
during theAchaemenian period have relatively late features, and that some of
them are ephemeral. We shall bring direct (prosopographic) and indirect (mainly
linguistic) proof for our thesis.
Linguistically, 169 (90.8%) of the settlements, 53 (91.3%) of the canals and
2 (66.6%) of themeadows have Akkadian and West Semitic7) names. The pre
sence of West Semitic toponyms (most of themAramaic) and the precision of
theirpercentage within the general framework of the toponyms are important
for our cause, which is to prove thatmost of the toponyms under discussion
are of late types. Yet, the isolation of theWest Semitic toponyms from the Ak
kadian ones is problematic, and therfore can be dealt with only later, after we
have dealt with the non-Semitic toponyms.
The non-Semitic toponyms are:
(a) Sumerian and "pre-Sumerian"8): 4 (2.1%) of the settlements9), 2 (100%)

of the rivers (Euphrates and Tigris), and 2 (3.4%)10) of the canals. Apart from
these, some Sumerian/"pre-Sumerian" words are included in a number of topo
nyms which are Semitic genitive-compounds11) or constructed with the aid of
Semitic morphemes12). These words had become an integralpart of the Akkadian
vocabulary long before the 1stmillennium.
As was stated above, the only pre-2nd millennium toponyms in the Nippur
region are the ancient cities of Nippur (and its quarters), Larak and Isin, the
riversEuphrates (Purattu) and Tigris (Idiqlat), and the canals of Cutha and La
rak. Apart from these, no toponym is earlier than the 2nd millennium13).
6) Cf. I. J.Gelb. Names 10 (1962), pp. 45ff.

7) "West Semitic" here is essentially a negative term, namely every non-Akkadian Semitic
dialect (practically, in the relevant documentation, Aramaic, Canaanite and Arabian).
8) We prefer this term and not "Proto-Sumerian".

9) Nippur,Larak, Isin and SuSan (possiblya suburbofNippur, see IOS 8, 1978, p. 287).
10) Cutha and Larak. n) E.g., Namgar-Dur-EnliL
n) E.g., Esaggilija (originally a PN, cf. Tallqvist, NBN, p. 60a).
13)We do not take into account locales which are mentioned in sources from lst-millennium
Nippur, but are not located in the Nippur region. Names of temples and other buildings are
also not included here.
(b) Cassite. No Cassite toponym ismentioned in documents from 1st-millen

nium Nippur, but the second elements of two Semitic toponyms, namely Bit
Hdslamur and Bit-Marudu, are a Cassite PN and a Cassite DN respectively14).
Neither toponym ismentioned in documents fromMB Nippur, and if it is not
accidental, we may assign them to the beginning of the 1stmillennium when
Cassites continued to reside in Babylonia15). Another Semitic toponym, 77/
Hurdi, ismentioned both in documents fromAchaemenian Nippur and in a
document from Cassite Nippur. Yet, the origin and denotation of its second
component (hurdi) is not certain16)
Most of the hundreds of Semitic toponyms mentioned in documents from
MB Nippur are Akkadian17). Only four of them are also mentioned in the 1st
millennium: (1) Kdr-Ninurta18)y(2) Parak-Mdri19), (3) QaStu20) and (4) Bit-be
ri.21) Since hundreds of toponyms, which refer to the relatively small Nippur
region are preserved from the Cassite (MB) period, the possibility of a mere
coincidence is small. The Cassites constituted a small stratum even in the peak
of their political influence in Babylonia and have hardly left theirmark on Ba
bylonian toponymy.
(c) Iranian: 2 (1.05%) of the settlements22) and 3 (5.1%) of the canals23).
Two toponyms, which linguistically are Semitic genitive-compounds, have an
Iranian PN as nomen rectum.2*). In two additional toponyms of the same type,
14) For Bit Haslamur see Zadok, Iran 14, 1976, p. 65 with nn. 44-49, and for Btt-Mar
ud-da (BE 10, 6:5) see H. V. Hilprecht apud A. T. Clay, BE 10, p. viii, n. 1 and p. 71a; V.
Scheil, RT 33, 1911, p. 218; Balkan, Kassitenstudien, p. 110f.; Zadok, Iran 14, 1976, p. 65
with n. 43.
ls) See Brinkman, PKB, p. 246ff. and Zadok, Tel Aviv, 6, 1979, p. 170f.
16) The interchange between g and h in N/LB Til-Gur-di-ia/Til-Hur-du (Til Hurdi) may re
flect Ifi/ (cf. gu-mat/ma-ti in the MuraSu Archive for hummatu "summer (< heat" < Aram.
hummata), see von Soden, AfO 19, 1959/60, p. 149; AHw. p. 298a. Yet, the only candidate
for *hurd (extant in BT hwrd, Mand. hwrd' "reed mat" [with h > h]\ Arab, hurdiyy "reed
roof) originates from Akkad. hurdu "reed mat" (see S. A. Kaufman, LeSonenu 37, 1973,
p. 102f.; AS 19, p. 57) which probably has an original /h/ (it is recorded as early as OB, in
two economic documents, namely UET 5, 468, left col., r. 30, 31; C. B. F. Walker, Afo 24,
1973, p. 122 ad. 2:27 [pi.]). For these occurrences and later ones see CAD H, p. 250a, s. v.
hurdu A (cf. ibid., p. 88b, s. v. harddu B); and AHw., p. 358b (cf. ibid., p. 322b, s. v. hard
du(m) III). Are we to assume that Akkad. jhj (in loanwords) has shifted to /h/ in Aramaic
as early as the second half of the fifth century B.C. (at least in
Nippur)? Cf. n. 110 below.
17) Even if one excludes the hybrid (Akkado-Cassite) toponyms.
18) E.g., Kar-mnurta^ (BE 15, 99:2).
19) E.g., BARA.DUMUki (BE 14, 133:3, 6).
20)URU BANki (PBS 2/2,42:2; 95:28).
21)?-KAS.GiD (BE 14, 133:7); ?-KAS.GiDki (ibid.,9); URU fi-KAS.GlD (BE 15,74:5).
22) Abastdnu and Ahldnu (see Zadok, IOS 6, 1976, p. 65f.).
23)Ndr-Gubaru, Ndr-Uttanu and Ndr-Sahtimanu (see Eilers, Beamtennamen, p. 35; Zadok,
IOS 6, 1976, p. 66). Badftu-ta-Amisiri is restored (cf. Stolper, MPLAB 2, p. 316:4).
M) Bit'Bagaddti and Bit-Barena (cf. Zadok, IOS 7, 1977, p. 104). Bit-Ukkamd may be
either Iranian or West Semitic (see JCS 21, 1977, p. 58).
48 Ran Zadok
Husseti-la-MaguS and Bit Parrisdja, the nomen rectum is an Iranian ethnicon25).

Another settlement (Arazua) might have been named after a settlement in Iran26).
One meadow (Tahmija) was named after an Iranian27). None of these toponyms
is recorded before the Achaemenian period.
(d) Non-Semitic settlements and regions: 4 (2.1%) of the settlements28), and
one (1.7%) of the canals29). To these one may add the names of 7 more settle
ments and of a canal. These are linguistically Semitic (genitive compounds and/or
including a Semitic gentilic morpheme), but contain non-Babylonian names of
settlements and regions.30) The names of a settlement and a meadow, which are
Semitic genitive-compounds, have a Cilician PN as nomen rectum31).
(e) Non-classifiable and defective: 8 (4.3%) of the settlements32) and 3 (5.1 %)

of the canals.33)
There remains to prove the late character of the Semitic toponyms mentioned
in sources from lst-millennium Nippur. The difference between theMesopotamian
toponymy of the 2nd and late 1stmillennia reflects the change in the ethnic com
position of theMesopotamian population. As part of a general process in lst-mil
lenniumMesopotamia, there is a constant increase of West Semitic elements (Chal
deans, Arameans and also Arabians)34) in the Nippur region which before the 1st
millennium was populated almost exclusively by Akkadians plus a small stratum
of immigrants from the Zagros (mainly Cassites) and the north.35)
25) In the latter with the Akkad. gentilic suff. -dja.

Probably with an Akkadian suff. (cf. Iran 14, 1976, p. 72, n. 126).
27) See JCS 21, 1977, p. 57.
)Arzuhina (see Zadok,WSB, p. 13),BanneSu (see Eilers,ZDMG 94, 1940,pp. 226f.),
Gute (see Zadok, Tel Aviv 6, 1979, p. 172 with previous lit.) and Milidu (see Eilers, ZDMG
94, 1940, p. 201, n. 2; 205, n. 1; cf. the following footnote).
29)Ndr-Milidu (cf. the preceding footnote).
30) Genitive compounds: Bit-Ilipdja (see Zadok, Iran 14, 1976, p. 65 with previous lit.),
Bit-Parrisdfa (cf. above with n. 25), and Bit Tabalaja (see Eilers, ZDMG 94, 1940, p. 216f.)
? all
with the Akkad, gentilic suff. -dja-.- Addijdja (see Zadok, IOS 7, 1977, p. 113 with n.
256), Hambandja (see Zadok, Iran 14, 1976, p. 65) with previous lit.), Hattaja (see WSB, p.
12) and possibly Zamburaja end in the same suff. The canal is named after Egyptians (Ndru
sa-Misirdja, see M. A. Dandamayev, Drevnij Egipet iDrevnjaja Afrika, Moscow, 1967, p. 21).
31) Bit-Kike (settlement, see Tallqvist, APN, p. 289a; Zadok, Tel Aviv, 6, 1979, p. 167)
and Tdmirtu-larHumdja (meadow, see Zadok, Tel Aviv, I.e., with the Akkad. gentilic suff.).
32) Alar- [...], Barre [...](?), Im[mir]tu, Ridimhu, [...] Anrit and [.. .\Ea. Bit-[.. .]Sis and
Naqad (or Nalu?)-la Kund which formally are Semitic genitive compounds, are included here
because the former's second component is defective and the latter's first component is un
certain.
33)Ndr-I [...], Ndr-Upa [...], and Ndr-Sand
) See Brinkman, PKB, AOAT

pp. 267ff.; Dietrich, 7, pass.; S. 5. Ahmed, Southern Meso
potamia in the time of Ashurbanipal (Paris 1968), pass.; Zadok, WSB, pp. Iff., 175ff, 192ff,
240ff; I. Ephcal, The Nomads on the Border of Palestine in the Assyrian, Babylonian and
Persian Periods (doctoral dissertation, Jerusalem, 1971, in Hebrew; an English edition is in
preparation), pass.; id., JAOS 94, 1974, pp. 108ff; JNES 35, 1976, pp. 225ff.
3S) There is a considerable number of Cassite and Hurrian names and a very small number
of Elamite, Indo-Aryan and other non-Akkadian names in documents from MB Nippur (cf.
Toponymy of the Nippur Region 49
To the first stage of the Aramean colonization there is a certain imprint in the
toponymy of the 8th-7th centuries. At that time, there are many settlementswhose
names begin with words designating fortifications: dur- ("wall, fortress")36), *s'a
gab(a)t- ("fort" or sim.),37) *qart- ("village")38) mostly plus PN or an ethnical
Clay, PN, pass.). For the Cassite names see Balkan, Kassitenstudien, pass, and Brinkman,
MSKH 1, pass.; for the Hurrian names cf. NPN, pass.; for the Indo-Aryan names (e.g., Ia
(a-)mu, BE 14, p. 44a; cf. WSB, p. 67) consult the index of M. Mayrhofer, Die Indo-Arier
im alten Vorderasien (Wiesbaden, 1966), pp. 140ff.; and for the Elamite names Clay PN, p.
174b, s.v. Hu-um-ba... and my forthcoming article on Elamite onomastics. An immigrant
from the north (Arrapha) was, e.g., Ar-rap-ha-a-a-u (BE 14, 22:15). For West Semites in MB
and MA sources see my forthcoming article on the Arameans in the Fertile Crescent.
36) For OAkkad. and Ur III occurrences see RGTC 1, p. 33f. (cf. 23f. s.w. Bad-) and RGTC
2, p. 35f. (cf. p. 22f., s.w. Bad-) respectively. Almost all the material from the later periods
is presented in an exemplary way by I. Ephcal (JAOS 94, 1974, p. 114); N/LB also hasDur
la-Ammi-Jabab (BRM 1, 3:12, cf. WSB, pp. 55, 88). N/LB Dur-Ugumu may be earlier, as the
PN (J-gu-mu is not recorded in lst-millennium Mesopotamia. On the other hand, N/LB Dur
SuXdnu may not be earlier to the NB period, as the term tttianu (for a social class) is not
earlier than that period (cf. AHw., p. 1288b; M. A. Dandamayev, Rabstvo v Vavilonii, Moscow,
1974, p. 365ff. and pass.).

37) Only in NA URU Sa-ga-ba-tu-fa- Mar-duk-ia (OIP 2, p. 53:46, plus PN; of Blt-Awu
kani) and N/LB GARIN Tas-gab-ti (BIN 1, 166:31). Both toponyms derive from S-G-B "to
be exalted" (cf. Bi.Or. 33, 1976, p. 305a; von Soden, AHw., p. 1002b; WSB, pp. 81, 119).
These toponyms probably denote "high fortress" in view of Biblical Heb. misgdb which occurs
after mibsdr in Jes. 25:12. Another toponym may be of an approximate denotation (it is
Akkadian and mentioned in a NA source),namely URU Ki-sir-tu in Zamua which was the
capital of the West Semitic (probably Aramean) ruler Za-bi-i-ni (AKA, p. 314:58; cf. AO AT
6, p. 210 and CAD K, p. 436a, 3: "ridge, wall"). It is doubtful whether the toponym URU
Ku-sur-te-e-in, Ku-sur-ta-in (AOAT 6, p. 219; NA), which apparently ends in -ayn (cf. WSB,
p. 174), is linguistically related to kisirtu. Za-bi-i-ni is a typically Aramaic name (see WSB, p.
122). West Semites were possibly found in Zamua as early as the 1st half of the 9th century
when Nur-Adad the sheikh (nasiku) of Dagara, who ruled over a certain part of Zamua, is
mentioned (AKA, p. 303:24; 305:30; see A. T. E. Olmstead, JAOS 38, 1918, p. 229f.). The
term nasiku denotes only West Semitic sheikhs (see I. JAOS 94, 1974, p. 108, n. 6).
Ephcal,
The name Nur-Adad is both Aramaic and Akkadian. At least one toponym referring to a
settlement in Zamua, namely URUSu-ri-tu (AKA, p. 319:69), may be West Semitic (see Bi.
-
Or, 33,1976, p. 307b). Ia-di-\ the sheikh of the land of Ia-qi-ma-nu (cf. WO 9, 1977/78,
p. 241) ismentioned together with Mannai in a NB letter (ABL 1109, r. 8) which is dated
by L. Waterman, Royal Correspondence of the Assyrian Empire 3 (Ann Arbor, 1931, p. 301)
to Assurbanipal's time.
38) E.g., NA Qa-rat- Na-an-ni

(AOAT 6, p. 284) which refers to a settlement in Babylonia.
The same element is also found
in NA Qa-rat-Ba-qa-'-a-ni (Tell Halaf, 23:6), and Qar-ti-Hal-di
(AOAT 6, p. 284, see Tallqvist, APN, p. 255b). These toponyms with *qart- refer to settle
ments inMesopotamia, and therefore one would expect them to render an Aramaic form.
However,Old Aramaic has onlyqryh (KAI 224:12), and qryt (KAI 222, B:36), both from
Sfire. Imperial Aramaic has qryh These Aramaic forms are the fore-runners of Palm, qry'
(DISO, p. 266) and Syr. qeritd; they contain -y- like Heb. qirydh and Arab, qa/irya. The as
sumed Old Aram. *qart may be the fore-runner of JAram. qarta (Dalman, Wb., p.
393a). This
Old Aramaic form is identical with Phoen. qrt (*qart in view of NA Qar-tvha-da-as-ti, Qar-ti
im-me AOAT 6, p. 285 and <*Mi-il-qar-tuy Borger, Esarh., Vtr., iv: 14; see Friedrich-Rollig,
An.Or. 46, ? 204b with n. 1; Zadok, Bi.Or. 33, 1976, p. 306). The Phoenician form is identi
4 WdO. XII
50 Ran Zadok
name. Yet, theWest Semitic toponyms fromAchaemenian Nippur, except for

one canal39), do not contain these elements and most of them are different from
the toponyms of the period of colonization.40) Among the settlements which are
mentioned as early as the 8th-7th centuries only Sarrabdnu still appears in docu
ments from Achaemenian Nippur41).
34 (17.3%) of the settlement names42) and 6 (10.4%) of the canal names43)
are typicallyWest Semitic, usually Aramaic. To these may be added 5 (2.6%)
settlement names44) and one canal name (1.7%)45) which are linguisticallyAk
kadian genitive compounds, and whose nomen rectum isWest Semitic.
It is difficult to regard the Aramaic toponymy of Late-Assyrian, Chaldean and
Achaemenian Nippur as a continuation of Amorite toponymy. This is because
Amorite toponymy, whose distribution in Babylonia proper46) had never been
cal with Heb. qeret (< *qari) which ismuch less documented than qirva* (it appears only in
Hiob and Proverbs which may not be originally Hebrew works). *Qart with the suffixes -a
and -an appears in Bibl. Heb. Qartd and Qartdn (also Qirydtayim) respectively. The former
refers to a settlement in the region of Zebulun, possibly not far from the coast where there
was a Canaanite/Phoenician influence and the latter to a settlement belonging to Naphtali, a
tribal region which bordered on Phoenicia. Like *qart, "Samalian" qyrt (pi.; Sg. *qyr, see
P.-E. Dion, La Langue de Ya'udi, Waterloo [Ontario], 1974, p. 77 with n. 38; 140) and Moa
bite qr (pi. qrn, DISO, p. 263) do not contain -y- after qr-. Ugaritic has both qryt and qrt
(C. H. Gordon, Ugaritic Textbook, Rome 1965, p. 48If., nos. 2278, 2284). The latter ap
as a
pears toponym (Qrt, Akk. Qa-ar-tu/ti, modern Qirt, see M. C. Astour, OrNS 38, 1969,
p. 404, n. 1). Qrt-ndn (an Egyptian rendering of a Canaanite toponym which refers to a Syro
Palestinian settlement, see J. J. Simons, Handbook for the Study of Egyptian Topographical
lists Relating to Western Asia, Leiden, 1937, p. 116a, List la, C, No. 11; W. Boree, AOP,
? 22, f, n. 8) also does not contain -y-.
39)Nar-Dur-Ineja.
40) At least one toponym from the period of the Chaldean and Aramean colonization,
namely NA URU Bi-ta-a-ti of the Chaldean territory Bit-Dakkuri (OIP 2, 52:37), i.e. "clans"
or sim., may reflect the tribal organization.
41) NA Sarrabanu (see AO AT 6, p. 306).

42) Aua,
BTt-Abdija, Bit-Ahhlarim, BTt-Arza, Bit-Bahari, Bit-Gird, Bit-Haddija, Bit-Haduru,
Bit-Hanandrhurbat, BTt-HdSbilima hurbat (Phoenician, see Zadok, BASOR 230, 1978, p. 60),
Bit-Igld, Bit-Illakd, Bit-Iltehldja, Bft-Iltehri-nuri, Bit-Nasikd, BTt-Nata'el, Bit-Natfri, Bit-[Ra]
munuil, Bit-Zabini, Gabalini, Gadimatu, GilSu, Halbdja, Hiduja, Immalat, Kapri-Lirim, Mak
manu, Mats'am, Ndqidini, Parfasu, Seld, TU-Ajjdbi, Til-Gabbdri, Til-Rahimu and perhaps Laltan
(for commentary of many of these names just peruse my WSB).

43) Baditu, Derat, Gidah, Natunu, Ruhe and Zame.
44) Alu-h-Handidi, Hiipu-la-Bariki'il, Hussiti-h-Adrahu, and Husseti-la-Amurra-paqa (Hus

seti-h-Addija may be either Akkadian or West Semitic).
45)Ndru-fa-Naqqftu.
46) There is no comprehensive treatment of Amorite toponymy. Amorite toponyms, are
e.g., OB URUki Ra-ha-bu-um (BIN 7, 164:12) which refers to a settlement located not far
from Zabalam in southern Babylonia (see W. F. Leemans, JESHO 19, 1976, p. 219), and/fl
di-ha-bu (VAB 5, 104:28, GN? cf. the South-Arab. PN Ydc'b, G. Lankester Harding, An Index
and Concordance of Pre-Islamic Arabian Names and Inscriptions, Toronto, 1971, p. 663). It
refers to a settlement whose location is not known. Amorite toponymy was much commoner
in Upper Mesopotamia than in Babylonia. Many Amorite toponyms are recorded in documents
sizable, almost disappeared from central Mesopotamia after the OB period47). It

remained only in the periphery, including the eastern Mesopotamian regions48).
Most of theWest Semitic toponyms from 1st-millenniumNippur are different
in their derivation and structure from the Amorite onomasticon and largely re
flect typically Aramaic features.
from OB Mari, e.g.: Ma-ra-ha-a\bYl (ARM 5, 1:11'), a maqtal formation of R-H-B "be wide,
large" with an anaptyxis; Ma-ds-mi-a-na-am, Ma-as-mi-nu-um (ARM 15, p. 130), a maqtil for
mation of S-M-c "hear" plus -an\Ma-al-qu-(ul-)li-ia (ibid.), a maqtul formation of T-Q-L "weigh"
(cf. Heb. mftqdl "heaviness, weight" and the Bibl. GN a$qelori) plus -i(y)\ Ra-ab-ba-tim^
(ARM 15, p. 132), i.e. a homonym of Bibl. Rabbdh (< *Rabbat)\ and Tbiz-ra-ah (see A. Finet,
ARM 15, p. 136), a taqtal formation of D-R-H "shine" with the Barth-Ginsberg shift (cf.
Iz-ra-ah-dDa-gan, Th. Bauer, Die Ostkanaanaer, Leipzig, 1928, p. 24 from OB Terqa; for the
Barth-Ginsberg shift in Mari names see W. F. Albright, BASOR 163, 1961, p. 49, n. 67, and
F. M. Cross, Harvard Theological Review 55, 1962, p. 252f., despite Huffmon, APNM, pp. 64
-
with n. 11; 73 with n. 61; 77 with n. 99). OB documents from Tell al-Rimah also contain
a considerable number of Amorite toponyms, e.g. (figures refer to Dalley-Walker-Hawkins,
The Old BabylonianTablets fromTell al Rimah, [London], 1976): Ba-at-ri(-im)(156:7; 157:
13; 201:4), Ba-at-m
(228:5), i.e. a qatl formation of B-T-R "cut off prematurely, extirpate
by cutting" (Aram.); "cut off (Heb.); cf. Heb. beter "part, piece", bitrbn "cleft, ravine";
EA Bat-m-na - modern Batrun (see S. Wild, Libanesische Ortsnamen, Beirut 1973, p. 157).
Da-ra-gi-im (246:30), i.e. a qatal formation of D-R-G "rise in grade, rank" (Heb.); "raise, make
high" (Heb.), cf. Heb. madregdh "steep place, steep", Aram, dargd (> N/LB dar-gu, see AHw.,
p. 163b) and Arab, daraja "steep, stair" (Akk. durgu "innerster Teil" according to AHw., p.
I77f., or "remote mountain region" according to CAD D, p. 108b, is recorded only later, in
MB and SB [from 1 st-millennium Assyrian texts]). Ha-ma-da-nim -
(246:27) may be if not
a PN (cf. WSB, pp. 118, 160) - related to Arab Hamad (the Syrian Desert, cf. G. Buccellati,
-
The Amorites of the Ur III Period, Naples, 1966, p. 149). Ha-mi-1qa^tim] (145:13) may
be a qatil formation of C-M-Q plus -at, cf. JAram, ?amiq, cammiq "deep", Heb. ?emeq and
-
JAram. cimq(d) "valley". Ia-lal-jSi-ba-tim (p. 265b with refs.) may be related to Middle
?
Heb.yesibdh "settlement, dwellings" (Jastrow, Diet., p. 600b). Ra-ma-a-tim (66\\\\Ra
- if it is not to be
ma-tim, 15, 17) may be read Ra-ba-(a)-tim (a defective spelling of *Rabbat
- a
above) homonym of Heb. Ramch (< *Ramat).
47) A noteworthy exception isDa-qa-la^ (see n. 182 below). A late MB document mentions
Dur-Su-mu-la-il (AfK 2, 1924/25, p. 56:7; cf. Ebeling, RLA 2, p. 253b for OB occurrences).
Another case may be Dunnu-Sa'idi (cf. n. 48 below).
48
) Der, which is inexplicable in Akkadian terms, may go back to WSem. *dayr, cf. JAram.
dera "abode" (Dalman, Wb., p. 97a), Syr. dayra "monastery (< abode)" > Arab dayr "id.",
from D-W/Y-R "go around, dwell, inhabit". Cf. P. Jensen apud C. Brockelmann, Lexicon
Syriacum (Halle a/S., 1928), p. 147b. For Yamutbal see M. Stol, Studies in Old Babylonian
History (Istanbul, 1976), pp. 63-72; D. O. Edzard, RLA 5, p. 257f. Is la-ma-tu-u, which is
= farm
equated to Ah-la-mu-u inMalku (JAOS 83, 1963, p. 428, No. 232), derived from a
form which has any relation to the first component of Yamut-balV. (it is mentioned imme
=
diately afterMu-um-lu-ii Mu-ta-bat). Rd$i, the name of a region near Der is recorded both
in the MB and N/LB periods (see H. Petschow, ASAW 64/4, 29:15 and p. 76; and WSB, p.
271). The secondcomponent of NA Dur-Amnani (AOAT 6, p. 108), which refers to a settle

ment in Elam(probably in a Semitic-speaking region near the Elamite-Babylonian border) is
known only from OB sources. For kapru in the Nuzi region see n. 51 below. The location
of Dunnu-Sa'idi, which ismentioned as early as the OB period (see Ebeling, RLA 2, p. 240
with lit.; AHw., p. 1010b), is not known.
52 Ran Zadok
The "ground-word"49) kapru,50) which was common inMesopotamia during

the OB period, perhaps under Amorite influence, but was not recorded after that
period, reappears only in the 1stmillennium-due to Aramaic influence51). This
GW was apparently common in 1st-millenniumAssyria where itwas written by
the Sumerogram URU.?E52) (cf., e.g., URU.Se E-ld-î-ri)53).
It is possible that one NA toponym, which refers to a settlement in Babylonia
(in the region of Qirbit on the Babylonian-Elamite border) begins with URU.se54).
The settlementKapri Lirim ismentioned in documents from Achaemenian Nip
pur55).
Apart from the typicallyWest Semitic toponyms, another 8 (3.7%) of the
settlements56) and 3 (5.1%) of the canals57), mentioned in the 1st-millennium
Nippur sources, were named after locales found inWest Semitic territoriesor
afterWest Semitic tribes.
49) English for German "Grundwort" (henceforth: GW).

so) See CAD K, p. 189f., s.v. (cf. CAD E, p. 39, s.v. eduru). The appellative kapru in
Akkadian texts renders a qatl (> qitl, qutl, see Zadok, WO 9, 1977/78, p. 42, n. 51) for
mation. This formation is also reflected in the Mesopotamiam town name Caphrena (from
the Parthian period, Pliny, Nat. Hist, see L. Dillemann,
v, 119; Haute Mesopotamie orientale
et pays adjacents, Paris, 1962, p. 169, n. 2; possibly from *Kcuppt]v < *Kaprin, PL). For
168,
Ku-up-ru-na (see Zadok, I.e.) compare Syr. kapruna "little village" (Payne-Smith, Thesaurus
Syr., Oxford, 1879, col. 1801). A qatil formation is found only in Hebrew and only in pi.
k?pirim (see F. Brown et al., A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, Oxford,
1974, also in Ezek. 38:13), which can be compared with "Samalian"
s.v.; possibly kpyry (so
DISO, p. 126; differently B. Landsberger, Sam'al, Ankara, 1948, p. 50 with n. 127).
51) This ground word is also common in Syria and Palestine from the latter half of the 1st
millennium onwards. Only one toponym in the OT contains kepar (Kepar Hdcammdni, kQtib;
Kepar Hdcammdndh, qere). This toponym is not earlier to the period of settlement, and it
may be even later, if one considers the presence of the definite article a reliable criterion for
the lateness of a toponym. Could the suffix of both forms (when combined) go back to -ap.
If it could, then the toponym which means "The settlement of the Ammonite" would not
be earlier than the 1st millennium, as -aj is the Aramaic gentilic suffix. ? Kapru was in use
at least in the Nuzi region during the latter half of the 2nd millennium (see CAD K, p. 190a,
? in a ? between OB and
b'2). This may perhaps way be the missing link the (= Amorite)
N/LB (= Aramaic) documentation.
52) See J. N. Postgate, Iraq 32, 1970, p. 33; AfO 24, 1973, p. 77; Borger, Zeichenliste, p.
withURU.3E in
excludes the toponymsbeginning
17. Parpola (AOAT 6, p. xvi) intentionally
case they were named after individuals. In fact, he did not include also other patterns of URU.
?E-toponyms, e.g. URU.?E-d Te-er (Fales, Censimenti 14, ii:9) and URU.SE-Kab-st-Ap-pu-na
(ADD 361:3), i.e. "The village/estate (along) the road (to) Appuna".
53) Postgate, Palace Archive 25:3 (cf. AHw., p. 1191b). For the type see Zadok, Bi.Or.
33, 1976, p. 308.
54) IMU.&E-Li-ih-i-ra-am (Iraq 7, 1940, p. 101:20). See WSB, p. 33 with n. 9.
55) See WSB, p. 95.

56)Arqd, Bit-Surdja, Hazatu, Hinddndja, Ibule, Qatnaja, Salami and possibly Hinddja (see
WSB, pp. 12f., 233; Eilers, ZDMG 94, 1940, pp. 204 with n. 2). It is not clear whether Hal
bdja is also named after a locale outside Mesopotamia (cf. Zadok, BASOR 230, 1978, p. 63,
n. 11).
57)Hindaru, Piqudu, and Zdme (see Zadok, ANES 8, 1976, pp. 117f.).
Toponymy of the Nippur Region 5?
These toponyms, as well as toponyms named after non-West Semitic settle
ments58) and peoples which were either deported to the Nippur region or settled
there on their own freewill59), are not earlier than the NA period. Some of them
are possibly later (e.g., the Iranian ones)60). The percentage of these toponyms
among the total was calculated above. It is, indeed, not higher than 3.7% of the
settlement and 6.2% of the canal names, but to these are also added the topo
nyms which are linguistically Semitic and named after non-Semitic settlements
and peoples. The percentage of the latter is 9 of the settlement names and 3.5
of the canal names.
Some toponyms, includingWest Semitic ones, might have been ephemeral.

Not a few toponyms were named after persons while they were alive. They pro
bably designated their estate. This is the case of one settlement which ismen
tioned during the Chaldean period61) and five canals from the Achaemenian pe
riod62). Muralu and several people who are mentioned in his archive, gave their
names to four out of these five canals as well as to three settlements63) and one
meadow64). Three of these ten toponyms are Aramaic65) and one is Iranian66).
This may be additional support for our assumption that theAramaic toponyms
are mostly late and at least partly ephemeral. The rest of the toponyms are Ak
kadian. Except for one meadow they consist of 3 settlements67) and 2 canals68)
(i.e. 1.6% and 3.4% of the total number of the settlements and canals respec
tively).
Thus, at least 45.4% of the settlements and 37% of the canals mentioned in
sources from 1 st-millennium Nippur bore late names, i.e. names which were given
not before the 1st millennium. These names include all the known non-Akkadian
toponyms plus the few documented Akkadian ones. The percentage of the late
toponyms increases ifwe analyze the rest of the Akkadian toponyms from 1st
millennium Nippur. They consist of 46.6% of the settlement names and 47.7%
?
58) Addijdja, Arazua, Arzuhina, Bannelu, Milidu and perhaps Zamburdja (see nn. 26, 28
30 above).
59) Bit-Ilipdja, Bit-Parr isaja, Bit-Tabaldja, Gute, Hattaja and Husseti-la-Magus (see nn. 26,
28-30 above).
60) See IOS 7, 1977, pp. 89ff. This holds true for the rest of the Iranian toponyms in Baby
lonia. Only for one Iranian toponym, the canal name A-su-pa-sa-ti (see CAD A/2, p. 349a, s.v.),
a pre-Achaemenian date cannot be excluded. However, aspastu, which is originally an Iranian
word, was used as a plant name already in the time of Merodach Baladan (CT 14, 50:62; see
CAD A/2, p. 338f.).
61) Alu-la-Lusa-nuri.
62) Baditu-la-Iadih-jama, Ndr-Bel-aba-usur, Ndr-Minu-Bel-dannu, Ndru-la-Naqqitu (all in the
MuraSu Archive), and Ndru-la-Gubaru.
63) Bit-Hanand hurbat, Bit-Muralii (see Ebeling, RLA 2, p. 27) and Bit-Zababa-ere!
64) Tdmirtu-la-Dide.
65) Baditu-sa-Iadih-Jama, Bit-Hanand-hurbat and Ndru-fa-Naqqitu for the second
(except
one, they are formally Akkadian genitive compounds).
66)Ndru-la-Gubaru (formally an Akkadian genitive compound).
67) Alu-la-Lusd-nuri, Bit-MurdUi and Bit-Zababa-erel
68) Ndr-Bel-aba-usur and Ndr-Minu-Bel-dannu.
54 Ran Zadok
of the canal names. This is themaximal percentage, since at least one-third of the
toponyms, while linguisticallyAkkadian, could also be interpreted as West Se
mitic, chieflyAramaic, or to originate fromAkkadian loanwords inAramaic.
Table No. 3: Sketch of the Linguistic Groups of the Toponyms
Group* Settlements (%) Canals (%)
(a) Sumerian and "Pre-Sumerian" 2.1 3.4
(b) Partly Cassite 1.6
(c) Iranian (? Semitic components) 3.7 5.1
(d) Non-Semitic Locales (? Semitic

Components) 6.4 1.7
(e) West Semitic (? Akkadian Com

ponents) 17.3 12.1
(f) West Semitic Locales (? Akkadian
Components) 3.7 5.1
(g) Non-West Semitic Locales 12.7 9.7
(h) Akkadian (late) 1.6 5.4
(i) Akkadian 46.6 52.4

(j) Non-Classifiable and Defective 4.3 5.1
Total 100.0 100.0
Groups (c-h) are late.
2 Structural Analysis
First we shall clarify the distribution and chronology of themajority of the

Akkadian toponyms. They are divided, like all the other proper names, into two
main groups, namely (1) one-word names and (2) compound names. The analysis
is done according to both the subjects and the structure of the toponyms. In
order to deal with the subjects, however, firstwe need to clarify the structure,
at least that of group (2). The names of this group will be divided according to
their firstword (e.g., Bit-, Til-, etc.) which is the GW.
Eight GWs are found as initial elements of place names from the Nippur region.
We did not take into account the GWs which are found in no more than one to
ponym and are not productive in the toponymy of other Mesopotamian regions69).
69) GWs occurring only once are, e.g., (1) ilertu "chapel, sanctuary" (AHw., p. 253f., s.v.
elertu(m) I) inMiddle El. A3mir-tu-U naPlM (?) RT 33, 1911, p. 216, r. i:69; plusDN;
referring to a settlement in Babylonia, see V. Scheil, ibid., p. 217); (2) gan "garden" (WSem.)
The GWs are listed in declining order of number of appearances: (1) bitu (61
toponyms)70), (2) husseti (17 toponyms)71), (3) tillu (3 toponyms)72), (4)
bdbu (2 toponyms)73), (5) parakku (2 toponyms)74), (6) Subtu (1 topo
nym)75), (7) birtu (1 toponym)76), (8) kapru (1 toponym)77), (9) kdru (1
toponym)78).
In this list there are mainly Akkadian and Aramaic toponyms, as well as Ara
maic toponyms containing Akkadian loanwords. It is our conclusion that in the
majority of cases, only GWs which are also used inAramaic, remained productive
in the toponymy of the Nippur region during the periods under discussion.
The GW kapru, is typically Aramaic (cf. above). Husseti, which designated a
settlement built of reed huts or surrounded with reed fences, was typical to
southern Babylonia where such settlements were common. Toponyms contain
ing thisGW do not appear earlier than the 1stmillennium B.C.79). To thisGW
were attached personal names80), names of officials81), and ethnic
occupations,
groups82).
inGan-Galiilu; (3) malkattu (-fa-Amurru), i.e. "Storehouse (of Amurru)", see CAD M/l, p.
373b; (4) suqu (-Marusi) (AOAT 6, p. 318), i.e., "Street (of Marusu"', an Aramean tribe). We
have excluded names beginning with seru ("steppe") and tdmirtu ("meadow"), as these are
not actually GWs, but rather characterize the following component.
70) (H plus DN: Bit-Belti, Bit-Marudu, Bit-$amal\ (T) Plus PN: Bit-Abdija, Bit-Abi-ahi,
Bit-Ahi-larim, Bit-Akke, Bit-Ardifa, Bit-Arza, Bft-Bagaddti, Bit-Bahari, Bft-Baldssu, Bit-Bdnifa,
Bit-B arena, Bit-Ddddija, Bit-Dajjanat, Bit-Eribd, Bit-Galaldnu, Bit-Gerd, Bit-Haddija, Bit-Ha
duru, Blt-Hanand hurbat, Bit-Halbilimma hurbat, Bit-Hdâmur, Bit-Igld, Bit-IRakd, Bit-Ilteh
Idfa, Bit-Ilteri-nurf, Bit-Kike, Bit-Kind, Bit-Murdnu, Bit-Muralu, Bit-Nabu-ittifa, Bit-Nand-erel
Bit-Nata'el, Bit-Natir, Bit-Hattanisu, Bit-[Ra]munu'il, Bit-Riheti, Bit-Sin-eriba, Bit-Suld, Bit
Taqbi-lisir, Bit-Tattannu, Bit-Ukkamd, Bit-Ussartu, Bit-Zababa-erel, Bit-Zabin, Bit-Zera-lfiir;
(3) Plus name of a functionary/artisan: Bit-rab-kdsir, Bit-rab-tdbihe, Bit-rathurati, Bfrreli,
Bitu-h-muhhi bitdni, Bit-Zazakku and perhaps Bitu-sa-pdnhekalli; (4*) Plus name of an ethnic
group: see n. 30 above; (5') Plus name of a Babylonian group: Bit-Mar-Bdbili (NUN.NA).
(6') unclear: see n. 32 above.
71) (V) Plus PN: Husseti-sa-Adrahu, Husseti-la-Addija, Husseti-la-Amurra-paqa, Husseti-sa
Amuqadu, Husseti-sa-Bau-eres, Husseti-h-Dannd, Husseti-h-Kalbd, Husseti-h-Mdrat Derutu,
Husseti-sa-Mdre-Ahunu, Husseti-fa-Mulakkid, Husseti-sa-Nabu-ndsir, Husseti-h-Ndsir, Husseti
sa-Ninurta-ile'i, Husseti-h-Qa'mdnu, and Husseti-h-Zaruti; (2') Plus name of a profession:
Husseti-sa-r[e'<?](?); (3') Plus name of an ethnic group: Husseti sa Magus.
72) PlusPN: Til-Ajjabi, Til-Gabbdri, Til-Rahimu.
73) Plus canal name: Bdb-Ndr-Derat, Bdb-Ndr-Subat-Ea.
74) (V) Without designation: Parakku; (T) Plus DN (??): Parak-Mdri.
75) Plus DN: Subat-Ea.
76) Plus name of a functionary: Bi$tu-sd~rab-urdti
77) Plus PN (??): Kapri-Lirim.
78) Plus DN: Kdr-Ninurta.
79) The word itself is recorded as early as MB (AHw., s.v. hussu
p. 361a, I). Settlements
of reed-huts (Arab. sg. sarifa) still exist in the
Dlwaniya region.
80) See n. 71 above.
81) Husseti-sa-mdr-bitl
82) Husseti-sa-Magus.
56 Ran Zadok
The GW birtu (> biStu) "citadel"83), was borrowed inAramaic84). It may be

argued that birtu, which in N/LB also denoted land protected by fortified out
posts around a city, suppressed to some extent the GW dimtu. This is all the
more so since the latter has, inter alia, an approximate denotation, namely "for
tified area" (only OB, Elam and MB)85). Dimtu was very common during the
2nd millennium, mainly in the periphery of Mesopotamia (e.g., at Nuzi). At that
time sources from Nippur and elsewhere also mention settlements whose initial
element is dimtu86). During the 1stmillennium, dimtu is found only in one sec
tion of the periphery, namely Raft on the Babylonian-Elamite border 87). It seems
that dimtu ceased to be a productive GW in the toponymy because it has not
been borrowed inAramaic. Zarati with themeaning "tents" is attested to as a
GW (presumably for settlements of nomads), but only before the 1stmillennium
inMB texts fromNippur88). It too was not borrowed inAramaic. On the other
hand, the GW duru "city-wall, fortificationwall, fortress (etc.)"89), which has an
etymological cognate inAramaic90), remained productive in the toponymy of
lst-millenniumMesopotamia91). Dunnu is approximate to duru in its denotation
("fort, fortifiedhouse and area")92) but has no cognates inAramaic. Its distri
83) See CAD B, p. 263, s.v. and n. 76 above. Another compound toponym beginning with
Birtu isBirtu-Suldni (AOAT 6, p. 74; the PN is possibly the same as WSem. *$a'uldn with
contraction, cf. WSB, pp. 129. 161. 252).
M) See Kaufman, AS 19, p. 44.
85) See CAD D, p. 144ff. (esp. p. 146f.).
86) E.g., MB Dimat(AN.ZA.KAR)-*Ba-ulW (BE 15, 149:21), URU Dimat (?N.ZA.KARy?-a
(BE 15, 159:9), Dimat(AN.ZA.KAR)-dEN.LfLki(PBS 2/2, 130:23) (allMB and plus DN);
OB Dimat(AN.ZA.KAR)-A-Pi-ia (VAS 13, 104, ii:5). See Ebeling, RLA 2, p. 226f. where more
examples of d/mta-toponyms (sometimes plus DN or PN) are listed. Several such toponyms,
which refer to places in Babylonia, appear in Middle Elamite where dimtu (mostly plus DN
or PN)is spelled ti-in-tu (RT 33, 1911, p. 218f.).
6, p. 104f., s.v. Dimtu h ... where 8 NA toponyms are listed. Only in the
87) See AOAT
first toponym, Dimtu-la-Belet-biti, is dimtu followed by a DN. In the other 7 toponyms dimtu
is followed by PNs. For dimtu in Elam see CAD D, p. 146b.
88) See CAD Z, p. 66 with references. In all the compound toponyms with zardti, the latter
is followed by a GN. This implies that tent-complexes of nomads were situated near perma
nent settlements (in one case near a canal).
89) See CAD D, pp. 192ff. *>) See AHw., p. 178a. 91) See above with n. 36.
is already
92) See CAD D, p. 184f. (esp. p. 185, 4). N/LB has Dunni-seri N/LB Dunni-sa'idi
recorded before the 1stmillennium (cf. n. 48 above). NA has Dunni-Samal (AOAT 6, p. 105,
plus DN; in RaSi). It is not certain whether NA Du-un-larri(LUGAL) belongs here, as its first
is spelled dirin (AOAT 6, p. 105),
component is only once spelled du-un-, whereas five times it
which must bethe earlier form in view of MB Di-in LUGAL (BBSt 24:3, 18, see Brinkman,
PKB, p. 108, n. 588). MB has Du-un-ni-a-hi^ (BE 14, 16:1, i.e. plus either PN or appellative),
Du-un-ni-dAdad(M)lte) (PBS 2/2, 12:5), and (without a determinative) Du-un-ni-la-E-til-pu

and RLA
(ibid., 130:6, i.e. plus PN); cf. ibid., p. 86a; V. Scheil, RT 33, 1911, pp. 215, 217;
2, p. 240 where more examples are listed including MA Du-ni-$a-mA-su-si-ia (plus PN). Many
MA toponyms beginning with URU Du-nu-$a (plus PN if preserved) appear in JCS 7, 1953,
p. 132, Nos. 47. 50 (See AHw., p. 177a, s.v. dunnufm), 2b). Dunnu (a divine epithet?) may
be the theophoric element of the Akk. PN Du-un-ni-ibni(D\J) (YOS 7, 39:22, N/LB).
bution seems to have been lower during the 1stmillennium than before. Danna
tu "fortress, fortified place"93) (also not borrowed inAramaic) is contained in
one toponym only94). HVrbatu "ruin, ruined place"95) (Akkad. and Aram.) ap
pears as a GW in toponyms from 1 st-millennium The same ap
Mesopotamia96).
plies to nagitu "coastal area"(?)97).
The GW parakku "dais, sanctuary"98), a Sumerian loanword inAkkadian, ap
pears in the toponym Parak-Mari"). This toponym, which ismentioned in a do
cument fromAchaemenian Nippur, is recorded as early as the Cassite period100).
It is possible that itwas preserved in the later period owing to the fact that pa
rakku had been borrowed in Aramaic101). Unlike parakku, the GW nemedu,
"dais" or sim. (identified with parakku)102) is the first component of several
toponyms (plus DN) from 2nd-millennium Mesopotamia103), whereas during the
1stmillennium its distribution seems to have decreased. The only two toponyms
in 1st-millennium Babylonia which begin with nemedu are the temple city NA
Ne-med-dLa-gu-da/du^ and Ne-med-dSin (XXX) (both plus DN)104).
We may conclude, therefore, that the distribution of exclusively Akkadian to
ponyms constantly decreased during the 1stmillennium. The preservation of to
ponyms seems to have been conditioned to some extent by their being borrowed
by Aramaic, unless a certain settlement already existed in the Cassite period and
was still important enough in its region. This can at best be exemplified by the
93) CAD D, p. 87ff. (esp. p. 89f.).

94) NA URU Dan-nat-mSu4a-a-a (of Ras% AOAT 6, pp. 99; plus PN).
95) Cf. AHw., p. 324f., s.v. harbu(m)\ 359a, s.v. huribtu, and Syr. harba, harb^ta, as well
as the Syr. GN Harbat-GHal (?) (G. Hoffmann, Ausziige aus den syrischen Acten persischer
Martyrer, Leipzig, 1880, p. 309a with references).
96) Hurbat-kalbi and Hurbat-Sade. Cf. R. Zadok, WO 9, 1977/78, p. 47, n. 80; ZAW 89,
1977, p. 267, n. 8.
97) See von Soden, AHw., p. 712a (probably identical with nagltu which is listed sepa
rately ibid., p. 711b). It is the first component of NA URU Nagitu-Di-'-bi-na and URU Na
gi-te-Raq/Ra-aq-qi (AOAT 6, p. 255f.; for the 2nd component of the latter toponym cf. Raq
qatu "Uferwiese, -streifen" (see AHw., p. 958a, s.v. raqqatu II) and Raqqanu (cp. Bibl. har
Raqqdn).
98) See AHw., p. 827f.
99) BE 10, 92:7.
10?) E.g., PBS 2/2, 116:13 (BARA.DUMUki).
101) See Kaufman, AS 19, p. 80 with lit.
102) See AHw., p. 776.
103) E.g., MB Ne-me-ed-dE-akl (BE 15, 102:25;-mw?-. ibid., 149:23), Ne-med-mtar^ (CBS
10726, cited in BE 14, p. 58b), Ne-medANin-im (PBS 2/2, 12:10), and Ne-me-ed-*Nusku
(also MA, see AHw., p. 776a with references).
104) AOAT 6, p. 260 (NA). Apart from these two toponyms, there is only one more such
toponym,namelyNA URU Ne-med-mTukulti(KU)-dM?wrta
(MA?) (AOAT 6, p. 261). The
latter is the only toponym inwhich nemed is followed by a PN (in this case a royal name).
Nemettu "buttress, retaining well" or sim. (AHw., p. 777) occurs only in NA URU Ne-m[et\
tblarri (AfO 9, 1934, p. 93:30; larri here is possibly a divine epithet). This toponym refers
to a settlement in eastern Babylonia.
58 Ran Zadok
toponym Kdr-Ninurta Kdru "embankment, quay wall, mooring place, harbour

district, city quarter destined for traders and sailors, harbour, trading station"105)
was very productive in theMesopotamian toponymy during all the periods of
cuneiform tradition106). This Akkadian word was borrowed in one Aramaic dia
lect, namely Syriac, although not with its original denotation107). In Aramaic
the termmhwz' corresponds to Akkad. kdru. The assumed fore-runnerof Aram.
mhwz' is already recorded at Ugarit (as ma-ha-zu which translatesAkkad. kdru)10*).
The GW subtu (KU) "sit, abode, quarter"109) is typicallyAkkadian and is fol
lowed only by divine names and epithets. It is not common in 1st-millennium
Mesopotamia and seems to represent an ancient layer of the toponymy. This
layer seems to have been productive until the OB periods inclusive110). *$ubat
Ea appears only as a reconstructed canal name. The settlement afterwhich the
canal was named is not mentioned in the 1stmillennium. ?w&ta-toponyms decrease
probably because Subtu was not borrowed inAramaic. The GN Enlil-as'dbSu-iqbi
(a settlement near Nippur in theAchaemenian period) is noteworthy, since it is
a verbal sentence and parallel to the genitive compound Subat-Enlil111). In the
same manner, the OB settlement names Ta-aS-ku-un-H-tdr 112) and URUki B-ku
10$)See CAD K, pp. 231 ff.

106)N/LB also has, e.g., Kar-Nand and Kdr-Tdmetu. For NA cf. simply AOAT 6, pp, 195ff.
(mostly plus PN or DN). As for MB cf., e.g., the following toponyms where kdr is followed
by either PNs or DNs, e.g., (1') Plus PN: Kdr-mBU'Un-na-*Marduk(AMAR.UDki) (BE 14, 37:
2); (2') PlusDN: Kdr^Nin-lil (PBS 13, 78:12'). Many other suchMB examplesare listedin
the indexesof BE 14, 15 and PBS 2/2.
107) See S. A. Kaufman, AS 19, p. 63.
108) See E. I. Kutscher, LSsonenu 34, 1969/70, pp. 5ff. and S. A. Kaufman, AS 19, p. 68
with lit.Mhwz' was productive in the toponymy of post-Achaemenian Mesopotamia, in view
of the settlement names JAram. Mdhdzd (near Ctesiphon) and Syr. Mdhdzd dTirhdn > Arab.
Mdhuza (near Samarra, see E. E. Herzfeld, The Persian Empire, Wiesbaden, 1968, p. 50).
'109) See AHw., p. 1257f.
no) E.g., Su'bat-hrri(LUGAL) (MDP 6, PI. 9-10, i:30, MB). Cf. the following footnote.
Subtu is written with the Sumerogram KU. This Sumerogram appears as the first component
of several toponyms from lst-millennium Babylonia where itwas not followed by a divine
name or a divine epithet. The first component of N/LB URU KU-Gab-ba-ri is also written
phonetically URU Til-lu-Gab-ba-ri (Til-Gabbdri). A similar case is N/LB URU KU-A-gur-re-e

tu which is also written URU Til-li-A-gur-rum<* (Til-Agurretij. Tillu is also written with the
(in the Murasu Archive) is probab
Sumerogram DU6. The N/LB toponym URU KU-G/Hurdi
= CBS
ly the same as DU6-Hur-di^ in an unpublished MB document (CBM 10726, cited by
A. T. Gay, BE 14, p. 58a; presumably from Nippur). We may suspect, therefore, that when
a gra
KU by a divine name (or a divine epithet) in N/LB sources, itmay be
is not followed
variant of or even a error for DU6 which closely resembles KU (there are
phic DU6 copyist's
very few cases of KU: in addition to the preceding cases we find in the MuraSu Archive two
both non-Akkadian, Til
cases of KU followed by a PN; namely KXJ-A-a-bi and KU-Ra-hi-mu,
Ajjdbi and Til-Rahimu). All the above mentioned N/LB occurrences of KU should be col
lated. For Til-G/Hurdi cf. n. 16 above.
111) E.g., ?U'ba-at-*E[Nl\lV" (Shemshara, p. 48:16, OB).

112)Waterman, Business Documents, 6:2.
un-E-a (or-dEN.Ki)113), both verbal sentences, are parallel to the toponyms of
the genitive compound type beginning with MaSkan (see below).

The toponymic data fromNippur usually correspond to the data from other
parts of Mesopotamia. However, before comparing these two groups of data, one
has to take into account two facts:
(1) The geographical distribution of the toponyms depends upon thematerial

conditions of each region. Therefore, we did not find, for example, theGW inu
(< *?ayn) "spring" in the Mesopotamian alluvium which has no springs114).
(2) We have to exclude from the data group under consideration all the topo
nyms which were given to certain named locales by rulers. The officially "direct
ed" toponyms usually went into oblivion after a short while115).
The geographical area providing the data for comparison is the territory in
which Akkadian was the dominant language during most periods (before the
Macedonian conquest). This includes the periphery where Akkadian was used
along with non-Semitic languages (e.g., the western borderland of Elam and the
Arrapha region). We exclude, however, the middle Euphrates region where the
toponymy was predominantly West Semitic during most periods. Names of build
ings,walls and fortificationswithin the settlements are not included.
The GWs Mtu and tillu,which are common Semitic terms,were attached to
practically every word and are found in all the Semitic-speaking regions during
all the periods (cf. below).
113) See Ebeling, MAOG 15/2, 1942, p. 112b, with references. The OB toponyms &ku
wz-dDUMU.ZI (RT 20, 1898, p. 70f., iii:5); 7?-fa/-w2-dEN.LiL (OECT 3, 48:6); K-kwun
tlt'tarto(CT 48, 16:2);H-ku-un-dMarduk^(TCL 18, 125:7; RLA 2, p. 189:243);frku
un-We-erin-gal (YOS 5, 234:14); H-ku-un-Win-gir-su (VAS 18, 1:35, 53. 60); H-ku-un
dPa^nirgar-ra (TIM 2, 84:47); Ukun-Samds' (e.g., UET 5, 110; the last six names were kindly
brought to my attention by Prof. Dr. W. Rollig and Dr. B Groneberg, Tubingen), in which
Bkun is followed by a DN, are of the same type. For the type (only Ur III and OB) see D. O.
Edzard, Zweite Zwischenzeit, p. 177, nn. 97If.; id., RLA 5, p. 192f. Rkun-Ea is also a PN
(see D. I. Owen, AO AT 22, p. 136).

114) Common in Semitic-speaking regions outside Babylonia, cf., e.g. Boree, AOP, p. 85.
Note NA URUIn{^[XyW^ (Fales, Censimenti, 6, i:5; see S. Parpola, ZA 64, 1975, p. 112)
in the Harran region.
,15) E.g., given by the Assyrian kings, such as Kdr-Aûr-aha-iddina

the names to Sidon
(AOAT 196), as well as the Subrian towns whose names were changed by Esarhaddon
6, p.
(Borger, Esarh., p. 107, Gbr. 2, iv: 27f.). This phenomenon can be
typologically compared
with the assigning of Greek names to cities in the Orient during the Hellenistic-Roman age.
Most of these names have not been perpetuated, as they were not absorbed by the local popu
lation who continued to call these cities by their ancient names. Charax Spasinou (Karkd
deMe$dn) and P^rat dtMeten (Fordt) were refounded as Astarabdd Ardalir and BahmdnArda
lir (both Persian names) by ArdaSir, the first Sasanian king, but only their Semitic names
were retained by their inhabitants (Arab. Kark-Maysdn, modern Jabal Haydbir near Naysdn,
and Furat'Maysdn). See J. Hansman, Iranica Antiqua 7, 1967, p. 25f. The Sasanian name
(Arabicized to Bahmanlir) was retained by Hamza al-Isfahani (quoted by Yaqut (ed. Wiisten
feld, III, p. 860) probably because he was a Persian.
60 Ran Zadok
Less common overall was theGW malkanu a synonym of bitu. It appears also
inAramaic and was a GW during all the periods116).
Alu (URU) in the genitive compound dlu la "settlement of (or "farm of')117)
may be regarded, at least during the 1stmillennium, as an integral part of the
compound and not as a mere determinative. This is based upon a comparison
of the spellings of five NA toponyms beginning with dlu118). In these toponyms,
four of which refer to settlements inRdSi near the Babylonian-Elamite border,
dlu (written phonetically as a-lu^) is preceded by the determinative URU (e.g.,
mxjA-luA-Gi&Qa$tj (BAN), URUA-luA-la-Belet-biti (GASaN.E)). A further example

is Al-i-re-e-a for i-re-e-a, Ir-re/ri-ia119) This can be compared with Aram. Mtkdy120)
andMt 'kdh121) forAkkad. Mat Akkadi/e122) and Bab. Aram. N*hdr-P*qdd for
Akkad. Ndr-Piqudu123). 11 toponyms beginning with dlu are recorded in the Nip
pur region during the 1stmillennium124). The compound toponym URU sa-at
DN12S) was possibly formed under West Semitic influence126).We cannot pre
n6)Malkanu (cf. 1. J. Gelb, AJSL 55, 1938, p. 81) is already recorded in the Old Akka
dian toponym Mal-kan(?)-ga-im (MAD 1, 280:2, possibly plus the West Semetic lw. ga'wn
"group, gang", see CAD G, p. 59a). A few toponyms beginning with Malkan appear in the
geographical list from Tell Harmal (Sumer 3, 1947, p. 54, col. vi). For more OAkkad. and
Ur III examples of toponyms beginning with Malkan see RGTC 1, p. 119f. and RGTC 2, p.
130f. respectively (plus various elements). OB has, e.g., Ma-dl-ka-an-Am-mi-di-ta-na (VAS 16,
= RN cf.
155:4, plus PN AHw., p. 626b), URU**mal-kdn-bit(tyh-tim (UCP 10/1,34:17);
plus GN as in OAkkad. and Ur III Malkan-Dur-Ebla (RGTC 1, p. 119; cf. RGTC 2, p. 35).
A DN is attached toMalkan inMB Mal-kdn-dEKLlL^ (BE 15, 149:20). N/LB hasMalkanu
and Malkan-ili
117) At least when the genealogy of the owner is given: N/LB Bit Uqupi is described as
URU la Ilu-ibni mart la Bdnd(DU*) (FB 14, 1972, p. llf., No. 1:3).
118)AOAT 6, p. 13.
119) See J. A. Brinkman, JESHO 6, 1963, p. 235, n. 2; PKB, p. 126, n. 738; E. F. Weid
ner, AfO 22, 1968/69, p. 77; J. N. Postgate, RLA 5, p. 170b. It is possible that MB URU
Ir-re/ri-ite (BE 14, 70:3, reign of Nazi-MarutaS, cf. VRV-la-Ir-re-e^, ibid., 39:5, possibly from
the time of the same king, see Brinkman, MSKH 1, p. 281, U. 2. 24. 375, both occurring in
documents found in Nippur) is the same name as Irrea
12?) M. Lidzbarski, WVDOG 38, p. 5f. (= KAI 233):2.

121) A. Caquot, Fs. Dupont-Sommer (Paris, 1971), p. 9:2 (from the Chaldean period).
122) See M. Lidzbarski, ZA 31, 1917/18, p. 196; A. Caquot, Fs. Dupont-Sommer, p. 10;
E. Lipiriski, Studies in Aramaic Inscriptions and Onomastics 1 (Louvain, 1975), p. 79. Other
examples may be NA and N/LB Mdt-akalsu, and Mtlbl (G. R. Driver, Aramaic Documents of
the Fifth Century B.C., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1957, p. 27, 6:1; see ibid., p. 58).
123) Cf. below with n. 143.
124) (1.) Plus PN: Alu-lct-Hammija, Alu-la-HandTdi, Alu-la-Lusd-nuri, Alu-la-Nabu-udammiq,
Alu-la-Sullum; (2.) Plus a name of a profession: Alu-la-askdpe; (3.) Plus a name of a social
group: Alu-la-Maqtutu\ (4.) Plus a gentilic: Alu-fa-Arbd/a, Ahi-la-Nippurdja, Alu-la-Qurabatila;
(5.) Plus an unexplained appellative (title??): Alu-la-rab-iq(V.)-bi [PN!].
=
125) E.g., OB URU la-at-*Na-na-ato (RT 20, 1898, p. 69f., ii.T6). NA URU-&-tff-SUMna
URU-la-Ten/Te-na (gentilic URU Id-at-Te-na-a-a, for references see Parpola, AOAT 6, p. 333)
possibly does not belong here (as was already apparently seen by Parpola), since one cannot
tell whether its first t does not belong to the following component, which begins with t. The
spelling URU la-at-SUM may be due to popular etymology, namely that the scribe under
tend to formulate a rule that URU la is always to be read Alu la (and not just
URl&0, since in certain periods there is no decisive proof that this was the
case127). Indeed, during the MB period there could be some proof to the con
trary128),and during the NA period the evidence is balanced129). Our precision
to list all the N/LB cases of URU la under Alu-la in RGTC 8 was made for the
sake of consistent classification.
The GW bdbu, which designated the outlet of a canal130), was attached to
canal names during various periods131).
Therefore, it is impossible to determine whether the Akkadian toponyms men
tioned in sources from 1st-millenniumNippur which begin with the GWs bitu,
babu and alu (la) are much earlier than the 1stmillennium (to the GW tillu are
attached only non-Akkadian names in toponyms from 1st-millenniumNippur)132).
There remains, therefore,only one way to determine the chronology of these to
ponyms if at all, namely the analysis of their topics. This will be done below
(p. 64f.).
The GWs thus far appear both in (1) the toponymy of the Nippur region during
the 1stmillennium and (2) the toponymy of the other Babylonian regions during
the same epoch. The similarity between the two groups is greater than the diffe
rence. Several toponyms in the Nippur region are even identical with toponyms
referring to places in other parts of Mesopotamia. They are, in fact, homonyms.
Some of these homonyms may be due to the immigrationof tribal groups from
Trans-Tigridian territories into the Nippur region133).
The differences between the toponymy of the Nippur region during the 1st
millennium and the toponymy of the rest of Babylonia during the same period
might be due mainly to administrative reasons. For instance, the term hiltu (a
stood -term as a form related naddnu "give". The closest verbal form one can think
to Akkad.
of is the assumed Old Aram. imperative 2nd sg. m. of N-T-N "give", viz. -ti-ni/nu of NA
G.
Se-(e-)ti-ni/nu (APN, p. 194a; see WSB, p. 96).
126)Alu is feminine as a West Semitism (see CAD A/1, p. 379a).
127)Al should be read in Amarna. Al and mat seem to be read in Idrimi (MB from Syria)
and Nuzi (see E. L. Greenstein & D. Marcus, ANES 8, 1976, p. 69 with previous lit.). OB has
(gen.) URU Ba-su*1 (AbB 2, 86:33).
- at least in certain cases - a mere
128)As for MB, itmay be that URU was determinative.
This may be argued in view of the Middle Elamite transcriptions AS Sa Sbli-tum, AS Sa I-mi
ri-e, AS Sa Ni-le-e and other place names of this type in Babylonia (RT 33, 1911, p. 213ff.)
is the Elamite determinative of locales. These Elamite
A$ transcriptions never render Akkad.
alu.
129) NA has Sa KUR AN&-&, Sa I-ma-ri-lu, Sa KUR Di-ka-na-a-ia and Sd URU Di-kan-ni
U
(AOAT 6, p. 328f.) on the one hand, and A-lu4 la GA$AN.? (see above) on the other.
Therefore Parpola's decision to list all the names of this type (except for the single case of
VRUA-IU4la ...) underSa (AOAT 6, pp. 326ff.) isentirelyjustified.
N/LB has onlySd dAG
(VAS 3, 64, 16:65, 15) probablyforGARIN la "id." (BE 8, 111, 15).
SIG-<7<z
13?) See CAD B, p. 23f.; AHw., p. 95.
131) See, e.g., NBN, p. 291a, s.vv.; AOAT 6, p. 57f.
132) E.g., Til-Ajjdbi, Til-Gabbdri and Til-Rahimu.
133) See Zadok, ANES 8, p. 117f.
62 Ran Zadok
certain type of dam, "sluice") appears to have been used mainly in the Uruk
region and therefore it is reflected in its toponymy134). On the other hand, the
term sum which designated a canal135), is not attested to in the toponymy of
the Uruk region. The latter term ismentioned in sources from Nippur (Ndr
Suru), Borsippa136), the region of Babylon137), and also perhaps north of Baby
lon138) and in Upper Mesopotamia139). Bitqu "sluice canal", which is frequent
in sources from 1st-millenniumUruk140), is seldom mentioned in sources from
Nippur of the same period. The term harm "irrigation ditch, canal"141) is very
common in the toponymy of various Babylonian regions142), but from the Nip
pur region there is only one example, namely Harri-Piqudu (also Nar-Piqudu),
which refers to a canal flowing from the surroundings of Babylon into the Nip
pur region143). On the other hand, only the sources from Nippur mention al
least two canals named/2tad/7/< /Badijat (Ba-di(ia-)a/'-tuJ. The names of their
owners (Ia-di-ih-ia-a-ma, Mar-duk-a and perhaps fA-mi-sM) were connected to
Badi(ja)tu. Badi(ja)tu does not occur before the 2nd half of the 5th century,
and is inexplicable inAkkadian terms144). The BT mentions two canals in Baby
lonia begin with the same element; namely Btditd-Lubay west of NareS145) (pos
sibly not far from Babylon)146) and Beditd in the name of the settlementPum
beditd (ca. 100 km north of Babylon)147), i.e. "B*ditas mouth"148). The name
Pum-beditd may be compared with the settlement's name Pum-Nehdra i.e. "the
canal's mouth" in the BT149). The latter toponym is the Aramaic counterpart
of the Akkadian toponyms Pi-na-a-rfi1S0) and pi(KA)-nam-ka-rikilsl) which are
mentioned in the Cassite period. Not only is ndm "canal" attached to pu
134) See AHw., p. 349b and cf. CAD H, p. 188.

135) See AHw., p. 1063a, s.w. sum I, surm III.
136) The name of the palm-grove Bdb-Surm, as well as Sur-sinnBdti.
137)Ndr Surm, and perhaps the later name Surd (Obermeyer, Landschaft, p. 283ff.).
138)NA Sur-Marrate (AOAT 6, p. 318; cf. A. Sachs, JAOS 57, 1937, p. 419f.; J. Laessê,
JCS 7, 1953, p. 24, n. 86; E. F. Weidner, AfO 17, 1954-56, p. 309).
139) Cf. Su-ur-ma-htim^ (ARM 2, 55:5, 7) from OB Mari, and NA Sum (AOAT 6, p. 319),
but the latter form may just as well render Aram. *ter "wall".
14?) See CAD B, p. 277, s.v. bitqu, Id.

141) See AHw., p. 327f.
142) E.g., Harm-fa-Nabu-Suma-ffiir and Harm-la-Zabunu (N/LB).
143) See Unger, Babylon, p. 106. Compare^the toponym (Nc)hdrpanijd in Sasanian Baby
lonia (see Obermeyer, Landschaft, p. 197ff.). I7 in the canals names beginning with Harm and
Bitqu is probably a mere determinative. Therefore, it is transcribed as l7Bitqu ... and ÎHarm.
144) Contra Hommel, HdAW 3, 1, 1, p. 287.

145)M6ced Qatan, lib.
146) See Obermeyer, Landschaft, p. 311.

147) See Obermeyer, Landschaft, pass. (cf. p. 353b, index, s.v.).
148) See H. Pick, Assyrisches und Talmudisches (Berlin 1903), p. 13, but we cannot accept
Pick's identification of N/LB Badijatu with Talmudic Btditd of Pum-beditd.
149) See Obermeyer, Landschaft, pp. 192. 194f. 199. 220. 304, n. 1.
150) BE 14, p. 58b, s.v. (MB). Cf. also OB GN Pi-ndratim (See C. Wilcke, WO 8, 1975/76,
p. 276, bottom ad line 4).
151) CBS 13488 (cited in PBS 2/2, p. 86a, MB), plus namkam "canal" (see AHw., p. 727b).
"mouth''152) but also harm in the NA toponym Pu-har-ru which refers to a

settlement in southern Babylonia153). In view of these examples and the fact
that all the canals named Badi(ja)tu were not navigable, one may suspect that
Badi(ja)tulBtdita is a West Semitic word for "canal" or sim. This is supported
by the linguistic analysis154).
Me "water" is the initial component of names of several Mesopotamian water
courses, e.g. MB URU Me-e-Mar-ru-ud155) (Hydronym > name of a settlement)156).

The same component is extant in Middle Heb. Me-Gaaton151) which refers to a
Palestinian watercourse (modern Jactun).
Hupu is recorded as the GW of two toponyms in the Nippur region158). It also

occurs as canal name159). Perhaps it means "clan"160).
Table No. 4: The GWs Arranged Alphabetically*
2 3 4
No. GW 2nd Component Chronological Distribution
Alu (+ Sa) every word MB, NA, N/LB

2. babu canal name OB, MB, NA, N/LB
3, badi(ja)tu PN N/LB
4. birtu GN, PN NA, N/LB
5, bitqu GN, PN N/LB
6 bitu every word all the periods
7. dannatu PN NA (in RaSi
8, dimtu DN, PN OB (++), MB (++), NA (only in
RaSi)
* ++ =
frequent.
152) AHw.,p. 874b, s.v. 153) AOAT 6, p. 94.

154) *Badijatcould be the G passive participle fern. sg. of B-D-Y, "to dig out, take out"
(Drower-Macuch, A Mandaic Dictionary, Oxford, 1963, p. 52a, s.v. Bda\ i.e. "The dug (canal,
irrigation ditch)" (ndru "canal" is fern, in Babylonian Akkadian). Drower-Macuch (I.e.) hesi
tatingly compare Bda with B-D-D. B-D-Y may be a by-form of B-D-D "to dig" (Jastrow Diet.,
p. 139; cf. JAram. bedidin "diggings, trenches", ibid.), just as Heb. Z-K-Y is a byform of
Z-K-K "to be pure" (cf. also the case of Q-T-Y/Q-T-T).
155)AfO 23, 1970, p. 2, i:5, cf. Iran 14, 1976, p. 65, n. 43.
156) See the examples listed by me in JQR 68, 1978, p. 255f.
157) Jastrow, Diet., p. 262a. Cf. BDB, p. 565b, 2.
,58
) Hupu-la-Barikil (plus PN) and Hupu-la-Bit-Murdnu (plus GN).
159)Ndr-Hupu.
=
,6?) InMalku Sarru(JAOS 83, 1963, p. 442:181) hu-u-pu is given as the equivalent of
Akkad. ni-i-lu "people". It is preceded by li-i-mu - Akkad. kimtu ("family, clan"). Note
Vaxryapriha which could mean 'TajirjXa'q clan" (see Zadok, in Y. Avishur and J. Blau [eds.],
Studies in Bible and the Ancient Near East. Presented to S. E. Loewenstamm, Jerusalem 1978,
p. 177).
64 Ran Zadok
GW 2nd Component Chronological Distribution
dunnu DN, PN, appellative OB, MB, MA, NA, N/LB

duru every word all the periods
gan (< *gann) \ PN N/LB
harm GN, PN, appellative N/LB
hupu GN, PN N/LB
husseti (pi.; sg.
hussu) PN, appellative N/LB
hVrbatu PN NA,N/LB
inu (?) DN (?) NA
kapm GN, PN, appellative OB, MB (Nuzi), NA, N/LB
karu every word all the periods
malkanu every word all the periods
me DN OB, MB
nagitu appellative NA, N/LB
ndm every word all the periods
neberu GN N/LB
nemedu DN MB (++), NA, N/LB
nemettu DN NA
parakku DN MB, NA, N/LB
pu canal name MB, NA, N/LB
qart DN, PN NA
suqu GN NA
surru PN, appellative OB, NA, N/LB
sibtu appellative NA, N/LB
$ubtu DN OB (++), MB, NA, N/LB
tarbasu appellative N/LB
tillu PN, appellative all the periods
zarati GN MB
3. Topical Analysis
The classifiable toponyms are named after (1) deities (9 settlements161), 5

canals162) and one meadow163)); (2) persons (84 settlements164), 19 canals165)
161)Bel, Bit-Bel ti, Bit-Marudu, Bit-Samal, Enlil-aldblu-iqbi, Kdr-Ninurta, Malkattu-la-Amur

ru,Ninurta-aldblu-iqbi, [.. .]-Ea.
162)Bel, Enlil, Namgar-Dur-Enlil, Ninurta, and Sin.
163)Bit-Enlil
164) Beginning with Alu la (see n. 124 above), Bitu (see n. 70 above), Husseti la (see n. 71
above), and Tillu (see n. 72 above); Esaggilija, Panddnu (cf. Stamm, Namengebung, p. 266).
and possibly one meadow166)); (3) officials and other title-bearers (7 settle
ments167) and 5 canals168)); (4) craftsmen and members of certain social classes
(3 settlements169) and 2 canals170)); (5) non-Babylonian settlements and peoples
(23 settlements171) and 2 canals172)); and (6) buildings and other objects (20
settlements173) and 7 canals174)).
To the groups (2-6) there is some value for determining the chronology of
the toponyms. The value varies from group to group. Group (1) has no such
value, as the deities who gave their names mainly to canals were worshipped in
Nippur during most periods, including the late Achaemenian. Most, if not all,
of the deities were worshipped also by theWest Semites dwelling in the Nippur
region. Some of these divine names also appear as theophoric elements inWest
Semitic names175).
Most of the names of group (2) are of types common during the 1stmillen
nium. Therefore, whenever a certain toponym contains a typical and explained
Akkadian PN, we just refer to Tallqvist, NBN and Stamm, Namengebung.
Only in few cases is there no decisive proof that the same Akkadian PN in
its extant form was not in use as early as the Cassite period. It is clear, how
ever, that very few Akkadian PNs found in toponyms of group (2) were in use
already before the Cassite period. In fact, it it difficult to find in group (2) a
typical archaic PN. A few PNs of this group are common to Akkadian and West
Semitic.
Many PNs were written without the masculine and feminine personal deter
minative when they formed part of a toponym, or when they themselves were
used as toponyms. In some cases a PN which was used as component of a topo
nym was written inNA and N/LB sources both with the personal determinative
or without it (e.g., Bit-^Mu-ra-nu, Bit-^Su-la-a, Bit-^Za-bi-in/ni and 77Mm>
Gab-bar-ri)116).
Suqija (cf. ibid., p. 251), Sela, and perhaps also Sahumafa. For PN > GN see Eilers, ArOr. 22,
1954, p. 329, n. 104.
165)Addu-aba-usur, Ahu-le\ Badi'tu-la-Iadih-Jama, B/Paltija, Bel-aba-usur, Bel-ahhe-erTba,
Derat, Ilija, Iqila <u> Samas-zera-ibnifMulezib-Bel, Natiinu, Nergal-ddnu, Sahtimanu, (?) Sin
mdqir, Silldja, ?a-Naqqitu, Talimu, Tabanua and Ustanu.
166) Tahmija.
167)Bit-rab-kdsir, Bit-rab-tdbihe, Bit-rab-urdti, Bit-reli, Bm-la-muhhi-bltdni, Bitu-la-pdni
ekalli and Bit-Zazakku.
168)Pihatu, Reh, Sanu, Sarri and Tuplar-ekalli

169)Alu-la-maqtutu, Ndqidini, Tarbas-ummani and perhaps Husseti-h r[e'e](l).
170)Mdhise and Tdbihe.
171) See above and nn. 25. 26. 28. 30. 31. Other settlements were named after settle
ments and ethnic groups found in the Fertile Crescent (outside Babylonia): Alu-la-Arbdja,
Alu-la-Qurabatua, Arqd', Bit-Surdja, Hattdja, Hazzatu, Hinddnaja, Hqaliinu, Qatndja, Qidari
and perhaps Hinddja.
172) See nn. 29. 30 above. 173) See the detailed discussion above.
174)See thedetaileddiscussionbelow. 17S)See WSB, p. 29ff.
I76) Cf. also NA Alu-la-Sil-a-a, Alu-la-Za-bi-na-a-a (AOAT 6, pp. 329, 333 respectively),
Bit-Gisimeja, Bit-Halupe, BTt-Pa'alla, Bit-Sa'alli, Bit-Sildni, Til-la-Abtdni, Til-la-Zabddni (see
5 WdO. XII
66 Ran Zadok
Not only were foreign (non-Akkadian) PNs written without a determinative,

but also typical and common Akkadian names lacked them (e.g., Bit-Eribd). On
the other hand, for obvious reasons, the scribes usually wrote a Mesopotamian
DN with the divine determinative even when itwas part of a toponym (e.g.,
dSin inSin-beUunu which may originally be a PN, cf. dAnu-belSunu inNdr Anu
bettunu).
Eilers has recognized the interchange between the determinatives LU and DI&
in toponyms named after ethnic elements177). This occurs in several NA and
N/LB sources. Also LU may be omitted in toponyms, cf. Bitu-Sa-muhhi-bitdni
and Bitu-$a-pdni-ekallilis).
When the toponym is composed of at least two words (usually a genitive com
-
pound), one can distinguish inmany cases the PN which iswritten without the
-
determinative since it appears as the nomen rectum, e.g., Bit-Bahari, Husseti
la-Auqqadu and Til-Ajjdbi

When a toponym is composed of one word only, there are no formalmeans
which would help to determine whether the word is a PN, except in cases where
the same toponym is written both with a GW and without it, e.g., Bit-Gird (iden
tical with Gird) and Bit-Taqbi-lISir (identical with Taqbi-liZir).
An important consideration in classifying the settlement name Seld, the canal
name Ilija and other toponyms is that these are common PNs in 1st-millennium
Mesopotamia, or that they could be interpreted as PNs.
This type of toponym, which might have originally designated the owner of
the settlement/canal, has many parallels throughout the Fertile Crescent during
all the periods. The comparison will be limited to the toponymy of 1st-millennium
Mesopotamia. We would like to mention, for instance, the case of the N/LB to
ponym Duil. The lattermight have originally been a PN according to mere ety
mological considerations179). Since these considerations are not always decisive
it is possible to add, on occasion, topical factors, but only when we have a sub
stantial sample. It is relatively easy to isolate the group of toponyms in the Mu
rasu Archive which are originally PNs from the point of view of the size and
concentration in a small area. There is no sample in the documentation from
1st-millenniumMesopotamia like that of theMurasu Archive. Yet, there are some
samples, which are concentrated in a small area. One such example is the lists
preserved in the Annals of Sennacherib 180).They concern the settlements of four
Chaldean territorieswhich covered most of Southern Babylonia, including Nippur,
namely (1) Bit-Awukkani, (2) Bit-Dakkuri, (3) Bit-Jakin and (4) Bit-Sa'ali. These
AO AT 6, pp. 81. 82. 87. 88. 89. 355 respectively); N/LB Bit-Rahe and Harru-faHazuzu. The
name of Gu-bar-ru (probably referring to the first satrap of Babylonia) is written without the
determinative in the letter YOS 3, 106 (line 7). It seems that in a letter, which is
personal
not a juridical document, this determinative may be sometimes omitted.
177) ZDMG 94, 1940, p. 204, n. 2 in fine.
178) The determinative L0 is omitted in the NA toponyms Alu-fa-Bdbile and Alu-fa-ndqiddte
(Lie, Sar., p. 46:298 and AOAT 6, p. 258 respectively).

179) See WSB, p. 228. 18?) OIP 2, p. 52f.
listsmention dozens of settlementswhich were concentrated in a relatively small

area. Therefore, it is conceivable that some of these settlements were small and
were named after persons. This assumption may be confirmed in some cases by
the linguistic analysis of the toponyms181). In these, as well as in other lists, there
was preserved onomastic material which may reflect to some extent the ethnic
and cultic background of the Chaldean territories. Some of these toponyms may
represent an early layer of the Chaldean and Aramean settlement. Few of them
are earlier than the 1st millennium182).
When we isolated this group of toponyms we were careful not to include in
it names which could be anthroponyms, but could be interpreted differently.
The analysis and comparison of the toponyms by GV/S, as was done here di
minishes the doubtful cases.
Other samples inwhich we can find toponyms which most probably were
originally anthroponyms are:
(a) The toponyms of the Harran Census Lists183), e.g., Ha~na~na-a which is a
very common name in 1 st-millennium Mesopotamia184).

(b) The listsof the settlements of RaSi from Sennacherib's time.
The conclusion thatmost of the toponyms from Achaemenian Nippur are not
archaic also applies to group (3), as all these titleswere in use during the 1st
millennium, and some of them are not documented beforehand.
Neither are toponyms of group (4) archaic. Some of the persons whose occupa
tions are described belonged totora-organizations. This type of organization was
not known before the 5th century185). At least 3 (2.1 %) of the settlements186)
and possibly 2 (3.1 %) of the canals187), whose names were not thought to be
late according to the above-mentioned criteria (linguistic, historical, prosopo
graphical and structural), were named after torw-organizations. The number of
toponyms named after /iflfra-organizationsis relatively high (10)188) and this

seems to confirm the reliability of the above-mentioned criteria to
according
which all these 10 toponyms were recognized as late. It seems that the Akkadian
occupational designations are numerous in the toponymy of 1 st-millennium Ba
181) See WSB, pass.

182)Da-qchla, one of the settlements of Bit Awukani (AOAT 6, p. 99) is recorded as early
as the 2nd millennium (Da-qa-la*\ Nies, UDT 58, iii:91; see I. J. Gelb, AJSL 55, 1938, p. 79,
Ebeling, RLA 2, p. 120b). It also appears in a document from OB Larsa (URU Da-qd-ki^\
TCL 11, 156, r. 6). The name is probably related to Arab, daqal, Middle Heb. deqel, Aram
deqld "phoenix dactylifera". It is not known whether Da-qa-la^ is the same place as OBDa
aq-la-a^ (BRM 4, 53:66), i.e. "Palmenstadtf?f (see Hommel, HdAW 3, 1, 1, p. 470 with
n. 9).
183) Johns, Doomsday Book = Fales, Censimenti.
184) See Fales, Censimenti, p. 15 (adl, i:10).

185) See M. W. Stolper, MPLAB 1, p. 11 Iff. with previous lit.
186)Mu-la-alkdpe, Alu-fa-maqtutu and BTt-rab-urdti
187)Ndr-Mdhise and possibly Ndr-Milidu.
188) This is if one adds the toponyms named after ethnic groups (Bannisu, BTt-Surdja,
Marderdfa, Milidu (settlement and canal), and Sarrabdnu.
68 Ran Zadok
bylonia mainly when they were borrowed in Aramaic. Thus we find the settle
ments ofMalahhdni "boatmen" and ASkdpe "leather workers", two Akkadian
words which were borrowed in Aramaic189).
The names of group (5) are all late and were already dealt with above. A con
siderable number of the names of group (6) may be dated to the 1stmillennium
according to linguistic and topical criteria. 2 out of the 20 settlements bore Iran
ian names190) and therefore they are probably not earlier than the Achaemenian
period. The names of another 7 settlements are West Semitic191). The names of
2 of the 9 canals may also be West Semitic192). These West Semitic toponyms are
probably not earlier than the 1stmillennium193). We are leftwith only 8 settle
ments and 5 canals whose names are typically Akkadian.
2 of these 8 settlements, namely Bit-beri and QaStu are mentioned as early as
the Cassite period (see above). It is not impossible that another settlement, name
lyBassdnu "dunes" (or sim.)194) is earlier than the 1stmillennium, since Akkad
bassu "sand" ismentioned in N/LB royal inscriptions written only in a high lite
rary style195). We cannot however, exclude a West Semitic derivation of this to
ponym (also with the reading Ba-az-za-nu) but we could not find a satisfactory
West Semitic etymology for it.
Titurru "bridge, canal bridge"196) is also an Akkadian loan-word inAramaic
which is recorded in laterMesopotamian toponymy as well (Titurru)197). The
same applies to QdStu (> Qaltu) "bow" 198).On the other hand, Akkad. Neberu
(inNeberu-la-ASSur) and Nebertu "ford, the other bank"199) were not borrowed
inAramaic. Suqija possibly derives from Akkadian suqu "street"200).
The canal names Sum, Silihtu201) and Ndru-la-atdndti ("mares")202) are also
Akkadian.
189) The toponym Tarbas-ummdni is Akkadian, but both its components were borrowed
in Aramaic (cf. S. A. Kaufman, AS 19, pp. 107, 109).
19?) See above with n. 22.
191)Gabalini, Gadimatu, Gammale, Gislu, Harbe, Harubatu and Hidujd
192) Sahiru and perhaps ffiipu.
193) These toponyms are not recorded earlier. No clear examples of West Semitic toponyms
in Cassite Babylonia are known (A. T. Clay, BE 15, p. 53a, listsMu-da-di^ without giving a
reference; for this name cf. WSB, p. 139 with lit.). Cf. nn. 47-48 above.
194) See AHw., p. 110b, s.v. bassum, 2b.

195) See CAD B, p. 135b, s.v. bassu, C. OB has a toponym URU Ba-su^ (e.g., AbB 2, 86:
33, cf. ibid., p. 84).
196) See Delitzsch, HWB, p. 716b.
197) See Kaufman, AS 19, p. 108 with previous lit.
198) See AHw., p. 906.

199) See AHw., p. 773f.
20?) See AHw., p. 106If.; Stamm, Namengebung, p. 251.
Palmeraies ... (Berlin, 15. Cf. perhaps
201) See AHw., p. 1235f.; D. Cocquerillat, 1968), p.
the place-name Slhy in Babylonia during the Sassanian period (see Obermeyer, Landschaft, pp.
190, 242, 254).
202) See CAD A/2, p. 48If.
4. Conclusion
At least one settlement of the earlier stratum (Kdr-Ninurta) forms a nucleus

around which were clustered several suburbs203), all bearing later names. Su
merian and "pre-Sumerian" toponyms were preserved only in the ancient temple
cities, especially in their intra-mural sections and in sacred areas. The West Se
mitic toponymy which was constantly on the increase during the 1stmillennium
in the rural areas of Babylonia does not seem to have penetrated into the pre
cincts of the cities, at least not until the Seleucid period204) It is perhaps note
worthy, that on the banks of canals mentioned in theMurasu Archive and bear
late names, these fields were found but almost no palm groves. This may indi
cate that these canals were perhaps relatively new.
The detailed analysis of the toponymy of the Nippur region during the 1st
millennium B.C. within the general framework of the Mesopotamian place names
has revealed that it does not essentially differ from the toponymy of the other
regions of Babylonia. The few differences may be due to administrative reasons.
We have observed above that the Akkadian toponymy has gradually been re
placed by the Aramaic one.
203) For clustering of settlements see R. McC. Adams and H. J. Nissen, The Uruk Country
side (Chicago 1972), pp. 11. 22. 24. 28. 87ff.
204) Only then do we find a quarter of Uruk which was named Kapru-la-BTt-ildni (VAS 15,
13:2; 22:3; 27:4).

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The Toponymy of the Nippur Region during the 1st Millennium B.C.

within the General

1st-millenniumNippur sources mention no less than 186 settlements, 58 canals,

No. Name of Settlement and Reference No.2)

Ah-M-a-nu 22.1 A .1.1

f Not mentioned in the Murasu Archive.

*) Abbreviations as in CAD, but note the following:

The Babylonian DISO = Ch.-F. Jean & J. Dictionnaire des

Name of Settlement and Reference No.

+Alu-te-m Ku-ru-ul-la-a-a 2.2.7.2.1.2.1

+Alu-Sa-tirab-ariq(?/)'bi [-Nabu'-iq-bi] 2.2.7.2.1.1.3

Bit-mBa-ga-' -da-a-ti 2.2.6.2.8.2

Name of Settlement and Reference No.

Bit-mHa-na-na- hur-ba-tu^ 2.2.1.1.1.8

Bit-HdS-bi-il-im-ma hur-bat 2.2.1.1.1.9

Name of Settlement and Reference No.

Bit-Zera-Mr 2.2.1 A A.23

Esaggilija 2.2.7 A A.24

Gi-il-su 2.2.7 A A.26

Ha-am-ba/ma-ri 2.2.7 A A.27

Ha-za-tu 2.2.1A A.28

Hi-du-tir'-a 2.2.2 A A.23

KHi-in-da-a-a 2.2.1 A A.29

Hu-u-pu-Sa-Ba-ri-ki-lil/Tamel] 2.2.1 A A.3

Hu-u-pu-Sa-Bit-Murdnu 2.2.1 A A.32

Husseti^a^Ad-ra-hu-u 2.2.1 A A.33

Name of Settlement and Reference No.

Husse ti-Sa-A murra -pa-qu 2.7.1.1.34

Husse ti-$a-Bau~eres' 2.2.7.1.1.35

Husse ti-Sa^Ma-gu-uS 2.2.6.0.1.9

Husseti-3a-mMu-la-ki-id 2.2.1 A A.36

Husseti-fo-Nabu-ndsir 2.2.1 A A.31

Parak-Morri 2.2.1 A A .44

Name of Settlement and Reference No.

Sd-lam-me-e 2.2.2A A.28

Name of Canal No. Name of Canal

Ba-di-ia-a-tu^ M Ia-di-ih-ia-a-ma 11. Bel-ahhe-erTba

Name of Canal No. Name of Canal

Derat 36. ReZu

E-ba?-nu 38. Sah-ti-ma-nu

Enlil 39. Sin

Gu-ba-ri Sa-Addu-aba-usur v. Addu-aba

Hu-u-pu 42. Sa-atdndti

/-[...] 43. Sal-la

I-li-ia Sa-mdhise v.Mahise

Larak 46. ?a-Naq-qi-tuA

Nergal-ddnu 53. Talimu

Pekod 55. Tdbihe

Pur at Nippur v. Euphrates-of 58. Za-me-e

(a) Sumerian and "pre-Sumerian"8): 4 (2.1%) of the settlements9), 2 (100%)

6) Cf. I. J.Gelb. Names 10 (1962), pp. 45ff.

8) We prefer this term and not "Proto-Sumerian".

(b) Cassite. No Cassite toponym ismentioned in documents from 1st-millen

Husseti-la-MaguS and Bit Parrisdja, the nomen rectum is an Iranian ethnicon25).

(e) Non-classifiable and defective: 8 (4.3%) of the settlements32) and 3 (5.1 %)

25) In the latter with the Akkad. gentilic suff. -dja.

33)Ndr-I [...], Ndr-Upa [...], and Ndr-Sand

) See Brinkman, PKB, AOAT

gab(a)t- ("fort" or sim.),37) *qart- ("village")38) mostly plus PN or an ethnical

1974, p. 365ff. and pass.).

38) E.g., NA Qa-rat- Na-an-ni

name. Yet, theWest Semitic toponyms fromAchaemenian Nippur, except for

41) NA Sarrabanu (see AO AT 6, p. 306).